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How Certain Forms of Praise Reduce Students’ Motivation to Learn,

and What Can Be Done Instead

a research paper by Jill Pigott

Introduction to the problem

As teachers, we are always interested in what motivates our students to learn. We wonder

how we may encourage them to grow develop academically and personally. We seek ways to

increase the chances they will begin to love school and to love the challenges we place before

them. Historically, teachers, coaches, and parents, have used praise as a form of classroom

management as well as a way to motivate young people to strive towards academic success. We

have hoped that by praising their peers, students will make the extra effort to earn such praise for

themselves. Unfortunately, certain types of praise, usually the praise we are most used to giving,

is the very stuff that can inhibit a young person’s desire to go on to more challenging tasks.

This paper examines both the verbal praise teachers provide students, and the praise

included in written commentary teachers provide on assignments given to their students. Simply

telling a student an answer is correct is not considered praise. However, a letter grade or a score

is considered as a form of generic praise (or criticism). Praise comes in a variety of forms; praise

that is general, praise that is specific; praise for natural abilities, praise for effort, praise that

shows gratitude, and praise that shows evaluation. Many studies over the past thirty years have

revealed the very different effects of different types of praise. General praise is likely to be

ignored or rejected by students. Praise that shows evaluation can reduce intrinsic motivation and

self-esteem. Praise for natural abilities can steer young people towards a mindset which inhibits

their potential.

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In 1972, the book Teacher and Child by Dr. Haim Ginott, a noted teen and child

psychotherapist, was published. His ideas had yet to be tested in the classroom on a large scale.

However, since then his initial theories on how young people are affected by teacher praise has

been shown to be correct. He posited that evaluative praise, praise that offers judgment, good or

bad, is destructive; whereas appreciative praise, praise that acknowledges what the student has

done and how that makes us feel, is productive. Ginott noted that there are two parts to praise:

what one says to the student, and what the student in turn says to him/her self. When teachers

give evaluative praise, they are telling the student what to think about himself. When teachers

state they like about a student’s efforts, help, work, or accomplishments, the student can draw

his/her own conclusions, which tend to be positive and productive (126). Ginott also cautioned

against any praise that is not genuine. Young people can tell when the praise is intended to

somehow change them; they will resent such intentions and defy the manipulation (133).

For those who still argue self-esteem is important, we must note what self-esteem is.

Esteem is a judgment or evaluation. Self-esteem is then how a person judges him/her self. Ginott

notes that evaluative praise sets up the teacher as the special expert and self-appointed appraiser

of student behavior and work (132). Students then learn to trust how others esteem them. That is

not self-esteem, nor does it guide young people into forming realistic self-concepts. By giving

appreciative praise, a teacher can suggest things for a student to take into account, but the final

appraisal is done by the student.

In her book, Mindset, Dr. Carol S. Dweck talks about two ways people view intelligence;

one view, as the fixed mindset, is that people are born with a certain unchangeable amount of

intelligence. A second view, known as the growth mindset, is that people can increase their

intelligence by hard work and effective strategies. These different mindsets create two opposing

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ways for people to view education. People can see it as a chance to show off the “smarts” and

natural abilities they already possess, or they can see it as a chance to grow and develop. We, as

teachers, can turn children towards either mindset.

When students hear “You’re so smart, you got that right away!”, they might also hear the

unspoken statement, “Only dumb people put forth effort.” The praise becomes a judgment, a

complimentary judgment, but a judgment none-the-less. The moment such students cannot get

something right away, they no longer feel smart. They see a challenge as an opportunity to fail.

Also, the students who overhear these ability-focused compliments will begin to judge

themselves by these standards, rather than judging how hard they work, or how effective their

learning strategies are. They will not try to learn the strategies of their peers to achieve similar

success, for the idea that success comes from effort is not reinforced in the classroom.

The mindsets that the teachers, coaches, and parents have themselves will affect how they

praise. If a teacher holds a fixed mindset, believes that people are born with a certain amount of

intelligence and talent, then this will certainly be apparent in the praise that is predominantly

given. It will also affect how comfortable such a teacher is with challenging his/her students.

