virtual community as a social support:...

VIRTUAL COMMUNITY AS A SOCIAL SUPPORT:

IMMIGRANT FAMILIES IN CANADA

BY

SEIKO HARADA

Integrated Studies Final Project Essay (MAIS 700)

submitted to Dr. Mike Gismondi

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts – Integrated Studies

Athabasca, Alberta

August, 2013

2 VIRTUAL COMMUNITY

Table of Contents

Abstract 3

Introduction 4

Ecological perspective approach 6

Unique needs of immigrant families 8

Positive effects of social support on families’ well-being 10

Communication and community 11

Virtual community as a source of support for immigrant families 14

Conclusion 17

References 19

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ABSTRACT

Immigration in Canada has been on the rise for the past half century. Immigrant parents go

through two major life events almost at the same time: adjusting to new roles as parents, and

adjusting to the new society. As a result of these compounding challenges, it is crucial to

promote the well-being of these parents to ensure healthy development of their children. Virtual

communities may be a viable tool to help parents, to promote the well-being of immigrant

families with small children as they struggle. In this paper, I investigate the effects of virtual

community as a form of social support that increases the coping process of immigrant parents

during the stressful life events. Taking an ecological perspective, literatures from various

disciplines are reviewed through an interdisciplinary approach. Many studies suggest the

importance of social support for coping with stressful life events, such as acculturation and

adjustment to parenthood of young immigrant families. Personal social networks, which

strengthen social support, can exist in virtual communities. Hence, the use of virtual

communities can provide additional support especially for those who tend to be isolated from

society for various reasons.

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Virtual Community as a Social Support: Immigrant Families in Canada

Introduction

Canada has been accepting many immigrants from all over the world and the number of

immigrants in Canada has drastically increased during the past few decades. Immigrants as

individuals as well as entire families from all over the world come to Canada for various reasons:

some seek economic advantages, while others seek less volatile political climates. By 2017,

more than one-fifth of the Canadian population may be foreign-born (Statistics Canada, 2008b).

In the city of Toronto, where I practice as a family support worker, a large portion of the

population is made up of recent immigrants. About 28.3 % of Ontario residents are foreign born

(Statistics Canada, 2008c).

A Family Resource Program (FRP) is a community-based organization designed to

support families with small children, who are generally from 0 to 6 years of age (Kyle &

Kellerman, 1998; Smythe, 2004). For a stronger society, families, the basic unit that makes up

communities, need to function in good condition. Well-functioning families nurture healthy

development of children (Kyle & Kellerman, 1998). FRPs work to empower individuals,

families, and communities for their well-being (Kyle & Kellerman, 1998; Smythe, 2004). The

well-being of a family is an important factor for the healthy growth of children, who will grow

up to play a significant part in Canada’s future.

Family support advocates consider all parents with small children are in need (Smythe,

2004). They need to adjust to a new role as a parent who needs emotional, practical, or

informational support. In addition, moving to a different country, where not only cultures and

customs but also the spoken language is dramatically different from their origin is a life event

(Finch, & Vega, 2003; Thomas, 1995). Immigrant parents are under a lot of stress as they strive

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to acclimatize to a new life in a new environment, and at the same time, they need to establish

themselves as parents.

Social support is believed to be one of the key elements to promote the well-being of

families (Drentea, & Moren-Cross, 2005; Finch, & Vega, 2003; Melkote & Liu, 2000; Rothery,

1999). When we have adequate support, we feel we are better able to cope with the demands of

our lives, while a perception of not enough support leads to the experience of emotional, physical,

or social distress (Rothery, 1999). There is a vast potential for community development online to

increase social support for people in need (Jetelina, 2011a). In the age of information technology

and globalization, a vast amount of information has become available. The internet is a great tool

and provides convenience for those who seek information. It is also a helpful means to interact

with others. Statistics Canada (2008) reports that recent immigrants use the Internet more than

Canadian-born citizens do. The use of Internet is not limited to gaining transmittable one-way

information but to stay in touch with immigrants’ friends and families in their country of origin

(Melkote & Liu, 2000) and meet new friends online (Ridings & Gefen, 2004). Studies show that

the Internet can play a vital role in providing the essential social and emotional support to

immigrant families by, for example, being a member of a virtual community and connecting with

others who are in a similar situation or with the same cultural background (Drentea, & Moren-

Cross, 2005; Finch, & Vega, 2003; Kiesler, 1997; Melkote, & Liu, 2000; Plantin, & Daneback,

2009; Schaffer, Kuczynski, & Skinner, 2008; Scharer, 2005; Wright & Bell, 2003).

