week 1. introduction cas lx 522 syntax i. some things we know is this english? is this english? pat...

Week 1. IntroductionWeek 1. Introduction

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

Some things we knowSome things we know

Is this English?Is this English? Pat the book lifted.Pat the book lifted. Pat lifted the book.Pat lifted the book. Lifted Pat the book.Lifted Pat the book. Pat book the lifted.Pat book the lifted.

Why?Why?

It’s surprisingly It’s surprisingly complicatedcomplicated

1)1) Tony threw out the couch.Tony threw out the couch.

2)2) Tony threw the couch out.Tony threw the couch out.

Prepositions can go on Prepositions can go on either side of the object.either side of the object.

3)3) Tony stormed out the door.Tony stormed out the door.

4)4) * Tony stormed the door * Tony stormed the door out. out.


5)5) What did Mary say John bought?What did Mary say John bought?

6)6) What did Mary say What did Mary say thatthat John bought? John bought?

Ok, Ok, thatthat is optional. is optional.

7)7) Who did Mary say bought coffee?Who did Mary say bought coffee?

8)8) *Who did Mary say *Who did Mary say thatthat bought bought coffee?coffee?


9)9) Bill thinks Mary is a genius.Bill thinks Mary is a genius.10)10) Her mother thinks Mary is a genius.Her mother thinks Mary is a genius.11)11) She thinks Mary is a genius.She thinks Mary is a genius.

12)12) I asked Mary to buy I asked Mary to buy coffeecoffee..13)13) What did you ask Mary to buy?What did you ask Mary to buy?14)14) Who did you say bought coffee?Who did you say bought coffee?15)15) I borrowed the book I borrowed the book BillBill bought in DC. bought in DC.16)16) *Who did you borrow the book bought in *Who did you borrow the book bought in

DC?DC?

How do people know How do people know this?this?

AllAll native speakers of English know native speakers of English know this.this.

Little kids weren’t told these rules Little kids weren’t told these rules (or punished for violating them)…(or punished for violating them)… ““You can’t question a subject in a You can’t question a subject in a

complement embedded with complement embedded with thatthat”” ““You can’t use a proper name as an You can’t use a proper name as an

object if the subject is co-referential.”object if the subject is co-referential.”

Two questionsTwo questions

What do people know about their What do people know about their language?language? Including things we know Including things we know

“unconsciously”“unconsciously”

If we don’t know we know it, how If we don’t know we know it, how did we come to know it?did we come to know it?

SystematicitySystematicity What people eventually end up with is a What people eventually end up with is a

systemsystem with which they can produce with which they can produce (and rate) sentences. A (and rate) sentences. A grammargrammar..

Even if you’ve never heard these before, Even if you’ve never heard these before, you know which one is “English” and you know which one is “English” and which one isn’t:which one isn’t:

16)16) Eight very lazy elephants drank brandy.Eight very lazy elephants drank brandy.17)17) Eight elephants very lazy brandy drank.Eight elephants very lazy brandy drank.

Positive and negative Positive and negative evidenceevidence

Adults know if a given sentence S is Adults know if a given sentence S is grammatical or ungrammatical. This grammatical or ungrammatical. This is part of the knowledge kids gain is part of the knowledge kids gain through language acquisition.through language acquisition.

Kids hear grammatical sentencesKids hear grammatical sentences((positive evidencepositive evidence))

Kids are not generally told which Kids are not generally told which sentences are ungrammaticalsentences are ungrammatical((no negativeno negative evidenceevidence))

Positive and negative Positive and negative evidenceevidence

One of the striking things about One of the striking things about child language is how few child language is how few errorserrors they actually make.they actually make.

For negative feedback to work, the For negative feedback to work, the kids have to kids have to makemake the errors (so that the errors (so that it can get the negative response).it can get the negative response).

But they don’t make the errors.But they don’t make the errors.

The “Language instinct”The “Language instinct”

The linguistic capacity is part of being The linguistic capacity is part of being human.human.

Like having two arms, ten fingers, a Like having two arms, ten fingers, a vision system, humans have a language vision system, humans have a language faculty.faculty.

The language faculty (tightly) constrains The language faculty (tightly) constrains what kinds of languages a child can learn.what kinds of languages a child can learn.

=“=“Universal GrammarUniversal Grammar” (UG). ” (UG).

But languages differBut languages differ

English, French: English, French: Subject Verb ObjectSubject Verb Object ( (SVOSVO)) John ate an appleJohn ate an apple.. Pierre a mangé une pommePierre a mangé une pomme..

Japanese, Korean: Japanese, Korean: Subject Object VerbSubject Object Verb ((SOVSOV)) Taroo-wa ringo-o tabetaTaroo-wa ringo-o tabeta.. Chelswu-ka sakwa-lul mekesstaChelswu-ka sakwa-lul mekessta..

