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WORKBOOK ANSWERSOCR A-level Geography 3Geographical debates

This Answers document provides suggestions for some of the possible answers that might be given for the questions asked in the Workbook. They are not exhaustive and other answers may be acceptable, but they are intended as a guide to give teachers and students feedback.

Exam-style question answersAnswers for short-answer questions focused on the limitations of resources should be precise and are point marked, earning 3 marks.

The answers given for questions of an explanatory or evaluative kind simply set out what is called ‘indicative content’. Just showing the examiner you are familiar with some or most of the content will not suffice. You need to demonstrate that you understand it and are able to apply it in a way that directly addresses the question. The indicative content shown for each question is not exhaustive. Questions may be approached in a number of different ways — the choice of approach is yours. Just be sure you answer the question in a focused and detailed way.

Assessing whether or not the question has been answered is where ‘levels marking’ comes in. For questions with a maximum 6 marks, three levels of attainment are recognised: basic, reasonable and thorough. For the 12- and 33-mark questions, four attainment levels are recognised. The table below gives an idea of the descriptors for the two types of extended prose responses that are used to determine the quality of an answer and the mark to be awarded.

Level DescriptorMark (depending on maximum)

1

Demonstrates basic geographical knowledge and understanding — place-specific detail is inaccurate or absent.

Application to the question is basic with simple analysis and unsupported evaluation offering simple conclusions.

1–2

1–3

1–8

OCR Geography Workbook 3 1

© Peter Stiff, Helen Harris and Andy Palmer 2019Hodder Education

2

Demonstrates reasonable geographical knowledge and understanding — place-specific detail is partially accurate.

Application to the question is reasonable with sound analysis/evaluation offering generalised judgements and conclusions with limited use of evidence such as synoptic links between content from different parts of the course.

4–6

10–16

3

Demonstrates thorough geographical knowledge and understanding — place-specific detail is accurate.

Application to the question is thorough with clear and developed analysis/evaluation offering generally secure judgements with clear attempts to use evidence such as synoptic links.

7–9

18–24

4

Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding — place-specific detail is accurate.

Application to the question is comprehensive with clear, developed and convincing analysis/evaluation offering secure judgements leading to rational conclusions based on explicit evidence such as clear synoptic links.

10–12

26–33



Climate change

Climate changeHow and why has climate changed in the geological past?

The Earth’s climate is dynamic1 100 million years ago average global temperatures were 6–8°C higher than they are today.

55 million years ago average temperatures were around 23°C. 35 million years ago there was a rapid cooling and this trend has continued until the present-day average of about 15°C.

2 A fall in CO2 levels from 1,000–1,200 ppm to 600–700 ppm reduced the greenhouse effect. The Antarctic tectonic plate moved polewards to higher/colder latitudes. The development of the South Sandwich Islands isolated Antarctica from the warmer waters of lower latitude oceans such as the Indian Ocean.

3 Explosive eruptions eject sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. This is converted to sulphuric acid, which forms sulphate aerosols. These reflect solar radiation, lowering temperatures. After the eruption of Pinatubo in 1991, global temperatures fell by 1.3°C over 3 years.

4 Obliquity (tilt of the axis), eccentricity (of the orbit) and precession (of the equinoxes).

5 When the cycles coincide, as they did about 1,000,000 years ago.

6 The difference between maximum and minimum sunspot activity is only 0.1%, which is not enough to change global climate significantly.

7 In the long term, plate tectonic movements can create fold mountains, which cause increased orographic rainfall, erosion and chemical weathering by rainwater charged with CO2. This removes large quantities of CO2 from the atmosphere and transfers them to carbonate stores in ocean sediments. The increase in nutrients in the ocean causes phytoplankton to bloom, and they also extract CO2 from the atmosphere. When these organisms die, the CO2 is trapped in deep ocean sediments.

In the short term, volcanic eruptions emit CO2, along with other gases. This can increase the concentration in the atmosphere, but it does not last long as much of it falls out in precipitation and returns to the surface.



Climate change

How and why has the era of industrialisation affected global climate?

Humans have influenced the climate system, leading to a new epoch, the Anthropocene8 Overall, there is a downward trend in snow cover. There have been many fluctuations over

time. You should quote data as evidence of the changes, e.g. a fall from around 37 m/km2

in 1996 to 34 m/km2 in 2013.

9 Warming temperatures have two influences on sea level. First, higher temperatures cause melting of land-based snow and ice. Between 1961 and 2005, small glaciers worldwide decreased in thickness by 12 m on average, adding 9,000 km3 to the ocean store. Second, in higher temperatures water molecules in the ocean expand, increasing the volume of water and thereby raising sea levels. An increase of 1°C in temperatures causes sea level to rise by about 2 m. Sea level is currently rising by about 2 mm per year as a result.

10 Population increase, industrialisation and land-use changes, especially deforestation.

11 The greater concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere means that more outgoing, long-wave terrestrial radiation is absorbed. This traps heat and returns it to the Earth’s surface as back radiation, leading to warmer temperatures. In addition, higher global temperatures result in more evaporation and so a greater concentration of water vapour in the atmosphere. This is also an important greenhouse gas, which amplifies the effect further (positive feedback). A further positive feedback occurs as higher temperatures cause melting of snow and ice cover, lowering the surface albedo, which allows the Earth’s surface to absorb more solar radiation rather than it being reflected.

12 China has a much higher population and so, per capita, the USA produces more emissions (USA 16.5 tonnes/capita, China 7.4 tonnes/capita).

13 The answer will depend on the case study chosen. For an advanced country (AC), such as the UK, the answer is likely to describe recent reductions in emissions, by about 40% in CO2 in the UK. A fall of 9% occurred in 2014 alone. The main reasons for this are the move towards renewable energy sources, such as wind, away from fossil fuels. Nuclear energy also continues to play a significant part in the UK energy mix. The warming of the global climate itself also leads to a lower demand for heating, which was the case in the mild winter of 2014 (negative feedback). Great improvements have been made in energy efficiency, especially in homes and vehicle use.

For emerging and developing countries (EDCs), such as China, the answer is likely to refer to increasing emissions. China’s emissions increased 2.5 times between 2000 and 2014. In 2006 it became the largest emitter of greenhouse gases in the world. This was due to increasing demand for energy for domestic and industrial uses, leading to the burning of readily available coal in great quantities. This came from a rapidly growing population, industrialisation and increased car ownership. However, the rate of increase is slowing and China now has both the largest solar farm and the largest wind farm in the world as it strives to shift towards renewables.



Climate change

Why is there a debate over climate change?

Debates of climate change are shaped by a variety of agendas14 Fourier discovered the greenhouse effect in 1824. In 1862 Tyndall made a link between

glacial periods and low CO2 concentrations. In 1896 Arrhenius observed the absorption of terrestrial radiation by CO2.

15 The Keeling Curve shows the increase in atmospheric CO2 concentrations since 1958. The data are from measurements made at the Mauna Loa observatory on Hawaii.

16 Whether global warming was occurring or whether temperatures were actually falling, suggesting a move towards the next glacial period.

17 That 97% of climate change scientists accept that global warming is occurring.

18 A threshold is a tipping point, beyond which change will become so rapid and significant that it cannot be stopped. Many believe that is will happen if temperatures increase by 2°C compared with pre-industrial levels.

19 In 1992, 41 countries joined a United Nations (UN) international treaty called the Framework Convention on Climate Change to consider what could be done to limit global warming. The UN Kyoto Protocol of 1992 set legally binding targets on countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. UN conferences take place every year for members to discuss climate change and how it can be tackled. The UN also provide significant funding for research and strategies employed to mitigate and/or adapt. The UN uses the scientific expertise of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to inform its discussions and agreements.

20 When media sources give disproportionate coverage to minority groups and viewpoints, suggesting that a debate is more balanced than it actually is.

21 Print (and now online) newspapers often have a left- or right-leaning tendency, frequently linked to their ownership and editorial control. In the UK, for example, The Times is seen as right-leaning and likely takes a more critical view on the reality of climate change, whereas The Guardian is more left-leaning and is likely to take a more environmentally focused view. Politicians such as President Trump use the media, including social media, to promote their own viewpoint, which may be biased either way. Environmental campaign groups use their own websites and social media to promote their views.

In what ways can humans respond to climate change?

An effective human response relies on knowing what the future will hold22 a 1,920 + 720 + 140 = 2,780 gigatonnes



Climate change

b Because of carbon’s presence in atmospheric gases such as CO2 and CH4 and the important role they play in the greenhouse effect. Even a small increase in the amount of carbon stored can cause significant enhancement of the effect.

23 There are many possible examples, such as increased evaporation, reduced albedo, declining forest cover, increased cloud cover, release of methane hydrates, increased ocean acidity. A good example is the thawing of permafrost in a warmer climate, which releases significant amounts of stored CO2 and CH4, further enhancing the greenhouse effect thereby increasing average temperatures.

24 The IPCC uses RCP +2.6, +4.5, +6.0 and +8.5. The figures refer to the global energy balance in watts/m2 by the year 2100. Each relates to a different scenario, as future climate change is difficult to predict because no one knows how effective the agreements to reduce emissions will be, and no one fully understands the climate system and the many complex feedback mechanisms within it.

The impacts of climate change are global and dynamic25 Higher temperatures, by as little as 1–2°C, can cause bleaching and death of coral reefs

— 50% of Indonesia’s coral has been bleached in the last 30–40 years. Melting of sea ice causes a reduction in the availability of ice algae, which form the base of the marine food chain. It also causes a loss of diving platforms for animals such as walrus, which also use floating ice for transport. Seals use the ice for resting, giving birth and moulting.

26 a Malaria is spreading into higher latitudes, such as the southern USA. It is also spreading on to continental land masses where it has not previously been seen, such as Australia. It is spreading into some low-latitude areas where it was not previously present, such as in the Gulf states, USA.

b Malaria is spread by Anophelese mosquitoes, which live in warm, moist areas within the tropics. With climate change, some other moist areas may also become warmer, providing a suitable breeding ground for them. In other places, locations with higher temperatures may become wetter, also creating the right environment for them to spread.

27 First, where people live — whether it is a rural or urban area, coastal or inland, an area at risk of climate-change-related hazards, such as tropical storms. Second, people’s ability to cope — how well developed their place of residence is (AC, EDC, low-income developing countries (LIDC)) and whether they and their government have the money, technology and will to mitigate or adapt.

28 Fragile ecosystems, such as tundra and deserts, are most vulnerable to climate change.

29 Prolonged drought leads to soil degradation, especially in areas of marginal soil quality. Soil fertility is reduced and more rapid erosion of degraded soils may lead to thinner soil layers. The lack of both water and nutrients will result in lower net primary productivity (NPP). However, there is a possibility of enhanced NPP with increased levels of CO2, increased length of growing season and increased rainfall in some places.

Mitigation and adaptation are complementary strategies for reducing and managing the risks of climate change30 Building regulations can ensure that new homes are better insulated to reduce energy

loss, and have appropriate ratios of window/door space to floor area. Governments can make grants available for homeowners to increase the thickness of existing insulation, or



Climate change

to replace single-glazed windows with double glazing. Many new homes are constructed to include at least partial production of their own energy requirements, such as using solar panels or ground-source heat pumps. Strategies may also be applied to improve public transport, park and ride schemes, tram systems and so on, to encourage reductions in private car use.

31 The UK is a good example. Under the EU Renewable Energy Directive, the UK is increasing its energy production from renewables to 15% by 2020. It has encouraged the installation of wind farms by giving subsidies, especially offshore arrays in the North Sea. Several coal-fired power stations have been closed, such as Ferrybridge in 2015, while others, such as Drax, have been converted to use biofuels.

32 Forestry strategies: afforestation and reforestation are relatively cheap and effective strategies. With an increase in forest cover, more CO2 is absorbed from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. This has been encouraged through the UN REDD and REDD+ schemes. China has seen a massive increase in its forested area in recent years, with over 500,000 additional hectares now forested.

Carbon capture and storage: CCS is a relatively new strategy that uses technology to extract CO2 from the chimneys of power stations and factories. It is then pumped deep into the ground where it is stored in air spaces in rocks, particularly in areas where oil has previously been extracted. It then becomes part of the lithosphere store in the slow carbon cycle and this prevents its release into the atmosphere.