People with “fixed mindsets” see success as a tapping of an innate ability, so there is no useful

road-map towards success; there are no specific strategies they may offer their struggling

students. In their view, struggling students will always struggle because there is simply no way

to increase talent or intelligence. (Mindset, chapter 7)

As teachers, we have a variety of opportunities to praise (and criticize) students on a daily

(if not hourly) basis. This remainder of paper will look at how praise has become a frequently

used yet poorly understood tool in the classroom. Some of the findings from the numerous

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studies that have been conducted over the past forty years will be presented, along with some

suggestions for using these findings to improve our teaching and our schools.

Historical Context of the Problem

Ginott stated the problem very well.

“Unlike pilots, architects, or surgeons, teachers are not rigorously trained in the skills of their calling. Somehow they are expected to enter the classroom well versed in the intricacies of human relations… Teachers, like parents, need a high degree of competence in communication. An enlightened teacher shows sensitivity to semantics.” (Ginott, 120)

There is a widespread belief that intuition and common sense will serve us. There is this

unspoken idea that we know when and how to praise, and that the effects of praise are obvious.

The idea of praising young people to help improve their learning really took off in 1969.

That year Nathaniel Brandon published his book The Psychology of Self-Esteem. The book

suggested that self-esteem plays a key role in a person’s life. Efforts to achieve positive self-

esteem became a nation-wide movement, and the social impact is very much with us today.

Between 1970 and 2000, over 15,000 scholarly articles were written on self-esteem and its

relationship to other facets of life. One of the self-esteem movement’s key maxims is that praise,

self-esteem, and quality performance rise and fall together. The research seemed to, for the most

part, support such a conviction – or at least not completely contradict it. However, in 2003, the

Association for Psychological Science asked a team of researchers to review the literature. Their

conclusion was that of the thousands of studies, only 2% used scientifically sound methods of

measuring self-esteem and its outcomes. The properly done studies showed the opposite of what

self-esteem proponents theorized; high self-esteem was not positively correlated to higher grades

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or successful careers or even reduced aggression. (NurtureShock, 18-19) Suffice it to say, more

research needs to be done. However, it is clear that heavy doses of “Good job!” will not lead a

student to academic success.

So, if self-esteem is not the key to future success, what other purposes does praise serve?

Praise, when used effectively, can be a good motivator, and can help establish good teacher-

student relationships. However, we must be conscious of when praise can become ineffective.

Dr. Carol Dweck and her colleagues have conducted multiple studies on hundreds of

children and adolescents, observing if and how, after a slightly challenging task, a single line of

praise would affect the participants’ performance and interest in attempting more challenging

material. Then, after the children experienced failure with a much more difficult task, how they

well they would recover and perform on a task that was no more difficult than the first. There

were two types of praise given: 1) praise for ability or character-traits and 2) praise for effort or

process. The participants who received the ability praise, “You’re so smart”, were adverse to

attempting more challenging tasks. After failing, they felt deficient, and did poorly on the final

test, even though they had done well at first. Students reason if success is proof of natural ability,

failure is proof that it is lacking; perhaps the initial success was a fluke. They avoid challenges,

because they do not want to fail. The participants who received praise for their process, “You

must have worked really hard”, were eager to try more challenging tasks. After doing poorly on

the test, they felt they needed to focus more and work harder. On the final task, they applied

more focus and effort and had significant improvements from the first test. People like this are

eager for challenges, because they reason that failure is a part of improvement. (Mindset, 71-73)

Part of the students’ success comes from where the praise is placing the locus of control.

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Considering the statistically significant differences in achievement after only a single line of

praise, imagine what an entire semester of praising student effort and process could result in. If

achievement is made because of certain character-traits, the student can do nothing when he/she

thinks those traits are lacking; in a way, the student is given an easy excuse for doing poorly. If

achievement comes from working hard and having the right strategies, then it is in the student’s

power to learn those strategies and achieve. In an interview, Dweck stated, “Emphasizing natural

intelligences takes it out of the child’s control, and it provides no good recipe for responding to a

failure.” (qtd. NurtureShock, 15) In another study, Dweck’s team found that students given

ability-praise were more interested in comparing themselves with others, whereas students given

effort-praise were more interested in learning new tricks and strategies for mastering subsequent

material. (NurtureShock, 21). As teachers, we want to create life-long learners. Praise can be a

major factor in producing people who seek challenges and growth or people who allow

themselves to be just good enough.