Irish, Arabic (VSO), Malagasy (VOS), …Irish, Arabic (VSO), Malagasy (VOS), …

But languages differBut languages differ

English: Adverbs before verbsEnglish: Adverbs before verbs Mary quickly eats an apple.Mary quickly eats an apple.

(also: Mary ate an apple quickly)(also: Mary ate an apple quickly) *Mary eats quickly an apple.*Mary eats quickly an apple.

French: Adverbs after verbsFrench: Adverbs after verbs Geneviève mange rapidement une pomme.Geneviève mange rapidement une pomme. *Geneviève rapidement mange une *Geneviève rapidement mange une

pomme.pomme.

ParametersParameters

We can categorize languages in terms of We can categorize languages in terms of their word order: SVO, SOV, VSO.their word order: SVO, SOV, VSO.

This is a This is a parameterparameter by which languages by which languages differ.differ.

The dominant formal theory of first The dominant formal theory of first language acquisition holds that children language acquisition holds that children have access to a set of parameters by have access to a set of parameters by which languages can differ; acquisition is which languages can differ; acquisition is the process of the process of settingsetting those parameters. those parameters.

What are the parameters? What are the What are the parameters? What are the “universal” principles of grammar?“universal” principles of grammar?

The enterpriseThe enterprise

The data we will primarily be concerned The data we will primarily be concerned with are with are native speaker intuitionsnative speaker intuitions..

Native speakers, faced with a sentence S, Native speakers, faced with a sentence S, knowknow whether the sentence S is part of whether the sentence S is part of their language or isn’t. These intuitions their language or isn’t. These intuitions are highly systematic.are highly systematic.

We want to uncover the system (which is We want to uncover the system (which is unconscious knowledge) behind the unconscious knowledge) behind the intuitions of native speakers—their intuitions of native speakers—their knowledge of language.knowledge of language.

I-languageI-language We are studying the system behind We are studying the system behind one one

person’s person’s pattern of intuitions.pattern of intuitions. Speakers growing up in the same community Speakers growing up in the same community

have very similar knowledge, but language is have very similar knowledge, but language is an an individualindividual thing (“I-language”).thing (“I-language”).

I-languages of a community is can be I-languages of a community is can be characterized, but it is characterized, but it is externalexternal to the to the speaker (“E-language”), not any one person’s speaker (“E-language”), not any one person’s knowledge, a generalization over many knowledge, a generalization over many people’s I-languages.people’s I-languages. For example, Parisian French.For example, Parisian French.

CompetenceCompetence

We are also concerned with We are also concerned with what a person what a person knowsknows. What characterizes a person’s . What characterizes a person’s language language competencecompetence. We are in general . We are in general not concerned here with how a person ends not concerned here with how a person ends up up usingusing this knowledge ( this knowledge (performanceperformance).).

You still have your language competence You still have your language competence when you are sleeping, in the absence of when you are sleeping, in the absence of any performance. Being drunk doesn’t any performance. Being drunk doesn’t make you think “bought some John coffee” make you think “bought some John coffee” is English, though perhaps one might is English, though perhaps one might saysay it. it.

Prescriptive rulesPrescriptive rules

Another thing we need to be cautious Another thing we need to be cautious of are of are prescriptive rulesprescriptive rules. Often . Often prescriptive rules of “good grammar” prescriptive rules of “good grammar” turn out to be impositions on our turn out to be impositions on our native grammar which run counter to native grammar which run counter to our native competence.our native competence.

After all, why did they need to be After all, why did they need to be rules in the first place?rules in the first place?

Prescriptive rulesPrescriptive rules Prepositions are things you don’t end a Prepositions are things you don’t end a

sentence with.sentence with. We want to successfully complete this We want to successfully complete this

course.course. Remember: Capitalize the first word Remember: Capitalize the first word

after a colon.after a colon. Don’t be so immodest as to say Don’t be so immodest as to say I and I and

John leftJohn left; say ; say John and I left John and I left instead.instead. ImpactImpact is not a verb. is not a verb. The book which you just bought is The book which you just bought is

offensive.offensive.

Prescriptive rulesPrescriptive rules

When making grammaticality When making grammaticality judgments (or when asking others to judgments (or when asking others to make grammaticality judgments), we make grammaticality judgments), we must do our best to factor out must do our best to factor out prescriptive rules (learned explicitly in prescriptive rules (learned explicitly in school).school). We’re not interested in studying the We’re not interested in studying the

prescriptive rules; we could just look them prescriptive rules; we could just look them up, and it isn’t likely to tell us anything up, and it isn’t likely to tell us anything deep about the makeup of the human mind.deep about the makeup of the human mind.

JudgmentsJudgments

Another complicating fact is that a Another complicating fact is that a sentence can be bad for any number of sentence can be bad for any number of reasons, only some of which we are reasons, only some of which we are interested in at a given point.interested in at a given point.