Taking an ecological perspective, this paper will explore the positive effects of virtual

community as a source of social support that may promote the well-being of immigrant families

in Canada. Through literature reviews, it aims to gain deeper insight about how virtual

communities influence immigrant families’ acculturation process by providing resources such as

6 VIRTUAL COMMUNITY

social capital. The virtual community also serves as an alternate source of social support. It

becomes a mediating factor that will foster the well-being of families. For the research, I use an

interdisciplinary inquiry because immigration is a complex topic, which requires multiple

disciplinary approaches and perspectives (Angus, 2012; Hirsch, 2012). This mode of inquiry will

bring knowledge together from various disciplines and integrate it into new insights (Angus,

2012). The aim of the study is pragmatic (Newell, 2007) as findings and suggestions may help to

improve family support services that are offered through family resource programs in Toronto.

As a family support worker, I am hoping to be able to highlight the positive effects that online

communities can bring to immigrant families.

First, I will look at factors that contribute to the well-being of families as I identify the

unique needs of immigrant families with small children. Second, I will explore how communities

are formed and create social capital online. My aim is to integrate the theory of social capital

with an understanding of virtual communities that contribute to strengthen social support, as a

key source for the healthy functioning of immigrant families. There are online group discussions

using asynchronous (not in real time) and synchronous (real time) communication. In this paper,

asynchronous online community is examined. Finally, I would like to suggest how to implement

these factors within the context of family support in Toronto.

Ecological perspective approach

The study of immigration and settlement takes various frameworks (Berry, 2001).

However, it is helpful to set a framework that focuses on the psychology of immigration while

taking a broader social context into account. Human life is interrelated with the environment

(Berry, 2001; Park, 1936). The ecological perspective offers a “mode of engagement with

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knowledge, subjectivity, politics, ethics, science, citizenship, and agency that pervades and

reconfigures theory and practice at multiple levels” (Code, 2012, p.192).

The ecological perspective is also central in approaches among FRPs. Individuals and

families are considered as a part of larger systems, and the development of a human is largely

affected by their environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1994; Thompson & Kinne, 1999). Emphasis on

interconnectedness among families, communities, and a larger society is central in supporting

families and their children in a holistic manner (Kyle & Kellerman, 1998). Also, FRPs encourage

mutual support based on equality and respect for diversity (Smythe, 2004).

The community-based family support programs offer a range of services at various levels

that help families and promote their healthy functioning. There are services aimed at the

population that includes immigrant families, as well. For instance, services include counseling,

ESL classes, short-term child-care services, and opportunities to be involved with other

community members. Services are offered in many different languages depending on the

community, in which the family resource programs are based (Kyle & Kellerman, 1998; Smythe,

2004).

Family support programs are proven effective in promoting families’ well-being based on

local-communities; however, advocates are still faced with difficulty reaching parents who are

isolated from society (Rhéaume, 2010). For example, immigrant parents’ limited language ability

or lack of knowledge about the community they live in poses difficulties in making good use of

services. In some cases, immigrant parents’ lower rate of attending parenting support programs is

also due to their disapproval of a parenting style in their new society (Rhéaume, 2010). There are

services that are offered in a language that immigrants use; however, this sometimes creates

tension between Canadian-born parents and immigrant parents (Rhéaume, 2010). Overall

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increase in the general use of the Internet indicates the potential of the Internet as a part of

support services. From the ecological perspective, it is inevitable to include a virtual tool as a

window to reach out to support families. Through interventions that make use of online

communities, family support advocates may be able to solve some of the challenge they are

facing.

Unique needs of immigrant families

Being a parent is one of the life’s happiest and most rewarding experiences, though it can

also be very stressful. Parenting stress is defined by Ostberg, & Hagekull (2000) as “a specific

kind of stress, perceived by the parent and emanating from the demands of being a parent” (p.

