vegetable gardening - oregon state university · 2015. 11. 7. · gardening equipment garden...

Vegetable Gardening ❂7TOPICS IN THIS CHAPTER❂

By Pat Patterson, Extension programassistant, Lane County, Oregon StateUniversity.

The two major keys to a successful vegetablegarden are planning and maintaining growthmomentum. Planning will make your garden

more productive and enjoyable. After your garden isplanted, you’ll need to maintain growth momentumthrough proper fertilization, irrigation, and weedcontrol. This chapter provides information on all thesetopics.

Selecting a garden site• Select a level area that has loose, well-drained soil

and receives at least 8 hours of sun per day(12 hours is ideal).

• On sloped sites, use contour rows or terraces toreduce erosion. South-facing slopes are warmer andless subject to damaging frosts. However, perenni-als may be more likely to bloom too early and sufferdamage from late spring frost on south-facingslopes.

• Avoid placing the garden in a low spot, at the baseof a hill, or at the foot of a slope bordered by a solidfence. Such areas are slow to warm in the springand, since cold air naturally drains into low areas,frost settles there. Also, if a creek is nearby, thewater table may be very high, or the area may besubject to flooding.

• Avoid windy locations. If you must plant in a windyspot, build or grow a windbreak.

• Locate the garden near a good, easily accessiblewater supply.

• Choose a spot near your house so it is convenientto work in the garden when you have a few minutes.

• Avoid planting near trees and shrubs, as theycompete for nutrients and water and may shadeyour plants.

■ Selecting a garden site■ Planning■ Gardening equipment■ Preparing the soil■ When to plant■ Starting from seed■ Using transplants■ Irrigating■ Fertilizing■ Weed control■ Intensive gardening■ Container gardening■ Fall and winter gardening■ Season extenders■ Harvesting vegetables■ Garden cleanup■ Cover crops■ Herb gardening

126 • Vegetable Gardening—Chapter 7

• Note that sites near buildings may notreceive enough sunlight. Observeshading patterns through the growingseason before starting your garden. Touse a shaded area, plant shade-tolerant crops and increase effectivelight by reflecting light to the plants.

• Try not to plant genetically relatedcrops in the same location more thanonce every 3 years. Rotation preventsthe buildup of some insects and mostsoil diseases. Chapter 15, Plant Dis-ease, contains a list of related crops.

• Avoid locations near busy roads.Airborne pollutants (especially lead)from automobile exhaust can contami-nate vegetables, especially leafy types.If you must plant in a lead-prone area,plant a hedge to trap airborne lead.Organic matter in the soil also helpsbind lead. Avoid locating the gardenon a site where buildings with leadpaint have stood, as lead may bepresent in the soil in toxic amounts.

PlanningAnswering the following questions is a

vital part of planning:• Who will do the work? Will the garden

be a group project, with family mem-bers or friends working willinglythrough the season? Or will you behandling the hoe alone betweencamping and swimming? Remember, asmall, weed-free garden producesmore than a large, weedy mess.

• What do you and your family like toeat? Although vegetables in gardencatalogs look delicious, there is novalue in growing things no one eats.List your family’s favorite vegetablesin order of preference. Use this listwhen deciding how much to plant ofeach. Successive plantings of certaincrops, such as beans, give a longerharvest and increase your yield.

• How do you plan to use your produce?Canning, freezing, drying, or simply

storing are factors not only in planningthe size of the garden but also inselecting varieties. Some varietieskeep much better than others. Makesure your selections are adapted toyour intended use.

• How much space is available? Considerhow much area can be converted intousable garden space, not simply howmuch empty ground you have.

Here are some additional planningsuggestions:• Plan the garden on paper first, as early

as January or February. List recom-mended varieties and planting dates.Draw a map showing arrangement andspacing of crops. If you want to keepthe garden growing all season, youmay need a spring, summer, and fallgarden plan. Using transparent over-lays is an excellent way to plan androtate a garden.

• In your plan, place tall and trellisedcrops on the north side of the gardenso they won’t shade shorter veg-etables.

• Group plants by growing period. Plantspring crops together so you can plantlater crops in these areas after theearly crops mature. Consider length ofharvest as well as time to maturity. Putperennial crops to the side of thegarden so they will not be disturbedby annual tillage and replanting.

• Order seeds at least 2 to 4 monthsbefore planting. You can start someplants indoors as early as January.Start your plants at the right time sothey are not too mature or too fragilewhen it’s time to plant.

Gardening equipmentGarden catalogs and stores are full of

tools, many highly specialized. Some arevery useful, others are nice but unneces-sary, and some are gimmicks. The equip-ment you need depends on the size ofyour garden, your strength and physical

✿See Chapter 15,Disease.