*Student the meditated happily.*Student the meditated happily. The pebble meditated happily.The pebble meditated happily. A Sun rose in the East.A Sun rose in the East. John wondered who to go with.John wondered who to go with.

Syntax as scienceSyntax as science

Here, we will study syntax Here, we will study syntax scientificallyscientifically. . This means, in particular, approaching This means, in particular, approaching syntax using the scientific method.syntax using the scientific method.

Step 1: Gather observations (data)Step 1: Gather observations (data) Step 2: Make generalizationsStep 2: Make generalizations Step 3: Form hypothesesStep 3: Form hypotheses Step 4: Test predictions made by these Step 4: Test predictions made by these

hypotheses, returning to step 1.hypotheses, returning to step 1.

A simple introductory A simple introductory exampleexample

1)1) Bill kissed himself.Bill kissed himself.

2)2) Bill kissed herself.Bill kissed herself.

3)3) Sally kissed himself.Sally kissed himself.

4)4) Sally kissed herself.Sally kissed herself.

Try these out. Which ones sound Try these out. Which ones sound good, which ones don’t?good, which ones don’t?

A simple introductory A simple introductory exampleexample

1)1) Bill kissed himself.Bill kissed himself.

2)2) *Bill kissed herself.*Bill kissed herself.

3)3) *Sally kissed himself.*Sally kissed himself.

4)4) Sally kissed herself.Sally kissed herself.

Hypothesis:Hypothesis: An anaphor must have An anaphor must have an antecedent which agrees with it an antecedent which agrees with it in in gendergender..

Hypothesis: An anaphor must Hypothesis: An anaphor must have an antecedent which agrees have an antecedent which agrees

in gender.in gender. Let’s test the hypothesis against more Let’s test the hypothesis against more

data.data.

5)5) The robot saw itself in the mirror.The robot saw itself in the mirror.

6)6) *John and Bill saw himself in the mirror.*John and Bill saw himself in the mirror.

7)7) *The boys saw himself in the mirror.*The boys saw himself in the mirror.

8)8) *Mary and Jane saw herself in the mirror.*Mary and Jane saw herself in the mirror.

9)9) John and Bill saw themselves in the mirror.John and Bill saw themselves in the mirror.

10)10) Mary and Jane saw themselves in the mirror.Mary and Jane saw themselves in the mirror.

11)11) The boys saw themselves in the mirror.The boys saw themselves in the mirror.

Hypothesis: An anaphor must Hypothesis: An anaphor must have an antecedent which agrees have an antecedent which agrees

in gender.in gender.

5)5) The robot saw itself in the mirror.The robot saw itself in the mirror.6)6) *John and Bill saw himself in the mirror.*John and Bill saw himself in the mirror.7)7) *The boys saw himself in the mirror.*The boys saw himself in the mirror.8)8) *Mary and Jane saw herself in the mirror.*Mary and Jane saw herself in the mirror.9)9) John and Bill saw themselves in the mirror.John and Bill saw themselves in the mirror.10)10) Mary and Jane saw themselves in the mirror.Mary and Jane saw themselves in the mirror.11)11) The boys saw themselves in the mirror.The boys saw themselves in the mirror.

Our hypothesis only explains (5). What is Our hypothesis only explains (5). What is the generalization?the generalization?

Hypothesis: An anaphor must Hypothesis: An anaphor must agree in gender and number agree in gender and number

with its antecedentwith its antecedent12)12) The executives gave themselves a raise.The executives gave themselves a raise.13)13) *I gave himself a cookie.*I gave himself a cookie.14)14) I gave myself a cookie.I gave myself a cookie.15)15) You gave myself a cookie.You gave myself a cookie.16)16) *You gave herself a cookie.*You gave herself a cookie.17)17) *You gave himself a cookie.*You gave himself a cookie.18)18) You gave yourself a cookie.You gave yourself a cookie.

Again, our hypothesis doesn’t successfully Again, our hypothesis doesn’t successfully predict which of these are grammatical and predict which of these are grammatical and which aren’t. What’s the generalization?which aren’t. What’s the generalization?

PersonPerson II is “first person singular” is “first person singular” YouYou is “second person singular” ( is “second person singular” (you leftyou left) or ) or

“second person plural” (“second person plural” (you left you left = = y’all lefty’all left)) HeHe, , SheShe is “third person” is “third person” WeWe is “first person plural” is “first person plural” TheyThey is “third person plural” is “third person plural”

Anaphors seem to agree with person.Anaphors seem to agree with person. MyselfMyself for first person singular, for first person singular, ourselvesourselves for first for first person plural, person plural, yourselfyourself for second person, for second person, himselfhimself, , herselfherself, or , or itselfitself for third person for third person singular, singular, themselvesthemselves for third person plural. for third person plural.