33 Geoengineering is the use of technology on a large scale to modify the environment or the climate system.

34 Possible examples include cloud seeding, reflective plates in space, artificial trees, ocean fertilisation and enhanced weathering. Artificial trees are made of a plastic resin that is able to capture CO2, which is then compressed and stored. A single sheet of resin the size of a door could extract up to 700 kg/day. If used on a large scale, this would reduce the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, decreasing the enhanced greenhouse effect.

35 a The answer will depend on the countries chosen, but could include:

Opportunities: warmer weather providing people with more leisure time outdoors and a healthier lifestyle, less fuel needed to keep warm so cleaner air, increase in the tourism industry in coastal areas in warmer summers, potential for high crop yields in longer growing seasons, potential for new crops to be grown, such as vines, benefiting the wine industry.

Threats: decline of the ski industry as temperatures warm in alpine climates, reduced water supply from seasonal melting of glaciers that have retreated significantly, spread of new diseases into areas not previously at risk, breathing difficulties for people with asthma during heatwaves.

b Adaptation strategies: various retreat strategies, such as moving away from low-lying coastal areas at risk of sea-level rise, more efficient irrigation systems in agriculture to save water, recycling of water and use of grey water, desalinisation of sea water, improved education and public awareness, new building codes, hard-engineering protection from rising sea levels and storms, new vaccines against spreading diseases, changing agricultural practices, such as floating gardens and aquaculture in areas of rising sea level. Government decisions to invest in public transport, such as urban metro and bus systems, rail networks, e.g. opening stations, landfill tax.



Climate change

Can an international response to climate change ever work?

Effective implementation depends on policies and cooperation at all scales36 a The answer will depend on the example chosen. For example, Kyoto 1997: legally

binding agreement to limit carbon emissions, average reduction of 5% set as the target by 2012, individual countries agreed their own targets, UK had a target of 8%, it covered the four main greenhouse gases.

b Kyoto: only 84 countries signed up, the USA refused to ratify the agreement as China and India were able to opt out, Russia did not ratify until 2007 and Canada later withdrew. The reduction target excluded aviation and shipping. Countries were able to set their own targets. Some countries were able to increase emissions, e.g. Iceland by 10%. Many EDCs did not sign up and it is those countries that were industrialising rapidly and increasing their emissions at that time.

37 The world’s largest carbon trading scheme is the EU’s Emissions Trading System. It is a cap and trade system, which is essentially a market-based approach to reducing carbon emissions. Individual polluters, such as factories or power plants, are set a cap on how much CO2 they can emit. If that figure is exceeded, they have the option of purchasing credits from another polluter whose emissions are below their cap. One credit allows the polluter to emit 1 tonne of CO2. Those who have exceeded their cap and not purchased enough further allowances are fined €100 for each tonne in excess.

38 The answer will depend on the example chosen. The state of California, USA, is a good example as it is a world leader in using radical strategies in both mitigation and adaptation. In mitigation, state-wide greenhouse gas emissions limits were set by law in 2006. They aim to reduce emissions by 80% compared with 1990 levels by 2050. The strategies include a cap and trade (see the answer to question 39) covering 85% of polluters, retirement of fossil fuel power stations, a target of 15% of cars powered by renewable sources by 2020 and providing subsidies for the construction of renewable energy plants. In adaptation, they have improved the sustainability of the water supply, limiting new development in flood-prone areas, protection of aquatic habitats and ecosystems, and providing protection for areas of social, economic or cultural value from flooding, wildfires and erosion.

Exam-style questions39 a There is no indication of the timescale involved. There is no information about why

these particular countries have been selected. It doesn’t take into account the population of the country, i.e. not per capita. Source of data is not indicated so may not be reliable.

Point marked 3 × 1

b Several methods can be used to discover the Earth’s past climates. Ice cores contain bubbles of air and the gas can be analysed to indicate the composition of the atmosphere when the ice was formed. Sea-floor sediments contain the fossil shells of foraminifera, which when their shells are analysed indicate what the temperatures were when the creatures lived. Tree rings (dendrochronology) indicate the rate of growth, with wider rings



Climate change

suggesting higher temperatures and more moisture. Lake sediments contain pollen grains and the combination of different plant species at different depths in the sediments indicates the nature of the climate when the plants were alive. Some organisms are very sensitive to environmental conditions, such as some dinosaur species, so their fossils indicate the nature of the climate when they were alive.

Level 3 (5–6 marks)

Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of methods used to reconstruct past climates.

This will be shown by including well-developed ideas about the methods and how they indicate past climates.


Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of methods used to reconstruct past climates.

This will be shown by including developed ideas about the methods and how they indicate past climates.


Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of methods used to reconstruct past climates.

There may be simple ideas about the combination of methods and how they indicate past climates.

40 The current rise in global temperatures is having significant impacts on the tundra water cycle:

Absolute humidity is increasing as evaporation rates increase, while warmer air can hold more water, increasing the size of the atmosphere store.

More extensive vegetation cover is able to grow and so transpiration rates increase, also increasing the atmosphere store.

Snow and ice are melting, leading to greater runoff into the ocean store.

Thawing of permafrost is releasing water stored in the ground, increasing runoff.

Positive feedback occurs, with increased evapotranspiration meaning more water vapour in the atmosphere, which enhances the greenhouse effect, increasing temperatures further.


Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of climate change and the Arctic tundra water cycle. (AO1)

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide clear, developed and convincing analysis that is fully accurate of how climate change can influence the Arctic tundra water cycle. (AO2)



Climate change

This will be shown by including well-developed ideas about climate change and the Arctic tundra water cycle.

There are clear and explicit attempts to make appropriate synoptic links between content from different parts of the course of study.


Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of climate change and the Arctic tundra water cycle. (AO1)

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide clear and developed analysis that shows accuracy of how climate change can influence the Arctic tundra water cycle. (AO2)

This will be shown by including developed ideas about climate change and the Arctic tundra water cycle.

There are clear attempts to make appropriate synoptic links between content from different parts of the course of study but these are not always appropriate.


Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of climate change and the Arctic tundra water cycle. (AO1)

Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide sound analysis that shows some accuracy of how climate change can influence the Arctic tundra water cycle. (AO2)

This will be shown by including sound ideas about climate change and the Arctic tundra water cycle.

There are some attempts to make synoptic links between content from different parts of the course of study but these are not always relevant.


Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of climate change and the Arctic tundra water cycle. (AO1)

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide simple analysis that shows limited accuracy of how climate change influences the Arctic tundra water cycle. (AO2)

This will be shown by including simple ideas about climate change and the Arctic tundra water cycle.

There are limited attempts to make appropriate synoptic links between content from different parts of the course of study.

41 The role of the media can be biased, but not always.

Print (and now online) newspapers often have left-leaning (e.g. The Guardian) or right-leaning (e.g. the Daily Mail) tendencies, however, others (e.g. The Independent) claim to be more balanced in their view.



Climate change

The media can be guilty of creating false balance, giving disproportionate coverage of minority views (including the BBC).

Environmental pressure groups often have their own websites promoting their viewpoint (e.g. Friends of the Earth).

Politicians and others can use social media to promote strongly biased views (e.g. President Trump, celebrities, business leaders).

Various forms of media can be guilty of ‘fake news’ to further a cause/campaign.

The scientific media generally reports on research findings in an unbiased way (e.g. IPCC/UN), however, this can be used by other media to set a biased agenda.

AO1


Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the role of the media in the climate change debate.


Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of the role of the media in the climate change debate.


Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of the role of the media in the climate change debate.


Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of the role of the media in the climate change debate.

0 marks

No response or no response worthy of credit.

AO2


Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide a clear, developed and convincing analysis that is fully accurate of the potential bias in the media.

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide a detailed and substantiated evaluation that offers secure judgements leading to rational conclusions that are evidence-based as to the potential bias in the media. Relevant concepts are authoritatively discussed.




Climate change

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide a clear, developed and convincing analysis that shows accuracy of the potential bias in the media.

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide a detailed evaluation that offers generally secure judgements, with some link between rational conclusions as to the extent to which there is bias in the media.

Relevant concepts are discussed but this may lack some authority.


Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide a sound analysis that shows some accuracy of the potential bias in the media.

Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide a sound evaluation that offers generalised judgements and conclusions, with limited use of evidence as to the extent to which there is bias in the media.

Concepts are discussed but their use lacks precision.


Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide a simple analysis that shows limited accuracy of the potential bias in the media.

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide an unsupported evaluation that offers simple conclusions as to the extent to which there is bias in the media.

Concepts are not discussed or are discussed inaccurately.

0 marks


Quality of extended response

Level 4

There is a well-developed line of reasoning which is clear and logically structured. The information presented is relevant and substantiated.

Level 3

There is a line of reasoning presented with some structure. The information presented is for the most part relevant and supported by some evidence.

Level 2

The information has some relevance and is presented with limited structure. The information is supported by limited evidence.

Level 1

The information is basic and communicated in an unstructured way. The information is supported by limited evidence and the relationship to the evidence may not be clear.



Disease dilemmas

Disease dilemmasWhat are the global patterns of disease and can factors be identified to determine these?

Diseases can be classified and their patterns mapped. The spread of diseases is complex and influenced by a number of factors1 a Infectious: caused by pathogenic organisms, e.g. bacteria or virus, spread directly or

indirectly from one person to another. Examples include flu, malaria, measles. Non-infectious: not caused by a pathogen but related to diet, lifestyle, the environment or is inherited. Non-infectious diseases cannot spread from one person to another. Examples include diabetes and cancer.

b Communicable: spreads from host to host, from person to person or from animal to person. Examples include Ebola, tuberculosis (TB). Non-communicable: a non-infectious non-contagious disease caused by, for example, poor diet, air pollution, smoking. Examples include heart disease, skin cancer.

c Contagious: infectious disease that spreads by bacteria or physical contact or indirect contact between people. Examples include colds, HIV. Non-contagious: caused by genetics, for example, rather than organisms. Examples include cystic fibrosis and cardiovascular (CV) disease.

2

Vector

A disease that exists predominantly in a geographic area or human group

Epidemic

An epidemic that has spread worldwide

3 a Expansion, relocation, contagious, hierarchical.

b The four stages of the model are primary stage, diffusion stage, condensing stage and saturation stage. You should give a brief outline of each for full marks.

c Physical barriers: distance — the greater the distance the lower the diffusion, Mountain ranges, seas, oceans, deserts, climatic factors, e.g. malaria. Socioeconomic barriers: human protection, restricting movement in society — curfew, border checks, cancelling large public events, mass vaccinations, awareness programmes, involvement of global organisations.

4 a The answer will depend on the chosen example but you should give place-specific knowledge illustrating a range of the points in b.



Disease dilemmas

b For example, success could be limited by low levels of education or literacy, remote populations, lack of government support and/or funding, cultural factors obstructing the take-up of preventative measures.

There is a relationship between physical factors and the prevalence of disease, which can change over time5

Relief: as altitude increases temperatures fall, this will change climate and disease habitats, e.g. malaria concentrated in lowlands, as it is warmer. With steeper slopes in areas of higher relief there will be less lying/stagnant water, which is a source of several water-borne diseases.

Temperature: this is an important climatic condition for vector-borne diseases and epidemics. Many diseases thrive in warmer conditions, e.g. yellow fever, sleeping sickness. Many such diseases become endemic to warmer areas, e.g. tropics. Diseases influenced by temperature show seasonal patterns, temperature affects vector development and behaviour as well as viral replication.

Water sources: aquatic habitats such as stagnant pools of water allow insects and disease vectors to flourish. Many diseases are water-borne. Water wells can also become contaminated with sewage, leading to bacteria and cholera. Unprotected stagnant drinking water is associated with many diseases, e.g. Guinea worm in Africa.

6 The answer will depend on the named vector, but physical factors affect the lifecycle of the vector, including climatic conditions, e.g. temperature and moisture/humidity. Short-term weather changes and exceptional weather events can lead to unseasonal outbreaks or outbreaks in uncommon locations. You should make three separate points to achieve full marks.