Chapter 7—Vegetable Gardening • 127

condition, and whether you want to getthe job done quickly or prefer to take yourtime. OSU Extension publication EM 8504describes how to modify tools for peoplewith physical problems.

The minimum equipment needed bymost gardeners includes a shovel orspade, a scuffle-type hoe, a rake, and atrowel. There is a wide selection of styles,and the choice really is one of personalpreference and budget. You can get thebest value for the price by consideringeach tool’s uses and particular qualitieswhen comparison shopping.

When purchasing tools, buy for qualityrather than quantity. You’ll use your toolsfrequently. Cheap tools tend to break ordull easily and make a job unnecessarilydifficult and frustrating. Quality tools lastand keep their value if well kept. Toolsshould be lightweight for easy handling,but heavy enough to do the job properly.Metal parts should be steel or hardenedaluminum, which stay sharp, keep theirshape, and outlast softer metals.

Hand tools for cultivatingVarious hand tools are illustrated in

Figures 1 and 2.Shovels are earth movers with

dish-shaped blades mounted to thehandle at an angle. A garden shovel with apointed blade is lighter and smaller thanmost other shovels and is well suited forgarden use.

Spades have a flat blade and aredesigned for cutting rather than lifting ormoving soil. They are excellent for shap-ing straight-sided trenches and edgingbeds.

Shovels and spades come with long orshort handles in standard or D-shapedstyles. Your choice of handle styledepends on personal preference. Forgeneral-purpose digging, lifting, andmoving, a long-handled shovel is ideal.Long handles offer greater leverage andare less tiring to use; short handles oftenare thicker and stronger. Choose a toolthat fits your height and strength.

A spading fork is useful for breaking andturning heavy soils and for looseningsubsoil layers when double-digging a bed.Turning coarse compost, spreadingmulches, and digging root crops are otherjobs suitable for a spading fork.

A hoe is essential for preparing a seed-bed, removing weeds, and breaking upcrusted soil. Several hoe styles are avail-able. The lightweight Warren hoe has aheart-shaped blade and is useful foropening seed furrows and cultivatingbetween plants. The hula, or action, hoe is

Figure 1.—Examples of hand tools.

CultivatorTrowel

Figure 2.—Examples of cultivating tools. (Reprinted by permission from Home Gardens, EB0422,Washington State University.)

SpadeSpading fork Hoe Rake


a lightweight, maneuverable scuffle hoe.Pushing and pulling it just under the soilsurface eliminates newly emerging weedsand breaks up crusted soil. This hoeworks best on noncompacted soil, sincethe blade is relatively thin and lacks theclod-breaking capabilities of a heavierhoe. It also is less effective where weedshave gotten a good start. Other types ofscuffle hoes are somewhat sturdier andare used with a pushing motion ratherthan pushing and pulling.

A sturdy rake is useful for clearing awayrocks and debris, spreading mulches, andsmoothing seedbeds. Choose a rake basedon your size, strength, and intended uses.As the number of tines increases, theweight also increases. Avoid choosing arake so heavy it will tire you quickly. Thelength of the rake handle also is impor-tant. The tip of the handle should comeup to your ear when the rake is standingupright. A handle that is too short willmake your work harder and cause excessbending and back strain.

You’ll use a trowel a lot, especially inspring, for digging jobs that don’t requirefull-size tools. Trowels are perfect fortransplanting seedlings and bulbs ordigging shallow-rooted weeds.

Small hand cultivators, often sold insets with trowels, are good for weedingsmall areas and between closelyspaced plants. Another useful diggingtool is appropriately named a dande-lion digger (also known as a weeder,cultivator, or asparagus knife). It isindispensable for digging weedswith long taproots, such as dande-lions or Queen Anne’s lace, or

for prying out quack-grass rhizomes. Itconsists of a long(10 to 14 inches) solidmetal rod with a two-pronged blade at one

end and a handle atthe other.

Other tools include pickaxes, mattocks,and wheel cultivators. Pickaxes break upextremely hard-packed or stony soil.Mattocks are used for the same purpose,but have a cutting blade for removinglarge roots. A mattock also can chopdebris for composting. A wheel cultivatorhas a number of attachments for soilpreparation and weed control and mayprove a good investment for large gar-dens. Tarps and 5-gallon buckets also arehandy.

Power toolsThe power rotary tiller is the power tool

most commonly used by gardeners.Whether or not you need a rototillerdepends on the size of your garden, yourcapabilities, and your intended uses of thetiller. Remember that overusing a tillercan destroy soil structure.

Both front- and rear-tined tillers areavailable. Rear-tined tillers self-propel onall but the rockiest soils. They travelstraight and produce a footprint-freeseedbed. There are optional attachmentsfor a variety of uses, such as hilling pota-toes, making raised beds, and even plow-ing snow! The price of a rear-tinedrototiller is considerably higher than thatof a front-tined type. Consider the pay-back time necessary for such a largeinvestment.