Hypothesis about Hypothesis about anaphorsanaphors

An anaphor must agree in gender, An anaphor must agree in gender, number, and person with its antecedent.number, and person with its antecedent.

This is the hypothesis we will end with, This is the hypothesis we will end with, although there will be more to do with although there will be more to do with anaphors.anaphors. Incidentally, gender, number, and person very Incidentally, gender, number, and person very

often go together. Very rarely will you see often go together. Very rarely will you see agreement with one and not the others as agreement with one and not the others as well.well.

Levels of adequacyLevels of adequacy

If our hypotheses can predict the If our hypotheses can predict the existence of the grammatical existence of the grammatical sentences in a corpus (a set of sentences in a corpus (a set of grammatical sentences), it is grammatical sentences), it is observationally adequateobservationally adequate. .

If our hypotheses can predict the If our hypotheses can predict the native-speaker intuitions about native-speaker intuitions about which sentences are grammatical which sentences are grammatical and which are ungrammatical, it is and which are ungrammatical, it is descriptively adequatedescriptively adequate..

Levels of adequacyLevels of adequacy

If we can take a descriptively adequate set of If we can take a descriptively adequate set of hypotheses one step further and account not hypotheses one step further and account not only for the native speaker judgments but only for the native speaker judgments but also for how children come to have these also for how children come to have these judgments, our hypotheses are judgments, our hypotheses are explanatorily adequateexplanatorily adequate..

It’s this last level that we are hoping to It’s this last level that we are hoping to achieve.achieve. Basic principlesBasic principles Parameters of variationParameters of variation How to set the parameter from inputHow to set the parameter from input

Refresher on syntaxRefresher on syntax

Words can be grouped into Words can be grouped into categoriescategories by by part of speechpart of speech like like nounnoun, , verbverb, , adjectiveadjective, , prepositionpreposition, …, …

Parts of speech are determined Parts of speech are determined distributionallydistributionally (traditional “semantic” (traditional “semantic” definitions don’t work)definitions don’t work) The yinkish dripner blorked quastofically.The yinkish dripner blorked quastofically. YinkishYinkish is an adjective, is an adjective, dripnerdripner is a noun, is a noun, to blorkto blork

is a verb, is a verb, quastoficallyquastofically is an adverb. is an adverb.

ConstituentsConstituents

The words that make up a sentence The words that make up a sentence like…like… The students did their syntax assignment.The students did their syntax assignment.

……are grouped together into are grouped together into component parts, component parts, constituentsconstituents, which , which function together as a unit.function together as a unit.

Among them, Among them, [the students][the students], the do-, the do-ers, and ers, and [their syntax assignment][their syntax assignment], the , the done. done.

ConstituentsConstituents

Functioning as a unit…Functioning as a unit… The students did The students did their syntax their syntax

assignmentassignment.. The students did The students did the crossword puzzlethe crossword puzzle.. JohnJohn did the crossword puzzle. did the crossword puzzle. The crossword puzzleThe crossword puzzle is what John did. is what John did. **Crossword puzzleCrossword puzzle is what John did is what John did thethe.. John John likeslikes the crossword puzzle. the crossword puzzle. John likes the John likes the jigsawjigsaw puzzle. puzzle. John likes the John likes the theatertheater..

PhrasesPhrases A A phrasephrase is a constituent that has a is a constituent that has a

central core word (called the central core word (called the headhead of the of the phrase); other words in the phrase phrase); other words in the phrase generally relate to (or modify the generally relate to (or modify the meaning of) the head.meaning of) the head.

The category of the head determines the The category of the head determines the category of the phrase.category of the phrase. The happy studentsThe happy students is a noun phrase, headed is a noun phrase, headed

by the noun by the noun studentsstudents. . HappyHappy modifies modifies studentsstudents, , thethe specifies which students. specifies which students. Ran Ran swiftly swiftly is a verb phrase, is a verb phrase, swiftly swiftly modifies modifies ranran..

SentencesSentences

Complete sentences need to have a Complete sentences need to have a subject and a verb.subject and a verb. John left.John left. *John.*John. *Left.*Left. The happy students left speedily.The happy students left speedily.

So sentences are made of noun So sentences are made of noun phrases and verb phrases.phrases and verb phrases.

SentencesSentences John left (speedily).John left (speedily). The happy students left (speedily).The happy students left (speedily).

We could say a sentence is We could say a sentence is either:either: a noun and a verba noun and a verb a noun and a verb phrasea noun and a verb phrase a noun phrase and a verba noun phrase and a verb a noun phrase and a verb phrasea noun phrase and a verb phrase

Or we could say:Or we could say: a sentence is a noun phrase and a verb phrasea sentence is a noun phrase and a verb phrase a phrase always has a head, and sometimes that’s a phrase always has a head, and sometimes that’s

all.all.