7 Outbreaks and diffusion of emerging infectious diseases are linked to changes in climatic conditions particularly where rising temperatures extend the geographical areas in which vector-borne diseases prevail, e.g. Lyme disease spreading northward, malaria extending away from the tropics, sleeping sickness spreading into southern Africa. Short-term climatic hazards impact on the spread of emerging diseases, e.g. flooding leading to outbreaks of dengue fever. Temperature determines rates of vector development and rainfall creates aquatic habitats for vectors to flourish.

Natural hazards can influence the outbreak and spread of disease8 The answer will depend on the chosen case study. You can draw a sketch map of the

geographical area to answer this question.

9 The answer will depend on your case study but you should cover both the environmental and human factors affecting the spread of the disease for full marks. Points may include relief, climatic conditions, proximity to water supplies that harbour diseases, high population densities, poverty, lack of funding.

10 The answer will depend on the case study. You should give a brief description of the strategy and show both where the strategy had positive impacts (e.g. food aid and emergency relief providing short-term respite and control of disease outbreaks) and also



Disease dilemmas

where the strategy had limited success (e.g. lack of longer term planning, funds running out, support not getting to the people that most need it).

Is there a link between disease and levels of economic development?

As countries develop economically the frequency of communicable diseases decreases, while the prevalence of non-communicable diseases rises11 a The green line represents communicable diseases and the purple line lifestyle-

related, chronic, non-communicable diseases.

b Low-income developing countries (LIDCs) to the far left of the graph where communicable diseases have a high mortality, emerging and developing countries (EDCs) in the centre of the graph where the two lines cross and advanced countries (ACs) to the right of the graph where mortality rates from lifestyle-related disease are high.

c

Stage Life expectancy (years)

Change in socioeconomic conditions

Causes of morbidity and mortality

Age of pestilence and famine

20–40 Poor sanitation and hygiene, unreliable water supply

Infectious diseases, nutritional deficiency. Population growth is slow and intermittent

Age of receding pandemics

30–50 Improved sanitation, better diet

Reduced number of infections, increases in occurrence of strokes and heart disease



Disease dilemmas

Post-industrial society. Degenerative /man-made diseases

50–60 Increased ageing, lifestyles associated with poor diet, less activity and fewer addictions

High blood pressure, obesity, diabetes, smoking-related cancers, stroke and heart disease

Age of delayed degenerative diseases

c. 70+ Reduced risk behaviours in the population, new treatments, health promotion

Heart disease, strokes and cancers are the main causes of mortality, but treatment extends life. Dementia and ageing diseases start to appear

12 Reasons for prevalence of a communicable disease may include a range of economic, social, environmental and political/governmental factors, e.g. poverty, inadequate healthcare services, lack of sufficient resources to tackle causes, food insecurity, poor living conditions.

13 Reasons for prevalence of a non-communicable disease may include degenerative illness, ageing process, overnutrition, poor diet choices, lifestyle changes, e.g. lack of exercise.

How effectively are communicable and non-communicable diseases dealt with?

Communicable diseases have causes and impacts with mitigation and response strategies which have varying levels of success14 The answer will depend on the chosen case study and you should give accurate place-

specific detail for full marks.

a i, ii You must cover both environmental and human causes for full marks. Points could include climatic factors, relief (high incidence of malaria in lowlands), population movement, urbanisation, remote communities, lack of access to health services, lack of uptake of mitigation and treatment drugs, poverty.

b Impacts could include mortality, low levels of productivity resulting in food insecurity, high financial cost to health services.



Disease dilemmas

c Responses by governments and international agencies could include education, awareness, specially trained personnel dispatched from a global organisation, long-term governmental planning, short-term aid, e.g. vaccinations, treatment, prevention — insecticide beds and nets, partnership initiatives between organisations, governments and non-governmental organisations (NGOs).

Non-communicable diseases have causes and impacts with mitigation and response strategies which have varying levels of success15 a Causes may be social (e.g. obesity, poor diet, lack of exercise, sunbathing habits),

economic (e.g. relating to poverty, poor diet or increasing wealth), cultural (e.g. high levels of drinking and smoking, more cars, less exercise), environmental (e.g. exposure to environmental hazards such as radiation, toxic chemicals, asbestos).

b The command word ‘assess’ requires an element of evaluation — to what extent are strategies successful and to what extent are they not working/more needs to be done? The question also focuses on mitigation, so you should think about the governmental and international level, and give accurate place-specific detail. Strategies include government targets, direct strategies based on investment and technology, screening, raising symptomatic awareness, research and development of causes and treatment, indirect approaches such as promotion of lifestyle change, awareness of prevention, education.

How far can diseases be predicted and mitigated against?

Increasing global mobility impacts the diffusion of disease and the ability to respond to it at various scales16 Globalisation has led to increased interconnection between places, allowing people to

travel more and for greater distances for both work and leisure. This increases the risk of infectious diseases, e.g. malaria, diffusing across long distances to areas with which they would not normally be associated. The speed of transport allows people who are not showing any signs of illness to travel, so spreading a disease further.

17 The answer will depend on the case study chosen.

a Factors leading to the initial outbreak and the pattern of diffusion should be outlined.

b Factors may include displacement of population, overcrowding, lack of sanitation and basic needs such as clean water, lack of understanding on prevention, lack of medicines to treat and prevent the disease.

18 The answer will depend on the case study, but ‘examine’ means to provide some analytical comments — give detail, break down information into parts, provide inferences. You should outline the work undertaken by the NGO, with specific detail of its response, and then give an analysis of the success or otherwise of its contribution.



Disease dilemmas

Mitigation strategies to combat global pandemics and overcome physical barriers19 Advantages relate to containment of a disease: isolating communities from disease

outbreaks so that there is a reduced chance of infection, containing a disease outbreak from within, restricting movement so that diffusion is less rapid and restricting disease vector habits. Disadvantages include delay in the arrival of aid and emergency assistance, settlements can be completely cut off by physical barriers meaning that epidemics can quickly take hold. You should give examples to illustrate your points, e.g. Chesapeake Bay acting as a physical water barrier to the spread of measles in 1917–38.

20 Reasons may include displacement of population forcing people into crowded emergency shelters with a lack of sanitation and clean water, flood events lead to large areas of standing water, which can harbour disease, communities become cut off so if there is a disease outbreak it spreads quickly as emergency medical supplies cannot get through, people have a lowered resistance because of poor living conditions in the aftermath of a hazard event. In LIDCs the resources for responding to a natural disaster may be limited, meaning that disease is not contained quickly and effectively.

21 Government action may include providing information on prevention, education, coordination of media, health services, local community groups so that the disease outbreak is being tackled at a number of levels, data gathering for impact prediction and planning of resources, sharing information with other governments to pool resources and learn from each other. Specifics will depend on the chosen example and whether it is an AC, EDC or LIDC.

Can disease ever be fully eradicated?

Nature has provided medicines to treat disease for thousands of years22 The answer will depend on the chosen example.

a, b Point marked, with additional marks for specific factual detail.

c Issues threatening sustainability include over-harvesting, loss of habitat, falling biodiversity and damage to natural ecosystems, depending on the example.

Top-down and bottom-up strategies that deal with disease risk and eradication23 The answer will depend on the case study. The command word ‘examine’ requires a clear

analytical assessment of factual detail, so you should give accurate facts relating to your chosen example. Global impact may relate to location of headquarters, research and development (R&D) and manufacturing facilities, production of treatments and vaccinations, if applicable, distribution of the product, including the ethical issue of provision of high-cost drugs to LIDCs which have low purchasing power, company policy and impact on the treatment and/or prevention of related illness/disease.

24 a The pattern shows high levels of progress for HIV/AIDS from 2005 onwards with a sharp decline in mortalities, and a steady and continued decline in deaths from TB from a



Disease dilemmas

high point in 1990. Deaths from malaria rose slightly in the period 2000–5 then declined steadily to reach 1990 levels. Deaths from rabies have remained very low and largely unchanged.

b Reasons may include resistance to vaccination programmes because of social or political factors, ignorance, lack of informed choices, unwillingness of governments to invest.

25 Difficulties may include lack of funds, lack of human resources, skills deficit, lack of highly trained medical practitioners, unstable government with other objectives, remote communities that are difficult to access with medicines and advice.

26 Many examples exist: top-down strategies include the involvement of international organisations and national governments. Bottom-up strategies are self-motivated among local communities and families — this is considered more effective and more sustainable.

27 Women play a particularly important role as they often have lead responsibility for household health and wellbeing, they are more involved in domestic activities such as preparing food and sourcing clean water, and they have a lead role in child-rearing as well as maintaining their own health during pregnancy and immediately after childbirth.

Exam-style questions28 a The average figure for each country can mask variation within the country, e.g.

urban/rural, reliability and accuracy of data, such as difficulties of collecting data in some areas, data for 2016 — the situation may have changed for better or worse since then, cause of death not always correct.

Point marked 3 × 1

b Air pollution is a known contributor to deaths from non-communicable diseases such as cancer (a disease of affluence) and respiratory illnesses. As economies develop, high levels of car ownership lead to high levels of nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and ozone. Coal-burning power stations and factories are further sources of pollution linked to industrialised, economically developing countries. Particulate pollution from these sources leads to respiratory illness, lung and heart disease, and some cancers.


Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of the links between air pollution deaths and economic development.

This will be shown by including well-developed ideas about the causes of air pollution deaths and how they relate to economic development.


Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of the links between air pollution deaths and economic development.

This will be shown by including developed ideas about the causes of air pollution deaths and how they relate to economic development.




Disease dilemmas

Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of the links between air pollution deaths and economic development.

There may be simple ideas about the causes of air pollution deaths and how they relate to economic development.

29 There are two aspects to this question — spread of disease and responses — and both must be addressed for full marks. You should support your points with some named examples/evidence.

Trade: globalisation has increased the global movement of goods and services, with this comes movement also of people, particularly in the service industries. This, in turn, means that diffusion of disease from the global movement of people can increase. Movement of livestock on an international scale can also facilitate the spread of zoonotic diseases. Trade can impact the responses to disease through the global trade in pharmaceuticals, which aid the prevention, detection and treatment of disease.

Migration: increased levels of personal mobility on an international scale have facilitated the spread of disease by different methods of diffusion, from source areas to locations where they would not necessarily be found, e.g. yellow fever, malaria. Part of the response to disease outbreaks is the deployment and movement of medical staff and workers from a range of organisations. This can also be a source of disease diffusion, e.g. with the Ebola outbreak.


Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of trade/migration and spread of disease and responses to it. (AO1)

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide clear, developed and convincing analysis that is fully accurate of how trade/migration can impact the spread of disease and responses to it. (AO2)

This will be shown by including well-developed ideas about the relationship between trade/migration and the spread of disease and responses to it.



Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of trade/migration and spread of disease and responses to it. (AO1)

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide clear and developed analysis that shows accuracy of how trade/migration can impact the spread of disease and responses to it. (AO2)

This will be shown by including developed ideas about trade/migration and the spread of disease and responses to it.

There are clear attempts to make synoptic links between content from different parts of the course of study, but these are not always appropriate.

Level 2 (4–6 marks)OCR Geography Workbook 3 20


Disease dilemmas

Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of trade/migration and spread of disease and responses to it. (AO1)

Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide sound analysis that shows some accuracy of how trade/migration can impact the spread of disease and responses to it. (AO2)

This will be shown by including sound ideas about trade/migration and the spread of disease and responses to it.

There are some attempts to make synoptic links between content from different parts of the course of study, but these are not always relevant.


Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of trade/migration and spread of disease and responses to it. (AO1)

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide simple analysis that shows limited accuracy of how trade/migration can impact the spread of disease and responses to it. (AO2)

This will be shown by including simple ideas about trade/migration and the spread of disease and responses to it.


30 Context:

International organisations include the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations (UN), and the World Bank.

Government relates to state governments but also cooperation between governments of different countries may be included.