There are many issues beyond types of praise that teachers ought to consider. Age is an

important factor in how a student will react to praise. Before the age of seven or eight, children

are oriented to pleasing adults and being labeled as “good boys and girls.” They take praise at

face value. As the concern for pleasing adult authority figures recedes in favor of peer

relationships, the effects of teacher praise become more complex. (Brophy, 19) Public praise

from a teacher can become a source of embarrassment. Also, students will begin to question a

teacher’s reasons for praise. If a student is praised for a task he perceived was easy, he may

think, “The teacher must think I’m truly hopeless if she’s praising me for that.” If a student

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receives praise for something he did not work hard on, he may question the teacher’s credibility,

or ability to recognize quality work. (Brophy, 24)

Some students are chronic underachievers. They have internalized feelings of inferiority.

Generalized praise, “You are good, you are smart, you work hard” will not help this student. The

logic of this student is, “Only someone stupid or dishonest would say such things.” (Ginott, 239)

Students like this – and students on the whole – benefit from praise that is specific, in the context

of their own work (not comparative to others), and is clearly genuine. (Brophy, 26)

Reform Solutions

As teachers, we are encouraged – if not mandated – to use research-based instruction in

our classrooms. There is a growing body of research about praise and how it can be used both

effectively and ineffectively. Our “natural instincts” about praise and its effects in both the long

and short term have been shown to be incorrect. As teachers, pre-teachers, and teacher-educators,

we should look to this research on praise. It is not enough – and frequently counter-productive –

to simply put happy faces at the top of well-done papers and say “Nice work!” when a task is

completed. We should be looking at what teachers can do as individuals and what entire schools

can do to increase the type of praise that creates productive, challenge seeking, intrinsically

motivated young people.

While the benefits to students are numerous, the change from the traditional forms of

praise (and criticism) may not be easy for some teachers. In the book NurtureShock, Po Bronson

described his experience of trying to use the type of praise Dweck recommends with his own

son. Over time Bronson realized that while his son was flourishing under the new praise regime,

he missed giving the generic, character-based praise. It felt to him like praising specific things

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left other skills and attributes ignored and unappreciated. (NurtureShock, 25) As teachers, we

may have students who have terrible home environments and the only form of praise they get

will be from us. We may want to let them know we care for them unconditionally, that someone

is in their corner rooting for them. We may avoid process and effort related praise because we

feel like Bronson did, that we are ignoring those skills and attributes that cannot be demonstrated

in our content area.

However, the focused praise helped Bronson’s son see strategies that could be applied the

next day. The boy became a more diligent studier and a better soccer player. In the end, Bronson

concluded that by not telling his son he was smart or talented, he left those estimations of

intelligence and skills up to his son. (NutureShock, 25). This harkens back to what was

mentioned previously, that in order for students to develop a healthy self-esteem, they need to be

granted the opportunities to esteem themselves.

It is not difficult for a classroom to become the least comfortable place for a young

person. With each question the teacher launches a grenade of potential humiliation. With each

test comes the opportunity to feel inferior once again. It is so easy for criticism to feel like a

harsh judgment of one’s character. It is easy for praise to feel that way, too. “When teachers are

judging them, students will sabotage the teacher by not trying. But when student understand that

school is for them – a way for them to grow their minds – they do not insist on sabotaging

themselves.” (Dweck, 201) Teachers need to make their classrooms a place to grow. Mistakes

are welcomed, possibly praised, because they demonstrate that the student is working hard to

make sense of the information provided, working hard to actually learn. The classroom should

not be a place where the possessor of all knowledge bestows gold stars upon the good little boys

and girls. It should be a place where students figure out how to evaluate themselves and

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recognize the productive ways to attain future success. When a teacher gives up his or her role as

judge and grade-giver, and instead becomes a guide that point out ways to improve, the

relationship between student and teacher can dramatically change. The teacher becomes a guide

and a valuable resource to the student.

Unfortunately, school is not just one teacher and one subject area. School is a place

where everyone will discover something that he or she cannot do well. The “math whizz” may

have difficulty in art class. The “future Newberry winner” may falter in science class. The

important thing we as teachers and administrators should keep in mind is that no student should

be allowed to discover they can do nothing well. It is simply not the case. For all moments of

success (and failure), as teachers we must encourage our students to look beyond the fact that

they achieved a goal, and think about the steps they took to get there. A seemingly small success

can hold the same lessons as overcoming a major obstacle. It is through the praise that points out

the useful strategies, techniques, and attitudes that we can guide students not only to success in

our classroom and our subject area, but to success in other classrooms and subject areas.