TreesTrees We can start by drawing the structure of a We can start by drawing the structure of a

sentence like this, which means: “sentence like this, which means: “John leftJohn left is a Sentence composed of a Noun Phrase is a Sentence composed of a Noun Phrase (composed of (composed of JohnJohn) and a Verb Phrase ) and a Verb Phrase (composed of (composed of leftleft). Note the heads.). Note the heads.

S

NP VP

VN

John left

Of the past and the Of the past and the futurefuture

Serious scientific study of sentence Serious scientific study of sentence structure of this kind generally began structure of this kind generally began in the 50’s, driven to a great extent in the 50’s, driven to a great extent by the work of Noam Chomsky.by the work of Noam Chomsky.

It’s now half a century later, and we It’s now half a century later, and we have learned a have learned a lotlot about how syntax about how syntax works.works.


Progress was incremental, and often Progress was incremental, and often required revising our assumptions about required revising our assumptions about how sentences are really put together.how sentences are really put together.

Data was examined, generalizations Data was examined, generalizations were arrived at, hypotheses were were arrived at, hypotheses were formed, predictions were tested—and formed, predictions were tested—and often led to revisions of the often led to revisions of the generalizations and the hypotheses, and generalizations and the hypotheses, and so forth.so forth.


Two goals of the class:Two goals of the class: Think like a syntactician.Think like a syntactician. Be able to read books, articles, etc. Be able to read books, articles, etc.

about syntax.about syntax.

It’s not really enough to just know It’s not really enough to just know what what people concluded, we need to people concluded, we need to understand understand why why they concluded what they concluded what they did.they did.

Some milestonesSome milestones Until about the mid-70’s, Until about the mid-70’s, phrase structure phrase structure

rulesrules (like what we’ll see today). (like what we’ll see today). Mid-70’s, Mid-70’s, X-Bar TheoryX-Bar Theory (a generalization (a generalization

about what are possible PSRs).about what are possible PSRs). In the 80’s, a fairly significant shift to In the 80’s, a fairly significant shift to

Government and Binding TheoryGovernment and Binding Theory (viewing (viewing grammar a little less like a computer grammar a little less like a computer program). Very productive.program). Very productive.

In the 90’s, another shift to In the 90’s, another shift to the Minimalist the Minimalist ProgramProgram (an attempt at simplification, as (an attempt at simplification, as well as a change in philosophy).well as a change in philosophy).

What’s differentWhat’s different

Progress was incremental, and very Progress was incremental, and very often the differences between the often the differences between the stages of generative linguistic theory stages of generative linguistic theory are not as great as they seem. Just are not as great as they seem. Just looking at the forest from a different looking at the forest from a different perspective (sometimes with a perspective (sometimes with a microscope).microscope).

So let’s start with the data and some So let’s start with the data and some generalizations, and pretend that generalizations, and pretend that we’re back in the 60’s for a while.we’re back in the 60’s for a while.

Finding constituentsFinding constituents

How do we find constituents in a How do we find constituents in a sentence? For many of them, we can sentence? For many of them, we can guess, but a guess isn’t evidence. If guess, but a guess isn’t evidence. If sentences and phrases have sentences and phrases have structure, we should be able to test structure, we should be able to test for this structure.for this structure.

Replacement testReplacement test A constituent is a group of words A constituent is a group of words

which function as a unit. If you can which function as a unit. If you can replacereplace part of the sentence with part of the sentence with another constituent (the smallest another constituent (the smallest constituent being a single word), this constituent being a single word), this tells us that the replaced section of tells us that the replaced section of the sentence is a constituent.the sentence is a constituent.

This isn’t foolproof, but it usually This isn’t foolproof, but it usually works if you try to keep the meaning works if you try to keep the meaning as close as possible.as close as possible.

Replacement testReplacement test The students left.The students left. TheyThey left. left.

The studentsThe students is a constituent.is a constituent.

The students ate the sandwiches.The students ate the sandwiches. TheyThey ate the sandwiches. ate the sandwiches. The students ate The students ate themthem.. The students The students dineddined..

[The students] [ate [the sandwiches]].[The students] [ate [the sandwiches]].

Sentence fragment testSentence fragment test Generally, only constituents can be Generally, only constituents can be

used in the fragmentary response to used in the fragmentary response to a question.a question. Who ate the sandwiches?Who ate the sandwiches?

The studentsThe students.. *The.*The. What did the students do?What did the students do?

Ate the sandwichesAte the sandwiches.. *Ate the.*Ate the. What did the students eat?What did the students eat?

The sandwichesThe sandwiches.. [The students] [ate [the [The students] [ate [the

sandwiches]].sandwiches]].