Strategies to predict and mitigate against diseases may include:

o gathering data

o identifying high-risk areas on which to focus

o R&D of preventative drugs and treatment

o monitoring and information gathering

o support between agencies on international efforts, e.g. provision of expertise, resources, financing

o technical support

o raising awareness

o education and training of staff



Disease dilemmas

o deployment of specialist medical units

NGOs may offer an important role in treatment, provision of medical supplies, work with families and small communities, delivering support through provision of basic needs, e.g. clean water, mosquito nets.

Evaluation:

You should back up your opinions with reference to supporting examples of strategies used by both governments and international organisations. You should make judgements about the information — how important are the actions of governments and international organisations in disease eradication and how successful are they? For full marks, consider approaches that are more important/effective than governments or international organisations, e.g. bottom-up, community and family projects that have more success.

Evidenced conclusion:

Action at a range of scales is needed and coordination between agencies is key. Sometimes success is limited by cultural beliefs, therefore state governments have an important role to play through national campaigns. International organisations can provide much-needed expertise and resources but grass-roots support is also important for a real impact. A range of social and cultural limitations may need to be overcome. International organisations have the advantage of being able to coordinate global responses where needed. In your conclusion you may also consider the question of whether disease can ever be fully eradicated.

AO1


Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the role of governments and international organisations in disease eradication.


Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of the role of governments and international organisations in disease eradication.


Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of the role of governments and international organisations in disease eradication.


Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of the role of governments and international organisations in disease eradication.

0 marks


AO2




Disease dilemmas

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide a clear, developed and convincing analysis that is fully accurate of the importance of governments and international organisations in the eradication of disease.

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide a detailed and substantiated evaluation that offers secure judgements leading to rational conclusions that are evidence-based as to the extent to which governments and international organisations alone can bring about disease eradication.

Relevant concepts are authoritatively discussed.


Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide a clear, developed and convincing analysis that shows accuracy of the importance of governments and international organisations in the eradication of disease.

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide a detailed evaluation that offers generally secure judgements, with some link between rational conclusions as to the extent to which governments and international organisations alone can bring about disease eradication.



Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide a sound analysis that shows some accuracy of the importance of governments and international organisations in the eradication of disease.

Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide a sound evaluation that offers generalised judgements and conclusions, with limited use of evidence as to the extent to which governments and international organisations alone can bring about disease eradication.



Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide a simple analysis that shows limited accuracy of the importance of governments and international organisations in the eradication of disease.

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide an unsupported evaluation that offers simple conclusions as to the extent to which governments and international organisations alone can bring about disease eradication.


0 marks





Disease dilemmas

Level 4


Level 3


Level 2


Level 1




Exploring oceans

Exploring oceansWhat are the main characteristics of oceans?

The world’s oceans are a distinctive feature of the Earth1 The gently sloping continental shelf extends, on average, 70 km from the land. The

continental slope then descends at a steeper gradient to the continental rise, which extends out into extensive abyssal plains. These are the deepest part of the ocean and are interrupted by chains of mountains, plateaus and isolated peaks. Mid-oceanic ridges run across the abyssal plains, such as the mid-Atlantic ridge.

2 Magma rising along the mid-oceanic ridges causes the two plates on either side to be pushed apart. The abyssal plains move with the plates, resulting in changes to ocean basins such as the Atlantic, which has opened and closed a number of times in the geological past.

Water in the world’s oceans varies horizontally and vertically3 Salinity is the measure of the concentration of sodium chloride (salt), expressed as g/1,000

g of water. Sea water averages 35 parts (grams) per thousand grams of water.

4 Salinity influences water density, which in turn affects the direction of water flow. Water flows from areas of higher to lower densities, such as the South Equatorial surface current flowing north to south along the east coast of South America. Vertical variations in density reflect salinity. Salinity increases rapidly in the upper zone of the oceans (about 75 m to 650 m depth) known as the halocline. This tends to restrict vertical movements of water.

5 The thermocline is where water temperature decreases rapidly in the upper zone of the water column, generally 0–500 m.

6 In the polar regions, surface water cools, increases its salinity and density, and so sinks. This water needs to be balanced by an inflow of water coming from thousands of kilometres away in the equatorial areas such as the Gulf Stream. The descending water at the poles flows back towards equatorial areas where it tends to replace water travelling away from the equator by vast upwellings, such as off the Peruvian coast.

Changes in light, temperature and nutrient supply influence the biodiversity of oceans7 Nutrients arrive in the oceans from rivers flowing from the land and from airborne ‘dust’, so

with increasing distance from the land these two sources reduce. Surface nutrients are soon used by organisms and are passed along food chains. Some nutrients sink while those incorporated into organisms’ bodies may also sink when the organism dies.

8 Marine snow is the remains of organisms living near the surface as they fall down through the water column. It is a very important source of nutrients for many organisms living in the



Exploring oceans

deep oceans and is partly responsible for the biodiversity increasingly being discovered in the ocean depths.

9 Net Primary Production, NPP, is a measure of how much of the sun’s energy is captured. It is usually given as grams of carbon per unit area per year.

10 Food chains/webs: tend to be relatively simple, i.e. few links between producers, consumers and decomposers in deep-water ecosystems compared with inter-tidal ecosystems.

Biodiversity: generally less in deep-water ecosystems than in inter-tidal ones. However, biodiversity can vary markedly seasonally, depending on how high the latitude is. Some deep-water ecosystems close to a land mass can increase their biodiversity with seasonal upwellings of nutrient-rich water.

What are the opportunities and threats arising from the use of ocean resources?

Biological resources within oceans can be used in sustainable or unsustainable ways11 Biological characteristics: include aspects such as physical description of the resource,

e.g. krill, cod or whale, how it fits into an ecosystem (e.g. producer/consumer), rate of reproduction, population numbers.

Locations where found: which regions of which oceans/seas, migration routes and timings, seasonal fluctuations in numbers.

12 Use of the resource could include commercial, e.g. fishing for krill or cod, which is then processed into food or industrial products, and research into the species itself or on the ecosystem of which it is part is another use. The resource use could be part of a long-standing culture such as the Inuit hunting whales or the Japanese eating whale meat. In terms of socioeconomic status, some biological resources are part of a semi-subsistence way of life. Others supply luxury products to the wealthy. Both national and international laws and agreements increasingly protect the rights of indigenous peoples to their traditional ways of life. The international management of an oceanic resource may be caught up in the geopolitics of countries that might be contesting oceanic space, such as the Arctic. The International Law of the Sea has not been ratified by all countries and does not cover all uses of resources exploited in the ‘high seas’, which are essentially beyond effective management because they are so vast.

The use of ocean energy and mineral resources is a contested issue13 Renewable resources are capable of regeneration but non-renewable resources are finite

as assessed over human timescales, e.g. several decades.

14 Tidal power is a flow resource as it is naturally regenerated by the gravitational pulls of the sun and moon. Tides are reliable, regular and predictable. Disadvantages include the lack of suitable sites close to areas of high demand for electricity, the disturbance of sediment flows and the impacts on marine ecosystems.



Exploring oceans

15 The multiplier effect results from the creation of employment and wealth following the expansion of economic activity. It is not just the extraction of oil and gas but also industries such as chemicals that use the resources as raw materials and services such as banks and retailing used by employees.

16 Sea-bed minerals are found close to hydrothermal vents that may be damaged by mining, as may their unique ecosystems. The mining waste (tailings) can cause cloudy water and smother sea-bed ecosystems when it settles.

Governing the oceans poses issues for the management of resources17 The global commons is any resource that can be seen as belonging to all, such as oceans

or atmosphere.

18 It has rights and jurisdiction to explore and manage sea-bed and natural resources, e.g. oil, fish, and energy from winds and waves up to 200 nautical miles from the coast.

19 Marine reserves are the ocean’s equivalent of national parks. They exist to protect and conserve unique biological, geological, historic or cultural features, not just for the present but also for the future. They also aim to allow marine ecosystems to be strong enough to cope with challenges such as warming water due to climate change.

How and in what ways do human activities pollute oceans?

There are a variety of pollutants that affect the ocean system20 Point-source pollution is the release of a pollutant from a clearly identifiable source, e.g. an

oil rig. Non-point-source is pollution from widely dispersed locations, e.g. individual ships releasing fumes from their engines.

21 Most ocean-going ships burn low-grade oil that releases pollutants such as CO2, sulphur and particulates. These ships operate 24/7 over about 280 days a year. Most of this air pollution is released in the northern hemisphere, as the busiest shipping routes are located there. Fuel can also spill from the ships. Cruise ships can generate significant air pollution when they crowd into ports and locations such as fjords in Norway and Alaska. The most significant pollution can arise when a ship is wrecked on a shore, especially oil tankers when their cargo leaks from gashes in the hull.

22 An algal bloom is when high levels of nutrients cause phytoplankton numbers to grow rapidly in a limited area. Often the nutrients come from pollution from sewage or nitrogenous fertiliser runoff.

23 Until 1993 several countries dumped steel drums containing radioactive waste in the oceans. Liquid radioactive waste also can be either deliberately or accidentally released into the oceans. There are eight nuclear-powered submarines on the sea bed with their reactors containing nuclear fuel still on board. The 2011 tsunami affecting Japan caused damage to the Fukushima nuclear power plant, resulting in radioactivity leaking into the Pacific Ocean.



Exploring oceans

Offshore oil production and transport pose threats for people and the environment24 The answer will depend on the case study but impacts on the physical environment are

likely to include oil deposited on beaches, coral reefs, rocky shores and the sea bed. Impacts on marine ecosystems could include comments on any trophic layer, e.g. phytoplankton and consumers (e.g. crustacea, fish, birds, and mammals such as dolphins and seals).

25 The answer will depend on the case study but impacts are likely to include reduction in economic activities, e.g. fishing and tourism. Those impacted are also affected in social ways, e.g. hardships caused by unemployment. The oil industry itself is also impacted, e.g. mortality among rig workers and loss of employment resulting from shutdown of production.

26 The answer will depend on the case study but measures taken are likely to include clean-up of the physical environment, e.g. beaches, and ocean and coastal waters, rescue and recovery of creatures such as birds and mammals, breeding programmes and reintroduction of populations once the environment has been cleaned. Human activities could also include measures introduced to prevent a spill happening again, e.g. rig operations and ship design.

The pattern of ocean currents can disperse and concentrate pollution27 The breakdown of a substance into different compounds through the biochemical reactions

or the actions of organisms such as bacteria.

28 An ocean gyre is a system of circular currents formed by patterns of wind flows and the Earth’s rotation. Debris is caught up in these currents and transported to the gyre’s centre where conditions are calm. Debris therefore accumulates at the centre, such as at the ‘Eastern Pacific Garbage Patch’.

How is climate change impacting the ocean system?

Climate change is altering the nature of the ocean’s water29 The increase in CO2 in the atmosphere has resulted in vast quantities of the gas being

absorbed in oceans. The CO2 combines with H2O to form carbonic acid, which is causing the average ocean pH to fall.

30 Populations of organisms in the lower trophic levels such as molluscs, crustacea and coral are unable to accumulate calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to construct their shells and mineral skeletons. Their numbers reduce as fewer individuals reach maturity and go on to breed. Loss of these populations means less food for organisms in higher trophic levels, such as fish, and impacts are then felt throughout food chains and webs.

31 Coral bleaching occurs when the coloured algae living alongside the coral polyps are expelled from the coral as a result of increasing water temperatures. The coral therefore loses colour.



Exploring oceans

Climate change is altering sea levels32 As the temperature of sea water increases its density decreases, and consequently the

volume of water in the oceans increases. This is known as thermal expansion of water. Rising atmospheric temperatures result in melting of land-based ice (glaciers and ice sheets) and meltwater running off the land into the oceans increases the volume of water in the oceans.

33 The answer will depend on the case study but is likely to include threats such as increasing coastal erosion, loss of land area to flooding, contamination of aquifers by sea water, loss of employment if economic locations are lost (e.g. tourist facilities, coral reefs and harbours). Adaptations may include flood defences and measures to combat wave energy, abandonment of the lowest-lying areas and ultimately a move to another, more secure location.

Climate change is altering high-latitude oceans34 As atmospheric and water temperatures rise because of global warming, both the areal

extent of sea ice and its thickness decrease. With less sea ice, less incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space and more is absorbed by the water and the atmosphere, further increasing their temperatures. Once a threshold is crossed, this leads to yet more loss of sea ice and so the cycle continues.