Front-tined tillers are useful for lighterchores such as shallow cultivation or finalseedbed preparation. They even areavailable in electric models.

Few other power tools are needed for avegetable garden. A shredder is handy fora large garden with a lot of plant waste.Hand-operated shredders are slow butuseful for small amounts of waste that isnot too coarse. Gasoline shredders arequite expensive and should not beexpected to chip branches and other largematerials. They are best for shreddingleaves, small branches, and other plantwastes. (Sunflower stalks, for example,


probably would be too large.) A chipper,on the other hand, will chip largebranches and other coarse material. Achipper-shredder is a valuable aid forlarge gardens and/or serious composters.

Carts and wheelbarrowsA wheelbarrow or cart is handy in and

around the garden. It should be easy tomaneuver when full. Choose a size appro-priate for your physical abilities andgarden needs. A wheelbarrow requiresmore strength and control than mostgarden carts.

Durable construction is well worth theprice to ensure a long, useful life. Manysmall carts are made of relatively flimsymetal and, although inexpensive, are notparticularly long-lasting or suitable forheavy items such as rocks. If you plan onhauling only light straw, leaves, sawdust,or similar materials, then a small cart isadequate. For heavier jobs, use a wheel-barrow or investigate the newer gardencarts, especially those with bicycle-sizetires, which make easy work of hauling.They are made of plywood and metal or ofaluminum, and are well-balanced and easyto maneuver. Some even are collapsible.

Watering equipmentWatering is a must. Adequate water

makes a big difference in garden yields.Determine whether cultural practicessuch as mulching, close plant spacing,shading, or wide-bed planting will meetyour extra water needs. Then purchasewatering equipment accordingly.

Overhead sprinklers waste water; dripirrigation systems are more efficient. Dripirrigation puts water right at the roots anddoesn’t wet plant leaves, thereby helpingto control disease.

Timers allow automatic watering withdrip and some other systems. However,they are relatively expensive and may be anuisance because of maintenance andplacement requirements.

Environmental monitoring equipmentSerious gardeners often invest in equip-

ment that allows them to monitor themicroclimate around their garden. Thesetools help you tailor gardening practicesto your particular site. For example:• A rain gauge is an inexpensive device

that tells you how much rain hasfallen.

• A maximum-minimum thermometermeasures nighttime lows and daytimehighs. You can use it to determineyour site’s microclimate.

• Soil thermometers measure soil tem-perature and the internal temperatureof compost piles. They can help youknow when to plant.

Trellises and cagesTrellises and cages for vining plants

save space and keep fruits off the ground,thereby reducing plant damage and savingyour back.

Building your own saves money, andyou’ll get better quality for the price. Youcan even make a swing-down trellis tomake it easier to harvest vegetables fromvining plants. Use heavy-duty materialsand sturdy design so the structurewill withstand plant weight,rain, and wind. Useheavy-gauge wire andwood treated with anontoxic material. Donot use wood treatedwith creosote or pen-tachlorophenol. Concretereinforcing wire and PVCpipes also make excellentbasic materials.

Tool maintenanceThoughtfully selected and

maintained, your tools willgive many years of service.The most important step intool care is to put tools intheir proper places.


Tools left in the garden rust and break andcan be a safety hazard. Some gardenerspaint handles a bright color to make toolseasy to spot.

Keeping a tool clean and sharpincreases its usefulness and lengthens itslife. Learn and practice the techniques ofsharpening each tool. Professional garden-ers often carry sharpening stones or filesand sharpen tools after every hour or soof use.

Clean your tools after each use. Oneeffective method is to fill a 5-gallon bucketwith sand and moisten the sand thor-oughly with oil. Keep the bucket in yourtool shed, and at the end of the gardeningday, remove clinging dirt from tools byplunging them into the oily sand severaltimes. This practice keeps tools clean andoiled and prevents rusting.

Anyone with actual experience using ahoe can tell you there is a great differencebetween a sharp hoe and a dull one. Whilesharpening a hoe may seem like a lost art,it is easy to learn.

Hoes can be sharpened using an 8-inchmill file. Put the hoe blade in a vise orstand it up against a solid surface. Fileagainst the cutting edge, using enoughpressure so that the file cuts instead ofslides. Try to maintain the original angleof the bevel. Be careful not to let yourhands slip and get cut on the newlysharpened blade.

In fall, get your tools ready for winter asfollows:• Sharpen tools, lightly oil metal parts,

and rub wooden handles with linseedoil.