This leads into an important discussion of what might be deemed as success. What has

become worthy of praise? In schools, we might consider high or improving grades as a good

measure of success. In many ways, however, grades serve as a form of generic praise at best and

debilitating judgment at worst. If we are to truly embrace the importance of praise that is specific

and process-based, we must reconsider the traditional use of grades. Traditional grades are a

letter or number slapped on students’ products; this letter or number affects a student’s GPA,

another number which causes much anxiety. Alfie Kohn, a former teacher and now well

respected author and lecturer on the subject of school reform, has frequently expressed the

dangers of using grades.

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“While it’s not impossible for a student to be concerned about getting high marks and also to like what he or she is doing, the practical reality is that these two ways of thinking generally pull in opposite directions.  …  Thus, anyone who wants to see students get hooked on words and numbers and ideas already has reason to look for other ways of assessing and describing their achievement.” (Kohn, De-Grading)

One must recognize that getting rid of letter grades is not the same as getting rid of

assessment. Teachers and administrators must still collect information about their students and

the academic progress of each child. However, the challenge is to collect better, more

informative data. A letter in the corner of a paper does not tell a child how to maintain or

improve their skills. When a student is focused on final letter grades it can stunt his enjoyment of

the material. When a teacher is focused on giving grades, it can stunt the curriculum. According

to Kohn, “Grades distort the curriculum. A school’s use of letter or number grades may

encourage what I like to call a “bunch o’ facts” approach to instruction because that sort of

learning is easier to score.  The tail of assessment thus comes to wag the educational dog.”

(Kohn, De-Grading). For many, school is a place to have facts shoveled into the brain for later

regurgitation on an exam. For many, that is an okay thing for school to be. For those of us in the

educational field, it should pain us to hear that people think of school in such a way. We want it

to be a place genuine learning and the honing of critical thinking skills. A grading system,

generic praise in red-ink form, will not help a classroom or a school become such a place.

Another upsetting result of an emphasis on grades rather than growth is that students start

cheating. An emphasis on grades is nothing new, so cheating is nothing new. It may feel hasty to

blame the cause of cheating on the school environment, but research has shown it is the

environment, not student character, which makes cheating more or less likely. As a group of

researchers from Rutgers summarized, “When students perceive that the ultimate goal of

learning is to get good grades, they are more likely to see cheating as an acceptable, justifiable

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behavior” (qtd. Kohn, Cheating). What then are we projecting to our students when we praise the

final product unquestioningly rather than requiring them to explain their thinking and reflect

upon their experience? While we can make cheating more difficult with homework questions

that require higher order thinking and assessments that are followed by informal interviews, it

would be better to create an atmosphere where students realized the only thing cheating does is

deny them the opportunity to truly learn something. We as teachers must create an atmosphere

where errors are tolerated, and where growth at your own pace is more important than being the

high-scorer. While many educators believe they have created such an atmosphere in their

classrooms, they can destroy it with the phrase “This will be part of your final grade.” Worse

than praise that is temporary, is the judgment that sticks with you seemingly forever. There are

those tests and homework assignments students did not have time to study for. Yet, the grade

received is unchangeable. In her book, Dweck states, “The idea that one evaluation can measure

you forever is what creates the urgency for those with the fixed mindset. That is why they must

succeed perfectly and immediately. Who can afford the luxury of trying to grow when

everything is on the line right now?” (39). Students cheat because the teacher has not provided

them with an atmosphere where errors and a slow understanding are truly acceptable.

To summarize these reform solutions:

As teachers, we must stop ourselves from using generic praise. We must take the extra

time and effort required to let students know exactly what they are doing well and what still

needs improvement. We need to instill in our students a mindset that mistakes are part of the

learning process, and that the true sign of intelligence is the willingness to put forth effort in

order to grow. We need to become guides, not judges, in the education of each student. We need

to allow our students opportunities to self-evaluate. We need to let students know that others’

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success is not their failure; that we can help each other achieve goals, rather than compete for a

top prize. We need to embrace using the beneficial types of praise not only verbally, but also on

tests. Letter or number grades should never be sans helpful commentary or recognition of effort.

What could positively result from the implementations of the reform solution?