35 Threats: increased confrontation of superpower navies (the USA and Russia) and militarisation of the region, disruption of the Arctic ecosystem, loss of traditional way of life for indigenous peoples.

Opportunities: exploitation of mineral wealth (e.g. oil, gas and mining in tundra), reduction in shipping costs for routes (e.g. Europe to Japan), laying of submarine cables to enhance digital connections.

How have socioeconomic and political factors influenced the use of the oceans?

For centuries oceans have offered both opportunities and challenges to human activities36 Time-space compression is the term for a set of processes that have led to the world

‘shrinking’ because of a reduction in the relative distance between places. For example, ocean transport now takes much less time to bring goods and people across oceans.

37 Technology has radically changed all factors involved in transport. New ship design has resulted in energy-saving hulls, engines and propellers. Containerisation reduces costs at every stage of cargo handling, e.g. time taken to load/unload. Together with the increased scale of bulk carriers moving products such as oil, ores and grains, freight rates have fallen as a proportion of costs. In ports, technological change has increased the speed at which cargos can be handled, for example bar codes on each container allowing very effective tracking of shipments. Passenger movement has also been affected, as seen in the development of large-scale cruise liners.



Exploring oceans

38 A country can seek to expand its sphere of influence by establishing a strong maritime presence. The details of the answer will depend on the example chosen, such as the South China Sea or the Arctic Ocean. Challenges to rights over territory, including sea areas and islands involve historical factors, which are often disputed, and the status of treaties such as UNCLOS, e.g. the 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone. Issues also arise with one country agreeing to develop ports in another country, which might then be seen as a challenge to a third country close by. Access to ocean and sea-bed resources can be involved, such as fish, oil and gas.

39 Although land borders can be difficult to defend, sea routes have often been used to attack. The Mediterranean and North Sea have experienced flows of hostility between territories and their vessels, such as Roman and Greek galleys and Viking long ships. More recently, in the Second World War large-scale use was made of the seas for combat and as a means of invasion. People have also used the sea to escape from war and persecution, for example the flows of refugees from countries in sub-Saharan Africa (e.g. Somalia, Eritrea).

Exam-style questions40 a Possible limitations include accuracy and reliability of data, change in methods of

measuring the area of ice cover, changes to the satellite technology measuring the ice area, variations in the date when measurements were taken, it only includes data dealing with area of ice, nothing about ice thickness, it does not show how continuous the ice was (it may be one large area or made up of many discrete areas), definition of Arctic is not given, there is considerable variation in the year-by-year figure, so a 3- or 5-year running mean line would help identify the trend more clearly.

Point marked 3 × 1

b The temperature of oceans is largely the result of energy transfer from sunlight to water molecules. Surface water temperatures are therefore closely related to variations in sunlight. The warmest sea surface temperatures (SSTs) are located in the tropics, with SSTs decreasing into the mid and high latitudes. However, the pattern is complicated because of the existence of warm and cold currents. For example, the cold Humboldt Current reduces SSTs off the west coast of South America well north of the Tropic of Capricorn. Additionally, water temperature reduces rapidly with increasing depth close to the surface, a feature known as the thermocline. Below about 1,000 m, water temperature changes little with increasing depth.


Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of temperature variations within oceans.

This will be shown by including well-developed ideas about patterns of temperatures within oceans.


Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of temperature variations within oceans.

This will be shown by including developed ideas about patterns of temperatures within oceans.



Exploring oceans


Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of temperature variations within oceans.

There may be simple ideas about patterns of temperatures within oceans.

41 Both the extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice have been in decline for several decades. Since the 1980s, the area of sea ice has declined by about 13% per decade. Ice thickness has also been decreasing from about 4 m in the 1960s to just over 1 m today.

Either:

Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled.

The various groups of people who traditionally live in the Arctic include the Chukchi, Inuit and Saami. Altogether, about 4 million people live in the Arctic. They have adapted their ways of life to cope with the extreme weather and climate of the Arctic. Some are nomadic herders of reindeer while others rely on hunting of animals such as seals and whales, and fishing. The loss of sea ice is causing these indigenous people to lose their traditional ways of life as the environment changes. One consequence has been that more and more native people move to modern and larger settlements. Here they lose their family and community links, which in their traditional communities helped build positive relationships and a shared caring. The representations of traditional peoples change, and for many individuals this can result in mental health issues. Their strong ties to the Arctic environment break down. One way this can be seen is in the change to their diets as traditional foods such as whale and seal meat are replaced by products such as processed foods containing high levels of sugar and salt. Health issues such as obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases are becoming common.

However, the melting of the sea ice is increasing commercial opportunities with possibilities for employment. This is also allowing more non-indigenous people to work and settle in the Arctic, which is causing indigenous communities to lose their identities. Overall, the loss of sea ice is seriously challenging the human rights of the indigenous peoples living in the Arctic.

Or:

Territorial integrity means that the area legitimately controlled by a state is not to be challenged. It is an important part of international law and the UN Charter, which all members have to sign.

As the Arctic sea ice breaks up and covers less and less area, even in the winter, more countries and businesses want to expand their activities and influence in the region. Less sea ice means that shipping can operate in the Arctic for more months of the year and, even in winter, ice breakers can create channels for cargo and military vessels to sail along. There is a militarisation of the Arctic region, especially from Russia and the USA but also from Canada and Europe. Territorial claims are being made for vast areas of the Arctic because they become accessible without the sea ice. This means that the territorial integrity of the countries bordering the Arctic is coming under threat. The Russians recently planted their flag on the sea bed off the coast of Siberia in an attempt to claim the sea bed up to 280 km beyond Russia’s EEZ.



Exploring oceans

The Arctic holds enormous reserves of minerals such as oil and gas. The melting of sea ice means that the exploitation of these resources is becoming increasingly possible. Countries want to ensure that the ownership of these minerals is theirs, and so territorial claims are being made that affect neighbouring states. Transnational corporations (TNCs) are involved, which can also threaten territorial integrity because of their power and influence and sometimes they show a disregard for matters such as environmental laws.


Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the loss of Arctic sea ice and either human rights or territorial integrity. (AO1)

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide clear, developed and convincing analysis that is fully accurate of how the loss of Arctic sea ice impacts either human rights or territorial integrity. (AO2)

This will be shown by including well-developed ideas about the relationship between the loss of Arctic sea ice and either human rights or territorial integrity.



Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of the loss of Arctic sea ice and either human rights or territorial integrity. (AO1)

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide clear and developed analysis that shows accuracy of how the loss of Arctic sea ice impacts either human rights or territorial integrity. (AO2)

This will be shown by including developed ideas about the loss of Arctic sea ice and either human rights or territorial integrity.



Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of the loss of Arctic sea ice and either human rights or territorial integrity. (AO1)

Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide sound analysis that shows some accuracy of how the loss of Arctic sea ice impacts either human rights or territorial integrity. (AO2)

This will be shown by including sound ideas about the loss of Arctic sea ice and either human rights or territorial integrity.





Exploring oceans

Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of the loss of Arctic sea ice and either human rights or territorial integrity. (AO1)

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide simple analysis that shows limited accuracy of how the loss of Arctic sea ice impacts either human rights or territorial integrity. (AO2)

This will be shown by including simple ideas about the loss of Arctic sea ice and either human rights or territorial integrity.


42 Context:

Define terms: e.g. what is a resource, renewable and non-renewable, categories of ecosystem services, e.g. provisioning, cultural, what is meant by ‘sustainable’.

Identify the resources:

o biological: primary consumers (e.g. krill), secondary consumers (e.g. fish, squid), tertiary consumers (e.g. whales)

o energy and mineral: oil and gas, ferrous and non-ferrous sea-bed minerals, waves, tides, offshore wind

o tourism and recreation: water sports, scenery, experiencing wildlife (e.g. whale watching)

Evaluation:

You should evaluate the view that ocean resources can be managed sustainably:

o assess examples of where management has attempted to operate sustainably (e.g. some biological resources, krill, some fish stocks, whales)

o assess the impact of exploitation of renewable resources (e.g. tides, waves and wind power)

You should evaluate the view that ocean resources cannot be managed sustainably:

o assess examples of where management has not operated sustainably (e.g. extraction of oil and gas (non-renewable resources), issues of drilling and transport of oil (spills))

o assess the role of ‘ocean governance’ (e.g. concept of ‘global commons’ and ‘tragedy of the commons’, effectiveness of ocean management according to UNCLOS)


The temptation is to focus on the examples of unsustainable management. One issue to consider is whether overexploitation was the unintended consequence of human actions, such as continuing fishing because of ignorance of how marine ecosystems function and



Exploring oceans

the impact of exploitation on population numbers. Exploiting non-renewable resources is clearly unsustainable in the longer term.

There have been considerable advances in the knowledge and understanding of ocean resources in the past 50 years. This has led to examples of sustainable management such as the recovery in numbers of some biological species. The establishment of international governance concerning the exploitation of some species and the introduction of marine reserves and national parks offers examples of sustainable management.

The threats arising from global warming might yet overcome attempts at sustainable management.

AO1


Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of sustainable management of ocean resources.


Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of sustainable management of ocean resources.


Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of sustainable management of ocean resources.


Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of sustainable management of ocean resources.

0 marks


AO2


Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide a clear, developed and convincing analysis that is fully accurate of sustainable management of ocean resources.

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide a detailed and substantiated evaluation that offers secure judgements leading to rational conclusions that are evidence-based as to the extent to which ocean resources can be managed sustainably.





Exploring oceans

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide a clear, developed and convincing analysis that shows accuracy of sustainable management of ocean resources.

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide a detailed evaluation that offers generally secure judgements, with some link between rational conclusions as to the extent to which ocean resources can be managed sustainably.



Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide a sound analysis that shows some accuracy of sustainable management of ocean resources.

Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide a sound evaluation that offers generalised judgements and conclusions, with limited use of evidence as to the extent to which ocean resources can be managed sustainably.



Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide a simple analysis that shows limited accuracy of sustainable management of ocean resources.

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide an unsupported evaluation that offers simple conclusions as to the extent to which ocean resources can be managed sustainably.


0 marks



Level 4


Level 3


Level 2


Level 1



Exploring oceans




Future of food

Future of foodWhat is food security and why is it of global significance?

The concept of food security is complex and patterns of food security vary spatially

1 Food security exists when all people at all times have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy lifestyle.

2 Chronic food insecurity is long term and persistent. People are unable to meet their minimum food requirements for sustained periods of time. Transitory food insecurity is short term and temporary. There is a sudden drop in the ability to produce or access enough food to maintain nutritional status.

3 a Undernourishment exists mainly in the continent of Africa, particularly sub-Saharan Africa. There are also pockets in the Middle East and three areas in southeast Asia. You will need to give place-specific examples for full marks.

b Human factors: not enough food, not enough of the right kind of food/unbalanced diet, poor food distribution, poverty, lack of resources to improve productivity. Physical factors: poor quality land, natural disasters, changing climate, physical barriers to distribution.

4 There are many examples. May include variations between different regions within a country, e.g. food insecurity in eastern China provinces, or between rural and urban areas, e.g. urban areas in Accra, Ghana, also in advanced countries (ACs) or within a city such as Bronx, New York. You should name an example and refer to where the insecurity exists, i.e. between which groups of people or which areas.

Food is a precious resource and global food production can be viewed as an interconnected system5

Air: photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide from the air, plant respiration for water and nutrient uptake takes oxygen from the air.

Climate: temperature, water and light are all aspects of climate. Crops grow at certain optimum temperatures, which range from 16°C to 27°C, water and sunlight are required for the process of photosynthesis.

Soil: the mixture of organic matter (humus) and minerals in which plants grow, plants absorb minerals from the soil, e.g. phosphorus, nitrogen and potassium, water is also absorbed from the soil. Soil requires depth, moisture and minerals.



Future of food

Water: determines the productivity and quality of crops, necessary for germination, growth and photosynthesis.