615). For example, emotional and physical energy from parents are constantly demanded in

order to meet children’s needs. New experiences also demand additional efforts involved with

learning new skills. New role as a parent may also conflict with other roles such as a wife or a

career-oriented person, for instance (Balaji et al., 2007).

Similarly, immigration can cause a lot of stress to families as well as to a single person

(Assanand, 2011; Jetelina, 2011a; Melkote & Liu, 2000). Immigrants move to Canada for

various reasons and there are marked variations in circumstances; regardless, it is not so easy to

adjust to a new society. “A post-migration decline in functional competence due to unfamiliarity

with the new environment” among new immigrants has been pointed out (Ying & Han, 2008).

Difficulties immigrants face include “learning a new language, having a limited education,

difficulty obtaining adequate employment, low socioeconomic status, stressed family life, and

changed socio-political and immigration status” (Thomas, 1995, p.140). It may accompany

acculturative stress and cultural shock. Immigrants may avoid cross-cultural interaction due to

9 VIRTUAL COMMUNITY

uncertainty and unease caused by limited language skills and cultural knowledge (Ying & Han,

2008).

In addition to general parenting and acculturative stress that may affect immigrant parents’

ability to parent, immigrant parents face unique hurdles to overcome (Assanand, 2011; Jetelina,

2011a). For instance, immigrant parents face practical difficulty such as lack of help and other

resources for effective parenting (FRP Canada, 2010). Teaching children two or more languages

or about their home culture is already an additional task (Jetelina, 2011b). Moreover, they may

face parenting style dilemmas between host and culture of origin. Since theory and practice of

parenting is a social construct, what is good for children tends to be determined by ideologies

that exist in the new host country (Ochocka & Janzen, 2008). A parenting style that is considered

appropriate in one culture may not be viewed positively in another. For instance, Chinese parents

tend to expect their children to be obedient and accept parents’ decisions without question

(Assanand, 2011; Ochocka & Janzen, 2008). Though the authoritarian style of parenting is found

wanting in European cultures, and associated with children’s poor performance at school,

Chinese children are known to do well in academic performance (Ochocka & Janzen, 2008).

Therefore, immigrant parents are often required to re-examine their parenting style (Assanand,

2011). Many of them adopt Western style parenting as a result of assimilating to the host society

(Ochocka & Janzen, 2008).

Furthermore, immigrating to another country can mean losing the social networks that

families had previously established in their homeland. Families may feel isolated without

knowing many families from similar backgrounds, with children of the same age (FRP Canada,

2010; Jetelina, 2011a). Studies confirm that there is the need among parents for positive

affirmation and sharing of parenting experiences with others (Plantin & Daneback, 2009).It is

10 VIRTUAL COMMUNITY

extremely helpful to communicate and share with others about daily lives as well as stressful

events. Finch and Vega (2003) also found that immigrants of Asian origin who lacked social

support experienced lower physical health due to discrimination compared to those who had

social support. Social support is empirically found to be associated with well-being of families

(Wright & Bell, 2003), and plays an important part for immigrants’ improved adjustment to their

new life (Levitt, Lane, & Levitt, 2003; Plantin & Daneback, 2009; Shou, 1997), but also as a

help with parenting (Balaji, et al., 2007; Nicol, 2011). Therefore, one’s limited social network

due to relocation may negatively impact immigrant families’ ability to adjust into their new

context and enjoy an optimal life.

Positive effects of social support on families’ well-being

Social support is linked to our mental and physical health when we go through stressful

life events such as migration, acculturation, and raising children (Drentea, & Moren-Cross, 2005;

Finch, & Vega, 2003; Kiesler, 1997; Melkote, & Liu, 2000; Plantin, & Daneback, 2009; Rothery,

1999; Schaffer, Kuczynski, & Skinner, 2008; Scharer, 2005). Social support is generally defined

as a support that is provided by the interaction with other individuals, groups, or larger

community (Cooke, Rossmann, McCubbin, & Patterson, 1988; Ridings & Gefen, 2004). The

four categories of support that can be offered through social support are: 1) Emotional support,

such as empathy, caring, love, trust, esteem, concern, and listening; 2) Instrumental support,

including goods, money, services, or any direct help; 3) Informational and skills support,

providing advice, suggestions, directives, and information; 4) Appraisal support, providing

affirmation, sense of belongingness, feedback, social comparison, and self-evaluation (Cooke,

Rossmann, McCubbin, & Patterson, 1988; Rothery, 1999).