Movement testsMovement tests—”clefting”—”clefting”

If you can move a sequence of words X If you can move a sequence of words X together to another part of a sentence that together to another part of a sentence that means roughly the same thing, X is a means roughly the same thing, X is a constituent.constituent.

Clefting: Clefting: creating a sentence of the shape creating a sentence of the shape It It was — who/that —was — who/that — out of your sentence. out of your sentence. Start with: It was — who Start with: It was — who sentencesentence..

It was — who/that John bought coffee.It was — who/that John bought coffee. Pick a candidate for being a constituent.Pick a candidate for being a constituent. Put it in place of the — and cross it out in the Put it in place of the — and cross it out in the

sentence. Pick sentence. Pick whowho or or thatthat.. It was John who/that John bought coffee.It was John who/that John bought coffee. It was coffee who / that John bought coffee.It was coffee who / that John bought coffee.

Movement tests—cleftingMovement tests—clefting

The students ate the sandwiches.The students ate the sandwiches. It was It was [[the studentsthe students]] who ate the sandwiches. who ate the sandwiches. It was It was [[the sandwichesthe sandwiches]] that the students ate that the students ate It was It was [eat the sandwiches][eat the sandwiches] that the students that the students

did.did. *It was *It was [[thethe] ] that students ate the sandwiches.that students ate the sandwiches.


Movement tests—Movement tests—preposingpreposing

Preposing involves creating a sentence by Preposing involves creating a sentence by putting a constituent at the beginning of putting a constituent at the beginning of the sentence of this form:the sentence of this form: — — is/are who/what/where/… —is/are who/what/where/… —

The students ate the sandwiches.The students ate the sandwiches. [The students][The students] are who ate the sandwiches. are who ate the sandwiches. [The sandwiches][The sandwiches] are what the students ate. are what the students ate. [Eat the sandwiches][Eat the sandwiches] is what the students did. is what the students did. *[*[TheThe] is what students ate the sandwiches.] is what students ate the sandwiches.

Coordination testCoordination test Generally you can replace a constituent of a Generally you can replace a constituent of a

certain type certain type XX with another constituent of type with another constituent of type [X [X and X]and X].. [The students][The students] ate the sandwiches. ate the sandwiches. [[[[JohnJohn] and [] and [the studentsthe students]]]] ate the sandwiches. ate the sandwiches. The students ate The students ate [[the sandwichesthe sandwiches]] The students ate The students ate [[[[the sandwichesthe sandwiches] and [] and [the the

eggrollseggrolls]]]]..

This shows two things: 1) that This shows two things: 1) that the studentsthe students and and JohnJohn are each constituents (as is are each constituents (as is John and the John and the studentsstudents), and 2) that ), and 2) that the studentsthe students is the same is the same kind of constituent as kind of constituent as John John

When constituency tests When constituency tests failfail


But consider:But consider: John prepared and the students ate John prepared and the students ate

the sandwiches.the sandwiches. [[John prepared] and [the students ate]] [[John prepared] and [the students ate]]

the sandwichesthe sandwiches?? The coordination test The coordination test failedfailed to reveal the to reveal the

structure.structure.

When constituency tests When constituency tests failfail

Moral:Moral:Don’t rely on just one constituency Don’t rely on just one constituency test.test.

Use several tests, assuming that Use several tests, assuming that occasionally any given test might occasionally any given test might yield a anomalous result.yield a anomalous result.

Trees and constituencyTrees and constituency

[The students] [ate [the sandwiches]][The students] [ate [the sandwiches]]

The studentsate the sandwiches




constituentconstituent




constituent

Phrases and constituentsPhrases and constituents

The constituents we have identified The constituents we have identified are the noun phrases and the verb are the noun phrases and the verb phrase, which have internal pieces as phrase, which have internal pieces as well.well.

TheThe is a determiner (D). is a determiner (D). StudentsStudents and and sandwichessandwiches are nouns, are nouns,

heading the Noun Phrase (NP).heading the Noun Phrase (NP). AteAte is a verb, heading the Verb Phrase is a verb, heading the Verb Phrase

(VP)(VP)



The students ate

the sandwiches

NP

NPV

D N

D N

VP

S

Inside the NPInside the NP

The NPs we found have a D and an NThe NPs we found have a D and an N The studentsThe students The sandwichesThe sandwiches

An NP needs to have a An NP needs to have a head nounhead noun.. An NP can have a determiner:An NP can have a determiner:

NP: (D) NNP: (D) N

Parens mean D is optionalParens mean D is optional But there are lots of other kinds of But there are lots of other kinds of

NPs…NPs…


The enthusiastic studentsThe enthusiastic students ate the ate the sandwiches.sandwiches.

The enthusiastic syntax studentsThe enthusiastic syntax students ate the sandwiches.ate the sandwiches.