6 A complex sequence of activities from farm to consumer: production (agriculture, farming and harvesting), supply (processing, storage, distribution, marketing), consumption (consumers: domestic, business, services). Waste can occur at all stages, it can be recovered for energy, composting, redistribution, for example. Money flows through the system, helping it function.

7

Pastoral: the raising of livestock, often in areas unsuitable for crops (too cool, too wet, too dry). Soils often have limited fertility. Carrying capacity needs to be managed, i.e. resources for the number of animals, e.g. hill sheep farming in north Wales.

Subsistence: food produced for the farmer’s own consumption and for the local community. Subsistence farmers are often vulnerable because of a lack of investment, e.g. wet rice (paddy) farming in southeast Asia.

Commercial: farming for profit, often large-scale and high-profit-yielding. High capital inputs, e.g. cereals and dairy in ACs.

Intensive: relatively high yields, high inputs per hectare. Can apply to both subsistence (paddy rice) and commercial (market gardening) agriculture.

Extensive: relatively low yields, low inputs per hectare. Can apply to both pastoral and arable and can be commercial (hill sheep) and subsistence (nomadic pastoralism) agriculture.

Globalisation is changing the food industry8 A range of points can be covered, e.g. developments in transport, communication and

refrigeration, a transnational food production system with transnational corporations (TNCs) having a major role. Food demand has changed as countries develop, there is a growing middle class, more secondary and tertiary jobs and less farming. Food tastes are changing globally because of media and tourism, for example. There is an all-year-round availability of a wide variety of foods.

9 TNCs are able to make large capital investments, they control the terms by which farmers participate in the food production system, methods are mostly large, capital-intensive operations, which leave small-scale producers disadvantaged, unable to make the savings of economies of scale and marginalised from the supply system as they cannot compete on price. This can occur in the economics of ACs, emerging and developing countries (EDCs) and low-income developing countries (LIDCs).

10 a The widespread/global increase in excess average weight because of poor diet and lack of exercise.

b Causes are many and varied and can be explained in a variety of ways. For full marks, split causes into categories of social and economic, for example.

Social causes may include: dietary pattern, changes from cereal to meat and dairy (e.g. in China), increase in the consumption of fast foods, processed foods, ready meals, foods with high salt and sugar content, high consumption of fizzy drinks, less exercise, more



Future of food

sedentary lifestyle, increased car ownership and use of cars, changes to diet because of cultural influences through media, TV, tourism, advertising.

Economic causes may include: increasing affluence, rising middle class in countries as they develop — eating patterns change and may include more processed and fast food. Increased affluence is associated with a more sedentary lifestyle. Economies develop and as this happens agriculture decreases, secondary and tertiary activity increases, more food is imported with associated changes in range of food commodities and changing tastes.

11 Advancement through research and development (R&D) into production methods and inputs, e.g. Green Revolution, technological advances in pesticide production to eradicate/lessen the impact of disease and pests, biotechnology altering the DNA of crops so that they can withstand weather extremes and pests and diseases (genetically modified crops (GM crops)), nitrogen-use efficiency, appropriate technology (low input, low cost, more widely available).

12 Costs: mainly serviced by retail giants and TNCs, which can price small independent traders out of the market and have other associated costs in terms of pricing and competition, consumers expect to be able to access any food product at any time of the year, decline of local/indigenous choices.

Benefits: increased variety and interest, cultural diversity can be experienced, flexibility in choice, more varied and healthy diet.

What are the causes of inequality in global food security?

A number of interrelated factors can influence food security13 Texture (the size of the mineral particles in the soil), structure (the way the soil particles

are bound together), and nutrient supply (chemical elements needed for growth, e.g. humus content).

14 Possible problems and solutions include the following:

Poor drainage — dykes, drainage ditches, underground pipes

Acidity — add lime

Leaching of minerals — irrigation, add clay, fertiliser to replace nutrients

Moisture deficiency — irrigation, increase organic content

15

Evapotranspiration: crops grow under optimum conditions, evapotranspiration rates affect the moisture available, for some crops a drier environment is needed so it is fine if evapotranspiration rates are high (e.g. coffee), other crops, such as maize, require high levels of moisture and so if evapotranspiration rates are high it will suffer.



Future of food

Seasonal distribution of rainfall: can have a significant impact on the growth of crops where rainfall amounts vary considerably between seasons, e.g. India depends on the monsoon rains.

Intensity and duration of rainfall: prolonged periods of moderate rain can infiltrate the soil and so it is better for crop growth, short periods of heavy rain can lead to runoff and a loss of water and, in addition, this type of rainfall will not reach the root zone, particularly in warm climates.

16 Land ownership systems can include owner-occupied, tenant, landless labourers, state owned and commercial. You should include place-specific detail and give a comparison through description of the system, i.e. who owns the land and how produce is dealt with.

17 Malthus based his theory on an optimum population for food availability and determined that any population increase beyond a ‘threshold’ would lead to war, famine and disease. Boserup had a much more positive alternative that as population grows it would push up food prices and incentivise farmers to grow more. More intensive farming would be accompanied by increasing levels of technology. It is important to recognise the different periods the ideas came from (Malthus late eighteenth century, Boserup mid-twentieth century).

18 The answer will depend on the named example. You should include a range of social, economic, political and environmental factors. Some of the social and economic factors listed above may apply and also:

adverse impacts of climate change — extreme weather events

unreliable weather patterns — drought/flood/cold/heat

soil erosion — wind/water

salinisation — mismanaged irrigation

government policy having an adverse impact

political tensions and conflict

What are the threats to global food security?

Risks to food security can be identified to highlight the most vulnerable societies19 Rural dwellers are particularly vulnerable as they are highly dependent on agriculture and

have no/very little alternative/back-up income. Their existence in remote rural areas in, for example, Asia and Africa is determined by factors out of their control. Imported food often only reaches towns and cities.

Women are often not only the primary food producers in many LIDCs but they also frequently forgo food to provide for their children in difficult times.

20 Population pressure may result in more intensive farming methods, new systems deplete the soil nutrients as practices such as fallow periods are abandoned. Frequent clearing of



Future of food

surface vegetation means that there are higher rates of soil erosion by wind and rain. Persistent land degradation in this way leads to desertification particularly in dryland areas.

21 Environmental consequences of desertification include loss of soil nutrients, soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, ecosystems do not function properly, increased dust formation and consequent disruption to rainfall patterns.

22 The answer will depend on the chosen example. You should include accurate place-specific detail and your explanations should include cause and effect. Human threats to food security may include the following:

Population growth: give accurate figures and an explanation of why population is growing — natural increase, falling death rate and reasons why, immigration?

Deforestation: reasons for deforestation must be given (to allow more farmland, to harvest fuel, and the impacts), wind and water erosion, loss of nutrients in the soil

Overcultivation: reasons may include population growth, overcultivation leads to less productive farmland as there is no recovery time for nutrient supply to be replenished

The food system is vulnerable to shocks that can impact food security23 a The graph shows a rapid increase in both the percentage of countries exposed to

three or four different types of climate extreme and the percentage of time in which this happens. Rates have increased from 10% (of countries) and 40% (of time) to 35% and 50%, respectively. The percentage of countries exposed to climate extremes has also risen from just below 85% to 95%.

b El Niño is a naturally occurring event characterised by abnormal warming of sea surfaces. On average it occurs at intervals of 2–7 years. Characteristically it generates floods and droughts. Both affect crop production, and animal disease outbreaks and forest fires can occur.

c Named locations will vary, there are many examples. Effects on food production include the following:

Floods: crop destruction, disruption to distribution of inputs to farming, soil erosion, destruction of livestock

Tropical storms: strong winds cause destruction of crops and farmland, intense rainfall causes crop damage, leaching of soils and soil erosion

Drought: crop failure, reduced water quantity and quality, soil erosion, gullying, subsidence, rockfalls, weathering

24 The answer will depend on the example chosen: water efficiency measures from government schemes, water tax, water metering, cap on allowed usage, withdrawal of subsidies for irrigation, trade in water between areas of shortage and excess, specialised strategies such as mulching (layering of organic material between crops to retain water), more efficient irrigation methods, e.g. drip irrigation, training and education of farmers in water conservation and water harvesting, growing crops requiring a high input of water in another region or country (concept of virtual water).



Future of food

25

Impact on food production: ash destroying pasture land, dangers to the health of livestock from consuming ash, increased sulphur levels and lowered pH can affect soils and destroy crops, ash destroys fruit crops on trees, the expense of washing fruit.

Impact on food distribution: disrupted by tectonic hazards through damage and destruction of infrastructure, danger of aftershocks, secondary events such as floods and mudflows cutting off transport routes.

26 a The example must be accurately named as a food production method: hunting, fishing and herding, for example. You should explain why this method of food production is used — food sources available, storage conditions, seasonal restrictions, requirements for a balanced diet that provides nutrition.

b Threats include diminishing supply resulting from climate or poor farming/food production methods, social change such as outward migration impacting availability of labour, knock-on effects of other human or physical changes outside the area.

How do food production and security issues impact people and the physical environment?

Imbalance in the global food system has physical and human impacts27

28 Methods may include avoiding over-irrigating crops, selecting deep-rooted crops, soil management methods, e.g. maintain fertility levels and structure, drip feed irrigation to crop roots.

29 The answer will depend on the chosen example. Short-term impacts include those that are easily addressed, e.g. changes to soil composition and texture, the growing of a particular crop or the impact of a short-term pollution event. Long-term impacts include salinisation, sustained soil erosion, biological degradation of land.



Future of food

30 Known as the double burden, obesity is often a sign of poor nutrition. As urbanisation increases in developing countries, lifestyles change and diets become more dependent on processed foods rather than fresh produce. Developing countries often have wide disparities in wealth as economic progress does not spread evenly and therefore some communities are still undernourished. So, obesity and undernutrition can exist side by side.

31 Examples may include instances of impact on human health because of a lack of restrictions on unsafe pesticides. The pesticides will be in the food production process, chemicals may relate to food processing.

32 The focus of this question is on contrast, as the ‘people’ must be living in places at differing levels of economic development. The example can be within one country or may be between countries or regions. Impacts may include reliance on food aid and assistance, a range of types of ill health, children may be undernourished leading to physical and mental health issues and academic underachievement, poor food security in the elderly leading to medical issues.

Is there hope for the future of food?

Food is a geopolitical commodity; a number of key players will continue to influence the global food system33 Geopolitics refers to the concept of space, nations and the relations between them.

Because of the effects of globalisation, food is now a commodity that is affected by global politics. How to feed the world’s rapidly growing population is a contested global political issue.

34 Food trading relationships may exist as agreements within a trading bloc, multilateral agreements or bilateral agreements.

35 The World Trade Organization’s main role is to provide a forum for governments to negotiate trade agreements, settling of trade disputes and organising free trade agreements where harmful/unfair barriers exist, ensuring access and fair treatment of LIDCs in the global trading bloc.

36 ACs can use donor-driven food aid to ‘dump’ surpluses, food aid may come with political or economic conditions, it is not in the best interests of the receiving country to provide a dependency on food aid, countries must be helped and encouraged to improve their own food production systems to form an independent sustainable supply, large quantities of food aid can swamp markets and lower prices for indigenous farmers.

37 a An agribusiness is a large-scale, corporate, capital-intensive farming practice run on business lines.

b Environmental issues arise because of the pursuit of profit. In some, a high level of chemicals are used to maintain high yields, high levels of mechanisation lead to loss of jobs and damage to environments, and they can price small-scale producers out of business.

38 Positive impacts include capital input, training in new techniques, raised employment in agricultural production, TNC involvement may include infrastructure updates, e.g. roads to



Future of food

help the food production and distribution process. Negative impacts include taking over large tracts of land, forcing small-scale farmers off the land, as they are unable to compete on scale and pricing, poor working conditions and low wages.

39 You are asked to explain, therefore you must outline the principle and say how it works and why it is needed. Some options for support include: helping disadvantaged producers, fair pricing, addressing unfair workers’ rights and forced labour practices, ensuring good working conditions, respecting the environment, providing capacity building.

There is a spectrum of strategies that exist to ensure and improve food security40

Short-term relief: methods of food aid administered in a crisis

Long-term system redesign: this refers to a country’s long-term strategic plan to achieve and maintain food security.