Emotional support and appraisal support can boost one’s psychological well-being by

providing a buffering effect to reduce stress among members of social group, and that may lead

to an increased physical health (Wright & Bell, 2003). One may be able to get instrumental and

informational support via other means, such as looking up services online or at a library;

however, quality support comes from one’s social networks that can be considered as a valuable

resources (Chiu, Hsu, & Wang, 2006).

Social capital

Social capital is a notion that considers social relationships and networks as “resources

embedded in a social structure” (Drentea & Moren-Cross, 2005, p. 922). It is an important

concept as it connects concepts such as social support, integration and social cohesion (Claridge,

2004). Its definition varies considerably depending on the context and purpose of the study.

Social capital may exist in multiple levels, such as in a family, community, or larger organization

(Claridge, 2004). At any level, interpersonal relationships are valuable as they allow members to

access the social resources available within the network and mobilize them in useful ways (Zhao,

Xue, & Gilkinson, 2010). For instance, Wright and Bell (2003) suggest that social networks may

promote people’s health by rapidly providing information of health and health resources, by

buffering the effect of stress, by reinforcing the health norms through social influence, and by

providing emotional support. By the same token, social capital is believed to be one of major

determinants of immigrant well-being (Zhao, Xue, & Gilkinson, 2010) as well as that of parents

with small children (Balaji, et al., 2007; Drentea & Moren-Cross, 2005).

Communication and community

Communication is a key factor for building social relationships with others and social

support (Wright & Bell, 2003). Kraut et al. (2002) assert that “Communication, including contact


with neighbours, friends, family and participation in social groups improves people’s level of

social support, their probability of having fulfilling personal relationships, their sense of meaning

in life, their self-esteem, their commitment to social norms and to their communities, and their

psychological and physical well-being” (p.50).

Virtual space can be an alternative means for communication with others and it can

contribute to widen one’s social network. The convenience of the Internet also lessen obstacles

such as language difficulty, busy schedule looking after children, or not knowing where to find

friends. Communities can be developed even in virtual environments where people can feel a

sense of belongingness and emotional support (Schaffer, Kuczynski and Skinner, 2008;

Rheingold, 1993; Ridings & Gefen, 2004).

Virtual community

Community, a sociological construct, refers to a group of people with something in

common (Bartle, 2007; Thompson & Kinne, 1999). In some cases, it is a group of people sharing

a homogeneous characteristic, such as people of Japanese origin, unemployed, or a religious

group. In other cases, members do not necessarily share common values, beliefs, language, or

cultures, but living in a same geographical area or belonging to something in common, such as

schools. Traditionally, community is referred to people who are tied to a same geographical

boundary (Ridings & Gefen, 2004). During the last half century, due to an advancement of

information and communication technology, a community can be formed on the Internet as an

online group.

“Electronic networks” where people who share interests are loosely connected through

technology providing information and help to each other can be seen as a form of community

(Rubin & Rubin, 2008). Ridings and Gefen (2004) define virtual communities as “groups of


people with common interests and practices that communicate regularly and for some duration in

an organized way over the Internet through a common location or mechanism”. They may or

may not be tied geographically together, yet usually share interests (Ridings & Gefen, 2004).

Rheingold (1993) explains that virtual community is a social aggregation with sufficient human

feelings building personal relationships using information and communications technology.

The main motivators to join the virtual community found by Ridings and Gefen (2004)

are to access information and to gain social support. Chiu, Hsu, and Wang (2006) stress the value

of information within virtual community: “without rich knowledge, virtual communities are of

limited value” (p.1873). Literatures on parents’ use of Internet suggest that parents are not only

mere consumer of the knowledge. Members of a virtual community not only find, but also

interpret, create, and circulate information (Miura, 2011; Plantin & Daneback, 2009; Ridings &

Gefen, 2004). Additionally, being a member of a virtual community creates the sense of

belonging, which ultimately empower individuals (Schaffer, Kuczynski and Skinner, 2008).