The enthusiastic syntax students The enthusiastic syntax students in LX522in LX522 ate the sandwiches.ate the sandwiches.


The enthusiastic studentsThe enthusiastic students…… Enthusiastic Enthusiastic is an adjective is an adjective

(modifying (modifying studentsstudents).). So we need to revise our hypothesis So we need to revise our hypothesis

about the components of NP.about the components of NP. NP: (D) (Adj) NNP: (D) (Adj) N


The enthusiastic syntax studentsThe enthusiastic syntax students…… We know We know enthusiastic enthusiastic is an adjective is an adjective

modifying modifying studentsstudents. What is . What is syntaxsyntax?? Syntax seems to Syntax seems to alsoalso be an adjective be an adjective

modifying modifying studentsstudents. You can have two . You can have two adjectives in an NP.adjectives in an NP.

We need to revise our hypothesis We need to revise our hypothesis again.again.


The enthusiastic syntax studentsThe enthusiastic syntax students…… NP: (D) (Adj) (Adj) NNP: (D) (Adj) (Adj) N ? ?

The big red fluffy dogThe big red fluffy dog barked. barked. The excited big red fluffy dog The excited big red fluffy dog barked.barked.

NP: (D) (Adj) (Adj) (Adj) (Adj) NNP: (D) (Adj) (Adj) (Adj) (Adj) N ? ? This seems to miss a generalization. Instead…This seems to miss a generalization. Instead… NP: (D) (Adj+) NNP: (D) (Adj+) N

+ means “repeat as many + means “repeat as many times as necessary”times as necessary”


The enthusiastic students in LX522The enthusiastic students in LX522…… We can have We can have in LX522in LX522 in an NP too. in an NP too.

Intermission:Intermission: What’s What’s in LX522in LX522?? It is a prepositional phrase (PP), with a It is a prepositional phrase (PP), with a

head preposition (P) head preposition (P) inin. To a pretty close . To a pretty close approximation:approximation:

PP: P NPPP: P NP In the tree… in the big green tree…In the tree… in the big green tree…


The enthusiastic students in The enthusiastic students in LX522LX522……

Back to the problem, revising our Back to the problem, revising our hypothesis:hypothesis:

NP: (D) (Adj+) N (PP)NP: (D) (Adj+) N (PP)

ModifiersModifiers

Golden Rule of Modifiers:Golden Rule of Modifiers:Modifiers are always attached within the Modifiers are always attached within the phrase they modify.phrase they modify.

[[NP NP The enthusiastic syntaxThe enthusiastic syntax studentsstudents in in LX522LX522]]

headnoun

modifiers modifier

ModifiersModifiers

The bird in the tree on the hillThe bird in the tree on the hill…… This is an NP…This is an NP…

The bird in the tree on the hill left.The bird in the tree on the hill left. I left.I left. The bird in the tree on the hill and I left.The bird in the tree on the hill and I left.

Trick question: Trick question: Should we revise our Should we revise our NP rule to NP rule to NP: (D) (Adj+) N (PP+)NP: (D) (Adj+) N (PP+)??

Dheadnoun PP PP

ModifiersModifiers

The bird in the tree on the The bird in the tree on the hillhill……

Dheadnoun PP PP

?

ModifiersModifiers

The bird in the The bird in the treetree on the on the hillhill……

Answer to the trick question:Answer to the trick question:Not based on Not based on this this evidence!evidence!

Dheadnoun PP PP

The The actual actual structure…structure…

The bird in the tree on the hillThe bird in the tree on the hill……

D

headnoun

PP

PPD

NPP

headnoun

The NP isstill justD N PP

TreesTrees We can draw the same information in a tree.We can draw the same information in a tree.

NP

D N PP

the bird P NP

inD N PP

the tree P NP

on D N

the hill

TreesTrees We can draw the same information in a tree.We can draw the same information in a tree.

NP

D N PP

the bird P NP

inD N PP

the tree P NP

on D N

the hill

NP = D N PP

PP: P NP

NP = D N PP

…

ModifiersModifiers

The book of poems with the blue The book of poems with the blue covercover……

NowNow should we revise our NP rule to should we revise our NP rule toNP: (D) (Adj+) N (PP+)?NP: (D) (Adj+) N (PP+)?

Of poemsOf poems modifies modifies bookbook.. With the blue coverWith the blue cover modifies modifies bookbook.. Answer:Answer: Yes, Yes, thisthis is evidence for the is evidence for the

new NP rule.new NP rule.

Dheadnoun PP PP

TreesTrees

And the tree…And the tree…NP

D N PP

the book P NP

of N

PP

poems

P NP

with D AdjP

the

N

coverAdj

blue

Inside the VPInside the VP

A VP always has a head verb (V).A VP always has a head verb (V). Pat left.Pat left. VP: VVP: V

A VP can sometimes have an adverb.A VP can sometimes have an adverb. Pat left quickly.Pat left quickly. VP: V (Adv)VP: V (Adv)

Inside the VPInside the VP

Pat quickly left.Pat quickly left. Pat often left early.Pat often left early. Pat cleverly rarely shouts loudly twice.Pat cleverly rarely shouts loudly twice.