Large-scale technological techniques: strategies that have a high input of R&D and/or human and financial resources, they are often at the forefront of scientific development in food production, such as High Yield Variety (HYV) crops and GM crops.

Use of appropriate technology: this refers to technology that is appropriate in the context of use — it is often small scale, can be managed locally and uses the skills of the local community.

Exam-style questions41 a The time gap for the total number of deals is very broad and gives no idea of

progression in 2000–18. Six of the top ten target countries are in Africa but this does not give any idea of the scale of the deals, where in the world were the other 40%? Also, there is no date on this information — assuming 2018, which countries dominated the pattern prior to this? Investor countries are termed as ‘included’ but again there is no indication of the timescale of the investments.

Point marked 3 × 1

b Factors include:

Countries seeking to ensure their own food security because of harsh growing conditions: countries such as Saudi Arabia have very harsh (hot/dry) growing conditions and therefore a lack of ability to grow enough food, but have the money and infrastructure to buy land in other countries and transport food for the domestic market.

Lack of available land in the host country: in other countries development accompanied by growing urbanisation may mean a lack of land availability for food production. The country’s high level of affluence means that it’s government can afford to purchase land in other countries and transport food to the domestic market.



Future of food

Water scarcity: in countries such as Australia there may not be enough water to grow certain crops and therefore land is purchased abroad for the production of specific crops — the use of water in this way is referred to as virtual water.


Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of land grabbing in LIDCs.

This will be shown by including well-developed ideas about the factors that lead to investor countries acquiring farmland in LIDCs.


Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of land grabbing in LIDCs.

This will be shown by including developed ideas about the factors that lead to investor countries acquiring farmland in LIDCs.


Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of land grabbing in LIDCs.

There may be simple ideas about the factors that lead to investor countries acquiring farmland in LIDCs.

42 Indicative content:

Clearance of forest for farming can reduce above- and below-ground carbon stores.

Ploughing reduces soil carbon storage and exposes soil organic matter to oxidation.

Harvesting means that only small amounts of organic matter are returned to the soil, further reducing carbon stores.

Rice paddies generate methane — greenhouse gas.

Livestock release methane gas as a byproduct of digestion.

Emissions from farm machinery increase the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.


Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of different farming practices and the carbon cycle. (AO1)

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide clear, developed and convincing analysis that is fully accurate of how farming practices can impact the carbon cycle. (AO2)

This will be shown by including well-developed ideas about the relationship between farming and the functioning of the carbon cycle.




Future of food


Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of different farming practices and the carbon cycle. (AO1)

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide clear and developed analysis that shows accuracy of how farming practices can impact the carbon cycle. (AO2)

This will be shown by including developed ideas about the relationship between farming and the functioning of the carbon cycle.

There are clear attempts to make appropriate synoptic links between content from different parts of the course of study, but these are not always appropriate.


Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of different farming practices and the carbon cycle. (AO1)

Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide sound analysis that shows some accuracy of how farming practices can impact the carbon cycle. (AO2)

This will be shown by including sound ideas about the relationship between farming and the functioning of the carbon cycle.

There are some attempts to make synoptic links between content from different parts of the course of study, but these are not always relevant.


Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of different farming practices and the carbon cycle. (AO1)

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide simple analysis that shows limited accuracy of how farming practices can impact the carbon cycle. (AO2)

This will be shown by including simple ideas about the relationship between farming and the functioning of the carbon cycle.


43 Context:

A brief outline of the meaning and component parts of the global food system. A brief outline of who the ‘key players’ are and their role in the global food system. Key players include agribusinesses, TNCs, food retailers and fair trade organisations.

Evaluation:

Assessment of the impacts of named examples of key players. Impacts can be positive and negative, and you should address both to provide detailed evaluation. Impacts will



Future of food

affect different parts of the system, e.g. retailers impacting mainly on consumption and agribusinesses impacting on production and processing. The essay can be structured through a consideration of economic, social, cultural, political and environmental impacts, e.g. fair trade organisations have economic impacts by working to create opportunities for economically disadvantaged farmers, social impacts through attempts to prevent use of child labour and environmental impacts by encouraging farming practices that protect the environment.


The global food system is complex and key players continue to have influence. Conclusions may be that impacts are varied and geographically wide-ranging. Countries across the development continuum are impacted in both positive and negative ways. Key players have a range of positions of involvement and all have responsibilities to ensure future food security.

AO1


Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the global food system and key players affecting it.


Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of the global food system and key players affecting it.


Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of the global food system and key players affecting it.


Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of the global food system and key players affecting it.

0 marks


AO2


Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide a clear, developed and convincing analysis that is fully accurate of the impact of key players on the global food system.

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide a detailed and substantiated evaluation that offers secure judgements leading to rational conclusions that are evidence-based as to the extent to which the global food system is impacted by the roles and interests of key players.



Future of food



Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide a clear, developed and convincing analysis that shows accuracy of the impact of key players on the global food system.

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide a detailed evaluation that offers generally secure judgements, with some link between rational conclusions as to the extent to which the global food system is impacted by the roles and interests of key players.



Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide a sound analysis that shows some accuracy of the impact of key players on the global food system.

Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide a sound evaluation that offers generalised judgements and conclusions, with limited use of evidence as to the extent to which the global food system is impacted by the roles and interests of key players.



Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide a simple analysis that shows limited accuracy of the impact of key players on the global food system.

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide an unsupported evaluation that offers simple conclusions as to the extent to which the global food system is impacted by the roles and interests of key players.

Concepts are not discussed or are done so inaccurately.

0 marks



Level 4


Level 3


Level 2



Future of food


Level 1




Hazardous Earth

Hazardous EarthWhat is the evidence for continental drift and plate tectonics?

There is a variety of evidence for the theories of continental drift and plate tectonics1 Oceanic and continental.

2 A cold, dense lithospheric slab descending at a subduction zone will tend to pull the remainder of the plate with it. The descending slab is much cooler at its centre than the surrounding mantle and so it is able to keep forcing its way down into the mantle up to 700

km below the surface.

3 New rock erupted at the ridge displaces older rock so the sea-floor spreads away from the ridge. The lateral movement of new oceanic crust away from a mid-ocean ridge results in a symmetrical pattern of geomagnetic reversals on either side of the ridge. This pattern of paleomagnetism is ‘locked’ in igneous rocks formed at the ridge. The age of sea-floor rocks increases away from mid-oceanic ridges. Volcanoes are carried away from the ridge where they were originally formed, sometimes sinking below the sea’s surface and losing their capacity to erupt as they are no longer above a supply of rising lava.

4 Similar fossil reptiles exist either side of the South Atlantic in South America and southern Africa. Similar fossil shellfish records exist in Indian and Australian rocks.

There are distinctive features and processes at plate boundaries5 Mid-ocean ridges are very long mountain chains, rising 3,000 m from the sea floor in

places. They are mostly below the sea’s surface. They are not continuous, being broken into segments by transform faults, which can displace the ridge sideways by anything from a few kilometres to hundreds of kilometres. Large-scale rift valleys can exist and small-scale features such as pillow lavas and black smokers can also be found.

6 Where two plates are moving towards each other the one with the higher-density rocks will subduct under the lower-density plate. Where an oceanic plate meets a continental plate it is the oceanic one that subducts. If two oceanic plates meet then the one with the higher density descends into the asthenosphere.

7 An island arc is a chain of volcanic islands formed along a subduction zone, often involving two oceanic plates.

8 Layers of sediments accumulate on oceanic plates adjacent to continents. These sediments are carried by plate movement towards the boundary between an oceanic and continental plate. As the oceanic plate descends into the asthenosphere, the sediments are squeezed and uplifted along the plate boundary. The sediments are folded and faulted as a result of the great forces acting on them, as is the continental crust. Additionally,



Hazardous Earth

molten material rises from the Benioff zone where some of the descending oceanic plate is melting. Some of this molten material can force its way to the surface, erupting as volcanoes, which adds to the building up of the mountain chain.

9 Because the two plates at a conservative boundary are moving past each other rather than towards or apart, there is no melting of material due to subduction nor is magma rising up from the asthenosphere. The friction at a conservative boundary is not great enough to cause rocks to melt.

What are the main hazards generated by volcanic activity?

There is a variety of volcanic activity and resultant landforms and landscapes10 Magma is molten rock below the surface. Once magma erupts at the surface it is known as

lava.

11 Lava plateaus (e.g. Deccan Plateau, India) form when free-flowing lava erupts from multiple fissures over extended periods of time (many thousands of years). The lava’s chemistry is basic — it contains low percentages of silica meaning it has low viscosity, which allows it to flow easily.

12 A hot spot exists in the middle of the Pacific plate where a magma plume rises up from the asthenosphere. As the Pacific plate moves over the hot spot, vast quantities of basalt accumulate on the sea bed to produce the Hawaiian island chain. Currently the volcanoes of Mauna Loa and Kilauea are active, as the island of Hawaii lies over the hot spot. In the past, islands such as Maui and O’ahu were located over the hot spot and were volcanically active. Since they were carried away from the hot spot, eruptions stopped and subaerial processes have weathered and eroded the igneous rocks.

13 Violent bursting of gas bubbles when viscous acidic magma reaches the surface. The vent and top of the volcano’s cone are often shattered by the force of the eruption. Materials erupted can include gases, ash, lava and tephra.

14 The volcano’s cone is destroyed in a particularly violent, explosive eruption. The magma chamber under the volcano is emptied and, without its support, the sides of the volcano collapse, resulting in a large crater with steep sides.

15 Super-volcanoes experience very explosive, large-scale eruptions infrequently (tens of thousands of years). These eruptions eject vast volumes of ash and gases high into the atmosphere, causing materials to circle the Earth and deposition of ash over very large areas. In between, many much smaller eruptions may occur but underground activity such as earthquakes and growth of the magma chamber do not necessarily result in an eruption.

16 The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) combines magnitude (amount of erupted material) with intensity (speed at which material is erupted) into a single number on a logarithmic scale from 0 to 8, least to most explosive.



Hazardous Earth

Volcanic eruptions generate distinctive hazards17 Tephra describes any material erupted from a volcano into the air. It ranges in size from

volcanic bombs (> 6 cm across) to fine ash.

18 Lava flows tend to threaten infrastructure, property and crops, rather than cause injuries or fatalities. Flows from effusive eruptions are usually relatively fast (tens to hundreds of metres a day) but are largely confined to hot spot activity, e.g. Hawaii, where they are well monitored. Flows from explosive eruptions do not flow freely but still affect anything in their path, e.g. Etna.

19 The speed at which the material flows can overwhelm people even if they are in a fast vehicle — up to 200 km/h. The flow is made up of very hot gases (> 500°C), ash, rock fragments and any material picked up along its path, such as trees. They travel typically at 10–15 km/h but can reach 100 km/h.

20 If the summit of a volcano is covered by snow and ice, the eruption melts the frozen water, which then flows rapidly down the volcano’s sides. The water gathers up rocks, soil and ash to form a rapidly moving flow (up to 50 km/h) with the consistency of wet concrete, known as a lahar. These can destroy or bury everything in their path. Eruptions beneath an ice field or glacier cause rapid melting, releasing vast quantities of water. These build up under the ice until an exit is found, causing devastating floods known as jökulhaups in Iceland. Very explosive eruptions of an island volcano can displace vast amounts of water, generating tsunamis. Such eruptions can also cause considerable disturbance in the atmosphere around the volcano, generating torrential rainfall. When mixed with ash, and when the rain falls to Earth, hazardous mud and ash flows can occur.

What are the main hazards generated by seismic activity?

There is a variety of earthquake activity and resultant landforms and landscapes21 Constructive/mid-ocean ridge, subduction/ocean trench and island arc, collision zone,

conservative.

22 Shallow: depth 0–70 km, occur in cold, brittle rocks, common, releasing levels of energy ranging from low to high, can be very destructive

Deep: depth 70–300 km, occur in locations where a degree of melting of subducted crust occurs, less common but can release much energy.

23 The Richter scale uses the amplitude of seismic waves. The scale is logarithmic — each whole number increase is a 10× increase in amplitude of seismic wave and 30× increase in energy released.