Studies found the significance of emotional support that can relieve the feeling of isolation

among mothers who felt isolated from society while taking care of small babies, and the positive

effects a virtual group can offer (Drentea & Moren-Cross, 2005; Plantin & Daneback, 2009).

Examples of virtual communities include online asynchronous media such as bulletin

boards where members come to discuss topics of shared interests on a regular basis, such as

parenting, medical problems, or the problems of owning a sailboat (Ridings & Gefen, 2004).

Using asynchronous communication is convenient because our busy life with children, different

schedules, and time zones make it difficult to find a time to talk to other members in real time

message (Wright & Bell, 2003). Asynchronous communication also allows multiple people to

respond to a single message (Wright & Bell, 2003).


A virtual community, that I belong to, is an online support group of Japanese families

living in Canada, based in Toronto, called Family Talks Forum (FTF). FTF is a virtual

community designed to support young families of Japanese origin through online forum (Miura,

2011). Basic interactions among members are via e-mails and postings on the forum. Other

activities include parenting workshops, the end-of-year family parties, and annual picnics.

Professionals of Japanese origin who are actively working in Canadian communities, such as a

public health nurse, realtors, RESP agents, social services workers are also member and offering

help through the forum. Some members only receive information that is distributed or by asking;

others enthusiastically debate matters of concern including children’s schools, organize activities

and appeal to other members.

In the FTF community, online interactions may lead to activities in persons, such as local

playgroups, fund raising events, and starting up or promotion of small businesses. This often

develops into closer friendships and strengthens one’s social support. The exchanges online as

well as physical meetings among members of FTF create a strong sense of community. Many

members contribute to improve members’ lives through offering knowledge and skills to add to

the services to support community. The information provided is archived and anyone who joins

later can access it anytime, creating the knowledge capital.

Virtual community as a source of support for immigrant families

My personal example of FTF shows that a virtual community can provide an example of

virtual communities that found support networks and social capital exist online, as they do in

traditional communities (Drentea & Moren-Cross, 2005; Wright & Bell, 2003). Moreover, to

increase mutual benefit for members, organizers of social networks can promote and coordinate

further cooperation among people (Chiu, Hsu, and Wang, 2006; Putnam, 1995; Thompson &


Kinne, 1999). When young immigrant families are going through a life event that requires a

great deal of adjustment, the Internet is able to offer networking opportunities with others in the

same situation and provide other forms of social support (Scharer, 2005; Wright & Bell, 2003).

Immigrants’ acculturation and ethnic identity

Furthermore, the FTF community promotes the attitude of acculturation called

“integration” (Abougendiaand & Noels, 2001, p.165). This attitude values cultural maintenance

of origin, at the same time, it seeks interaction with other cultural groups. It is shown to be the

most effective attitude among immigrants for the psychological adjustment to new society

(Abougendiaand & Noels, 2001) For example, in the FTF community, a new parent in Canada

seeks where to find a Japanese school for his or her children. A new home owner asked about a

good contractor who may not necessarily be Japanese, but can help. This contributes to maintain

members’ ethnic identity, while providing useful information and resources that can increase

members’ social capital to help their adjustment to new environment.

The virtual community can also positively support immigrant families in maintaining

their ethnic identity and the process of adjusting to Canadian culture. Immigrants find it easier to

adjust to a new society with support of their ethnic peers online (Melkote & Liu, 2000). Keeping

close ties to people from the same cultural background and having access to services that support

these cultural ties is linked with better integration of immigrants in a new society and with their

well-being (Zhao, Xue, & Gilkinson, 2010). For example, Melkote and Liu (2000) revealed that

the higher use of Chinese ethnic Internet was associated with stronger preservation of their

Chinese cultural values. The community linked participants together creating user communities

and helped the process of pluralism. The use of the Internet also provided the learning of

American behaviours that helped Chinese immigrants to acculturate into their new culture


(Melkote & Liu, 2000). The use of Internet can strengthen the ties of ethnic community members

and support the process of adjustment to new cultures and environments.