A VP can have any number of A VP can have any number of adverbs before or after the verb.adverbs before or after the verb. VP: (Adv+) V (Adv+)VP: (Adv+) V (Adv+)

Inside the VPInside the VP The students ate the sandwiches.The students ate the sandwiches. The students ate the sandwiches hungrily.The students ate the sandwiches hungrily.

VP: (Adv+) V (NP) (Adv+)VP: (Adv+) V (NP) (Adv+) Chris ate pizza at the café.Chris ate pizza at the café. Chris ate pizza at the café hungrily.Chris ate pizza at the café hungrily. Pat bought peanuts at the café for a dollar.Pat bought peanuts at the café for a dollar. Pat bought peanuts at the café for a dollar Pat bought peanuts at the café for a dollar

on Tuesday triumphantly.on Tuesday triumphantly. VP: (Adv+) V (NP) (PP+) (Adv+)VP: (Adv+) V (NP) (PP+) (Adv+)

What we’ve got…What we’ve got…

NP: (D) (Adj+) N (PP+)NP: (D) (Adj+) N (PP+) PP: P (NP)PP: P (NP) VP: (Adv+) V (NP) (PP+) (Adv+)VP: (Adv+) V (NP) (PP+) (Adv+)

The very happy students left.The very happy students left. [[NP NP D Adv Adj N ] VD Adv Adj N ] V

What should we do now?What should we do now?

AdjP and AdvPAdjP and AdvP

The very happy students left.The very happy students left. The The Golden Rule of ModifiersGolden Rule of Modifiers says that says that

modifiers must attach inside the phrase they modifiers must attach inside the phrase they modify.modify. VeryVery is modifying is modifying happyhappy.. VeryVery must be inside an Adjective Phrase (AdjP) must be inside an Adjective Phrase (AdjP) AdjP: (Adv) AdjAdjP: (Adv) Adj

The students left very quickly.The students left very quickly. VeryVery is modifying is modifying quickly quickly (an adverb).(an adverb). VeryVery must inside an Adverb Phrase (AdvP) must inside an Adverb Phrase (AdvP) AdvP: (Adv) AdvAdvP: (Adv) Adv

What we’ve got now…What we’ve got now… NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+)NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) PP: P (NP)PP: P (NP) VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+)VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+) AdjP: (Adv) AdjAdjP: (Adv) Adj AdvP: (Adv) AdvAdvP: (Adv) Adv

Let’s digest this a bit.Let’s digest this a bit. Every phrase has one required element.Every phrase has one required element. This one required element is the head.This one required element is the head. Every phrase has Every phrase has only one only one head.head.

What we’ve got now…What we’ve got now… NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+)NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) PP: P (NP)PP: P (NP) VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+)VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+) AdjP: (Adv) AdjAdjP: (Adv) Adj AdvP: (Adv) AdvAdvP: (Adv) Adv

Given this, AdvP looks somewhat Given this, AdvP looks somewhat suspicious.suspicious.

Which Adv is the head in Which Adv is the head in very quicklyvery quickly?? Suppose: Suppose: Modifiers are Modifiers are alwaysalways phrases phrases.. This requires a revision to get us closer…This requires a revision to get us closer…

What we’ve got now…What we’ve got now… NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+)NP: (D) (AdjP+) N (PP+) PP: P (NP)PP: P (NP) VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+)VP: (AdvP+) V (NP) (PP+) (AdvP+) AdjP: (AdjP: (AdvPAdvP) Adj) Adj AdvP: (AdvP: (AdvPAdvP) Adv) Adv

Hypothesis:Hypothesis:Phrases consist of one head and modifier Phrases consist of one head and modifier phrases.phrases.

There’s still one non-conformist in our midst.There’s still one non-conformist in our midst. Should D be a DP?Should D be a DP? Put this on hold: Leave this is the sole exception.Put this on hold: Leave this is the sole exception.

Yes, D should be a DP, but there is a complication that Yes, D should be a DP, but there is a complication that we need to come back to.we need to come back to.

For next time:For next time:

Read:Read: Chapter 1-2Chapter 1-2 (Chapter 2 contains some material we (Chapter 2 contains some material we

didn’t cover this time but will address didn’t cover this time but will address next time)next time)

Homework:Homework: Chapter 1: problem 1.Chapter 1: problem 1. Chapter 2: problems 1, 2, and 6.Chapter 2: problems 1, 2, and 6.

week 1. introduction cas lx 522 syntax i. some things we know is this english? is this english? pat...

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