24 It relates the ground movement caused by an earthquake to the impacts that can be felt and seen by anyone. It is based on observation and description.



Hazardous Earth

25 It uses the amount of physical movement caused by an earthquake, which is a direct function of the energy released. It is a more accurate and quantitative scale than Richter and Mercalli.

26 Rifting often occurs because of the doming of rocks due to pressure from beneath, such as from a rising magma plume at a mid-oceanic ridge. Tensional forces build up as the rocks are stretched until eventually they fracture and fault, releasing seismic energy. This is associated with movement along the fault, usually resulting in steep inward-facing escarpments forming along the length of the rift valley.

Earthquakes generate distinctive hazards27 Liquefaction is a process in which sediments and soils lose their mechanical strength

because of a sudden loss in cohesion. This happens when the violent shaking of sediment by an earthquake causes the materials to behave as a liquid, causing building foundations to give way.

28 Magnitude of earthquake, distance from the epicentre, local geology.

29 Ground shaking and liquefaction can lead to landslides and avalanches, especially in areas of steep relief. Settlements can be overcome by these sudden mass movements, transport routes can be blocked, preventing rescue and recovery efforts, rivers can be blocked causing water to build up behind a ‘dam’ caused by a landslide. If the dam fails (pressure from the water and or aftershocks), large quantities of water can sweep down the valley.

30 An underwater earthquake can cause the sea floor to rise up, displacing the water above it. Water can also be displaced if an earthquake triggers an underwater landslide down a submarine slope. Powerful, high-velocity waves spread out from the area of displacement. Out in the open sea they are not a hazard because of their low height (< 1 m). Close to shore these waves increase greatly in height, eventually crashing down with enormous destructive force, and can spread some way inland depending on the relief of the local coastline.

What are the implications of living in tectonically active locations?

There are a range of impacts people experience as a result of volcanic eruptions31 You should give locational details such as type of plate boundary, names of plates and

nature of volcanic eruptions, e.g. VEI, regularity and frequency of eruptions.

32 Facts and figures are required to make your comparisons convincing, such as types of employment, gross national income (GNI) per person, economic impacts such as on agriculture, environmental impacts such as on landscape, political impacts such as on government stability.



Hazardous Earth

There are a range of impacts people experience as a result of earthquake activity33 You should give locational details such as type of plate boundary, names of plates and

nature of seismic events, e.g. magnitude, regularity and frequency of earthquake activity.

34 Facts and figures are required to make your comparisons convincing, such as types of employment, GNI per person, economic impacts such as on transport infrastructure, environmental impacts such as on the water cycle, political impacts such as on government revenues and spending.

What measures are available to help people cope with living in tectonically active locations?

35 Risk (R) = frequency or magnitude of hazard (H) × level of vulnerability of a population (V) / capacity of a population to cope and adapt (C)

36 Vulnerability is the ability of people and places to cope with risks from hazards. In general, the more secure people and places are, those with resources such as wealth, education, access to technology, healthcare, information and emergency services are least vulnerable. High magnitude events, however, can overwhelm even the least vulnerable people and places.

There are various strategies to manage hazards from volcanic activity37 Annotations could include possible ways to modify some volcanic events (e.g. lava

diversion channels, slowing lava flows by dropping large concrete blocks, spraying lava with water to cool and solidify it), nature of society (e.g. the Human Development Index (HDI), GNI per person, level of monitoring, hazard mapping, exclusion zoning, community preparedness), resources available once an event has occurred (e.g. search and rescue services, availability of emergency medical care, shelter, food and water, level of insurance/compensation available).

There are various strategies to manage hazards from earthquakes38 Earthquake events are sudden and as yet unpredictable. Those that pose the greatest

risks involve vast quantities of energy that are way beyond human capabilities to modify.

39 Annotations could include nature of society (e.g. HDI, GNI per person, level of monitoring, hazard mapping, land-use zoning, building design and community preparedness), resources available once an event has occurred (e.g. search and rescue services, availability of emergency medical care, shelter, food and water, level of insurance/compensation available).



Hazardous Earth

The exposure of people to risks and their ability to cope with tectonic hazards changes over time40 As populations have increased more people are living in locations prone to tectonic

events. Population densities have also increased, in particular more people are living in urban areas, which results in more people being at risk from a tectonic event. In some ways, advances in technology result in more people being affected by an event, such as a major eruption causing large-scale disruption of aircraft traffic, which then affects flows of people and goods.

41 Resilience is the ability to resist, absorb and recover from the stresses of being affected by an event such as a volcanic eruption or earthquake. Resilience can be analysed in terms of social (communities, families, households), political (governments, national, regional, local) and economic (various scales from national to an individual). Building up resilience is a vital element in disaster planning and management, again across scales from global to local.

Exam-style questions42 a Possible limitations include accuracy and reliability of data, boundaries between risk

categories shown as sharp lines whereas there is more likely to be a graduated change, risk is a function of vulnerability of population therefore spatial data are needed on the socioeconomic pattern of population, risk is also affected by population density, therefore spatial data are needed on this, there is no date when the risk assessment was made — factors such as retrofitting of buildings or changes in laws regarding land use may alter level of risk in some locations.

Point marked 3 × 1

b Surveys of the ocean floor have shown almost symmetrical patterns of changes in the polarity of the rocks either side of an oceanic ridge. As lava erupts along a ridge, it cools and the magnetic orientation of the iron particles in the lava is locked into the rock. The Earth’s polarity changes orientation so that magnetic North becomes magnetic South and vice versa. In the last 10 million years there have been on average four or five reversals per million years. When new lava is erupted along the ridge it pushes previously erupted rock away from the ridge on either side. The rocks on either side of a ridge therefore contain evidence of the magnetic reversals.


Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of paleomagnetism found at oceanic ridges.

This will be shown by including well-developed ideas about the pattern of paleomagnetism found at oceanic ridges.


Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of paleomagnetism found at oceanic ridges.

This will be shown by including developed ideas about the pattern of paleomagnetism found at oceanic ridges.



Hazardous Earth


Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of paleomagnetism found at oceanic ridges.

There may be simple ideas about the pattern of paleomagnetism found at oceanic ridges.

43 Volcanic activity includes both effusive and explosive eruptions. Place identity is made up of a number of interacting characteristics.

The identity of a place builds on the physical geography of its site, which is the land on which the place is built. Some places have developed on the site of a now-extinct volcano, e.g. Edinburgh. The outcrop of relatively resistant igneous rock encouraged the construction of a castle, which is a very characteristic element of Edinburgh’s cityscape. Past volcanic activity also results in igneous rock being available as a building material. This can influence the architecture of a place, which is an important aspect of place identity.

Volcanic activity can be either an advantage or disadvantage to a place’s identity. Many tourists visit places such as Iceland, Japan or Hawaii to see volcanic landscapes and possibly an eruption. Employment is generated in tourism and then the multiplier effect operates for other jobs. This is likely to have a knock-on effect on characteristics such as demography, as families will be attracted to the place because of the jobs offered.

In some places culture is affected by volcanic activity. In Hawaii, Indonesia and Japan, volcanoes have a major role in the country’s history, and cultural and religious traditions.

In other places volcanic activity is a disadvantage. When Montserrat experienced eruptions from the Soufrière Hills in the late 1990s the damage caused by pyroclastic flows and ash falls meant that many people emigrated. Active volcanoes can mean that the slopes surrounding them have a negative place identity because of the risk from eruptions. However, the advantages of fertile soils that develop from lava can attract people, so the place identity depends on the perceptions of people.


Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of volcanic activity and place identity. (AO1)

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide clear, developed and convincing analysis that is fully accurate of how volcanic activity can affect place identity. (AO2)

This will be shown by including well-developed ideas about the relationship between volcanic activity and place identity.



Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of volcanic activity and place identity. (AO1)



Hazardous Earth

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide clear and developed analysis that shows accuracy of how volcanic activity can affect place identity. (AO2)

This will be shown by including developed ideas about volcanic activity and place identity.



Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of volcanic activity and place identity. (AO1)

Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide sound analysis that shows some accuracy of how volcanic activity can affect place identity. (AO2)

This will be shown by including sound ideas about volcanic activity and place identity.



Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of volcanic activity and place identity. (AO1)

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide simple analysis that shows limited accuracy of how volcanic activity can affect place identity. (AO2)

This will be shown by including simple ideas about volcanic activity and place identity.


44 Context:

Define terms, e.g. what is an earthquake, what makes a seismic event into a hazard — the risk equation, what is meant by local scale — usually seen as a few kilometres of where the earthquake has its epicentre.

Identify the types of hazards earthquakes generate:

ground shaking and displacement

liquefaction

landslides and avalanches

tsunamis

Evaluation:

Evaluating the view that earthquakes generate hazards only at the local scale:



Hazardous Earth

assess examples of where the types of hazards have only had local impacts

assess the significance of the earthquake’s magnitude

assess the significance of the vulnerability of the people experiencing the earthquake’s effects

Evaluating the view that earthquakes generate hazards at regional and global scales:

assess examples of earthquake hazards having regional impacts

assess examples of earthquake hazards having global impacts

assess the significance of the earthquake’s magnitude

assess the significance of the vulnerability of the people experiencing the earthquake’s effects


A key factor influencing the spatial scale of the hazards generated by an earthquake is the magnitude of the seismic event. Small-magnitude events such as those affecting the UK, for example, tend to have local-scale hazards, e.g. a little building damage. However, as magnitude increases a greater area is affected and therefore more people are exposed to the hazardous effects. The Great East Japan earthquake of March 2011 sent tsunami waves around the Pacific, causing hazards on the west coast of the USA and reaching Antarctica.

However, even relatively low-magnitude earthquakes may affect people some distance from the epicentre. For example if an event strikes a port/airport or a tourist destination, people some distance away may be affected because of the globalisation of economies and societies. Even if the earthquake only directly impacts people in the immediate locality, their families and friends living away from the area are affected, especially if there are casualties.

In general the greater the earthquake magnitude the greater the area affected. Hazards such as ground shaking and liquefaction tend to decrease quite rapidly with distance from the epicentre. Landslides and avalanches are essentially local hazards. However, a high-magnitude event in a remote, sparsely populated area is much less likely to pose a local hazard but, if it generates a hazard such as a tsunami, then it could extend its impacts over great distances.

Great effort is being put into reducing people’s vulnerabilities to hazards. The most effective developments are associated with advanced countries (ACs) such as Japan but countries such as Indonesia (emerging and developing country, or EDC) and Nepal (low-income developing country, or LIDC) are raising standards of preparation in order to reduce the vulnerabilities of their inhabitants.

AO1


Demonstrates comprehensive knowledge and understanding of hazards arising from earthquakes.



Hazardous Earth


Demonstrates thorough knowledge and understanding of hazards arising from earthquakes.


Demonstrates reasonable knowledge and understanding of hazards arising from earthquakes.


Demonstrates basic knowledge and understanding of hazards arising from earthquakes.

0 marks


AO2


Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide a clear, developed and convincing analysis that is fully accurate of scales at which earthquakes generate hazards.

Demonstrates comprehensive application of knowledge and understanding to provide a detailed and substantiated evaluation that offers secure judgements leading to rational conclusions that are evidence-based as to the extent to which earthquakes generate hazards only at the local scale.



Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide a clear, developed and convincing analysis that shows accuracy of scales at which earthquakes generate hazards.

Demonstrates thorough application of knowledge and understanding to provide a detailed evaluation that offers generally secure judgements, with some link between rational conclusions as to the extent to which earthquakes generate hazards only at the local scale.



Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide a sound analysis that shows some accuracy of scales at which earthquakes generate hazards.

Demonstrates reasonable application of knowledge and understanding to provide a sound evaluation that offers generalised judgements and conclusions, with limited use of evidence as to the extent to which earthquakes generate hazards only at the local scale.




Hazardous Earth


Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide a simple analysis that shows limited accuracy of scales at which earthquakes generate hazards.

Demonstrates basic application of knowledge and understanding to provide an unsupported evaluation that offers simple conclusions as to the extent to which earthquakes generate hazards only at the local scale.

Concepts are not discussed or are done so inaccurately.

0 marks



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