The advantage of virtual community

Easy access to the community via Internet is an advantage for people who are likely to be

isolated from a society for various reasons (Wright & Bell, 2003). A study shows that mothers

who were more isolated with small babies tend to use the Internet as a source of information and

social support more than mothers who are less isolated (Drentea & Moren-Cross, 2005). In

addition, partial or full anonymity and “the fewer status cues” that indicate different

socioeconomic group is another reason virtual community is convenient (Wright & Bell, 2003).

Virtual community as a resource in Family Support context

Fortunately, many studies have indicated the general positive effects of Internet use

among users, and this is an opportunity to reach out to parents who are reluctant to take

advantage of the services offered by FRP. The context of services offered also need cautious

scrutiny. Thompson and Kinne (1999) highlight WHO’s report on how community organizations

can adjust the community setting to promote people’s well-being based on “principle of

participation” (p.36). This principle refers to the idea that people are empowered as they take

control of problems by defining, planning, and acting upon them (Thompson & Kinne, 1999).

Since a number of online parent groups already exist on the Internet, immigrant families only

need to acquire the knowledge of how to access them and acquire the means of accessing them.

For instance, a catalogue of websites with details on languages used and community background

information could reduce the time and effort required to seek out these sites. To further reduce

any additional barriers, it would be ideal if these families can have access to computers with

internet access. Moreover, families can engage in consuming and creating content online without


having to worry about their children: by offering temporary childcare, family resource centres

can offer additional support to immigrant parents’ acculturation process as well as their learning

journey.

The disadvantage of virtual community

Nevertheless, it is also important to caution the use of the Internet. Users need to be alert

about false information and privacy issues (Sharer, 2005) as well as hostile messages (Wright &

Bell, 2003). The difficulty of forming long-term relationships with people within virtual

communities is also mentioned as a disadvantage of Internet use (Wright & Bell, 2003). Besides,

not everyone can afford personal computers or the Internet connection at home. It is also ideal

for parents to socialize and be involved with a traditional form of community, such as schools

and local community centres for children’s optimal development (Ying & Han, 2008), I

recommend that immigrant families make use of virtual communities as stepping stones to be

fully adjusted and establish a family life in their new country.

Conclusion

It has been demonstrated that virtual social communities play a significant role in

supporting immigrant families to cope with the difficulties they face with relocation. Virtual

communities can help immigrant families by broadening their social networks and increase the

likelihood for them to seek out and connect with other parents with the same or similar cultural

background, whether virtual or in person (Kiesler, 1997; Plantin & Daneback, 2009; Ridings &

Gefen, 2004; Scharer, 2005; Wright & Bell, 2003). Easier access to communication online

would increase the likelihood for immigrant parents with small children to socialize more, and

that would heighten the positive effect of social support. Being members of virtual communities


would also provide emotional support and contribute to immigrant parents’ well-being (Drentea

& Moren-Cross, 2005; Plantin & Daneback, 2009).

The Internet is a great tool and it has great potential in supporting immigrant families.

However, a successful bridging of these technologies to existing services needs to be carefully

examined. We need to note its shortcomings as well as merits. As an advantage, a virtual

community of people from similar backgrounds who find themselves adapting to the same new

society provides a social network to families. Virtual social networks operate as social capital

and can offer a wide breadth of information, whether cultural specific or not. It may also lead to

personal friendships. Consequently, virtual communities can help immigrant families adjust to

new contexts of living in Canada. Nevertheless, using the Internet for communication and

making use of social support online is not free of concern: users need to understand hazards

regarding the truthfulness of information, the issue of privacy, hostile messages, and weaker ties

among online community members versus real-life communities. There is also the issue of

accessibility. Access to hardware and fees associated with internet services may be cost

prohibitive for some.

In this study, it is clear that virtual community can offer social support and contribute to

immigrant families’ better adjustment and their well-being. However, this type of study would be

stronger with further empirical studies. Through literature reviews, it is difficult to identify the

amount of social or other support a virtual community can provide to immigrant families.

Longitudinal studies may also be useful in demonstrating the long-term effects of reliance on

virtual community.


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