The major result of changing the way teachers praise in the classroom and what schools

deem as success and achievement is students will gain a new outlook about learning. School will

become a place to grow, not a place to be humiliated; teachers, administrators and peers become

resources, guides, and supports. Because the praise becomes focused and specific for each

individual, the education becomes tailored and the learning can become more authentic and more

in depth. Because we praise growth and progress, rather than being “best in the class,” we

enforce an attitude of constant exploration and improvement. Students graduate as life-long

learners with critical thinking skills, the ability to self-assess, the understanding that seeking help

is not a bad thing, and a thrill for challenge. These are people who are ready to handle the ever-

changing face of science and industry. These people are well-rounded individuals who will be

assets in whatever field of work they care to join.

On a more pragmatic note, we see that changing the way we praise will change the way

students behave in our classrooms. By granting students specific praise, and by also withholding

praise when it is unearned, we create an environment where effort and persistence, not speed and

perfection, are the admirable traits.

Persistence is more than a conscious act of will; it is also an unconscious response governed by brain circuitry. When there is a lack of immediate reward, this circuit intervenes, reminding the brain that there is dopa in the near future. It turns out that “praise junkie” is a real thing. This circuit can become less active as a person becomes

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accustomed to frequent and immediate rewards. Conversely, the trait of persistence can be developed with efforts of those in the position to praise. (NurtureShock, 24)

We create students for whom the learning, the expansion of their knowledge and skills is the true

reward. And they will realize that they do not need a classroom and a teacher to attain those

rewards. It is this realization that transforms students into life-long learners.

We will also see a reduction in cheating. Since there are no grades to struggle to get by

any means necessary, the temptation to cheat is diminished. Since there is always the luxury of a

second chance and more time to grow, there is no reason to hide one’s shortcomings.

Not only is there a reduction in cheating, but also an improvement in overall grades. In

life, adolescence can feel like one huge test. A test of what kind of person you are, and school

can become the place you feel judged the most often. “It is no wonder that many adolescents

mobilize their resources, not for learning, but to protect their egos. One of the main ways they do

this [aside from blaming their teachers] is by not trying. …their main goal in school – aside from

looking smart – is to exert as little effort as possible” (Dweck, 58). However, through the right

kind of praise we can turn our students to the growth mindset. They will see that it makes no

sense to stop trying, because adolescence is one huge opportunity! Students who realize they can

grow, that there will be a second chance, will take advantage of it. In her studies of junior high,

high school and college students, Dweck noted that students who had learned the growth mindset

would bounce back from a failure and improve their overall grade, whereas students with the

fixed mindset would be often unable to make a comeback. (Dweck, 61) So, the right kind of

praise guides kids to a mindset of effort, finding good strategies, and seeking help when needed;

those are the very skills which will lead to higher grades administrators are so fond of seeing.

Conclusion

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It seems like common knowledge that praise makes people feel good about themselves. It feels

natural to assume that people will work hard to earn praise. However, over the past three

decades, the research has been piling up. Praise comes in many forms and not all of them

produce intrinsically motivated students. Praise that focuses on specific actions and strategies the

student has used does more to help the student hone them and prepare for an uncertain future.

Praise that recognizes effort and improvement over a final product steers students towards a

growth mindset. Praise that demonstrates appreciation or admiration, rather than a judgment,

makes students more comfortable with risking failure. As educators, we must take notice of this

research and apply it to our ways of instruction. Of course we will want students to enjoy our

class, but we know now that being the “nice” teacher is not useful, and even resented by older

students. Students want to grow, to become smart; they do not want to feel judged. There are

forms of praise that will show students how they may grow and will turn the teacher into a

resource rather than a threat. Teachers and schools fully dedicated to using praise effectively

must acknowledge that grades are a form of the generic, product-focused praise that is so

detrimental to authentic learning. So, they must use other ways to let each student know about

his or her own progress. This is not simple, but it is necessary if we want our students to become

life-long learners. As Ginott wrote, “Many teaching problems will be solved in the next few

decades. There will be new learning environments and new means of instruction. One function,

however, will always remain with the teacher: to create the emotional climate for learning” (16).

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dweck, Carol S. Mindset, the new psychology of success. 2006 Ballentine Books: New York

Brophy, Jere. Teacher Praise: A Functional Analysis. Review of Educational Research, Spring 1981, pp 5 – 32.

Ginott, Haim. Teacher and Child. 1972, The MacMillan Company, New York

Bronson, Po and Ashley Meriman. NurtureShock.2009, Twelve: New York

Kohn, Alfie. "From Degrading to De-Grading." Highschool Magazine March (1999)

Kohn, Alfie. “Who’s Cheating Whom?” Phi Delta Kappan. October (2007)