• Drain gasoline from power tools andobtain filters, mufflers, and tune-upparts so that a fall or late-wintertuning can get machines ready forearly spring jobs. Have maintenancedone during winter when demand islowest.

• Clean trellises, cages, traps, and otherpest control devices. Store them insideif possible.

• Repair cold frames and other seasonextenders and protect them fromdamage after their job is done.

• Oil and store wheeled tools such ascultivators, seeders, and carts.

Preparing the soilThe ideal vegetable garden

soil is deep, easily worked,and well drained, and con-tains at least 5 percentorganic matter. Proper soilpreparation provides the basisfor good seed germination and subse-quent crop growth. Careful use of soilamendments improves garden soil andprovides the best possible start for yourcrops. If your soil is high in clay, you maywant to use raised beds. If wind anddrought are serious problems, considersunken beds.

Soil testingCheck soil fertility and pH by having

your soil analyzed before starting a gar-den. Recheck in 3 to 5 years if you arehaving any problems. For best results,carefully follow instructions for taking thesoil sample.

Soil tests measure the level of somenutrients as well as soil pH. They do nottest for potential disease or contamina-tion problems.

Soil pH measures the degree of acidityor alkalinity of the soil. Soil pH affectsavailability of many plant nutrients. If it istoo high or too low, poor crop growth willresult. Vegetable requirements vary, butmost crops do well with a pH of 6.2 to 6.8,which is slightly below neutral (slightlyacid).

Your county Extension office can pro-vide a list of soil laboratories. Thelaboratory will mail results to you withrecommendations for correcting anydeficiencies that may exist. You then candiscuss these reports and recommenda-tions with your local Extension office.

✿See Chapter 2,Soils andFertilizers.


TillingTo prepare a new garden, remove sod

and put it upside down in a pile to com-post. Plow, spade, or rototill the soil. Turnthe soil again each year before planting.

Work only when soil moisture condi-tions are correct. Working excessively wetsoils can destroy soil structure, whichmay take years to rebuild. Plowing wetsoil with a tractor is especially damaging,as it creates a compaction layer thatinhibits root growth. Soils with adequatehumus generally allow more leeway inwhen they can be worked because theyhave better structure.

To test soil moisture, take a handful ofsoil and squeeze it. If it stays in a mudball, it is too wet. If it is powdery andclumped, it is too dry. If it crumbles freely,it is about right. If soil sticks to a shovel,or the turned surface is shiny and smoothwhen spading, it still is too wet.

Working soil in the fall has severaladvantages over traditional springplowing:• It allows earlier planting, as the

basic soil preparation alreadyis done when spring arrives.

• Turning under large amountsof organic matter in the fall islikely to result in betterdecomposition, sinceautumn temperatures arehigher than those of earlyspring, and there is more timefor the process to take placebefore planting.

• Harmful insects, disease organ-isms, and perennial weeds arekilled, buried, or exposedto harsh winterweather.

• Heavy clay soilsimprove with alter-nate freezing andthawing, which breaksup tightly aggregatedparticles.

• Snow is trapped in roughly plowedsoil, so more moisture is retained thanon flat, bare ground.

• Incorporating limestone or rockfertilizers in the fall allows them tointegrate with the soil and influencespring plant growth.

Note, however, that spring plowing isbetter for sandy soils and those whereshallow tilling is practiced. Fall plowingalone is not recommended for steepgarden plots, since soil is exposed allwinter and may erode when it rains. Onesolution is to grow a winter cover crop toimprove soil and prevent erosion. In thiscase, till in the fall to prepare the soil forseed and again in spring to turn under thegreen manure. (See “Cover crops” later inthis chapter.)

Generally, most gardens must be diskedor rototilled in the spring to smooth thesoil for planting. (Permanent raised bedsare an exception.) Just before planting,break up large clods of soil and rake the

bed level. Small-seeded vegetablesgerminate best in smooth, fine-

surfaced soil.Do not pulverize the soil.

Over-tilling destroys soilstructure and promotescrusting, which inhibitswater infiltration and

increases erosion. The equipment you choose

to prepare your garden dependson the garden’s size as well as onyour physical ability, time, andbudget. Options include hand-digging with a fork, spade, orshovel; tilling with a power

rotary tiller; and usinga small gardentractor or full-sizefarm tractor. If youhave raised beds,

your choices maybe limited to small

hand tools.


Turning the soil over completely can bedetrimental; it may create soil compac-tion, upset the balance of microorgan-isms, and bury coarse organic matter sodeeply that insects and microbes can’tbreak it down. Rototilling, however, isacceptable for most home gardens as longas plant debris accumulation is not exces-sive. It has the benefit of mixing the upperlayers of soil rather than completelyturning them over, although one possibleharmful effect of rototilling is to form acompaction layer just beyond the reach ofthe tines. Use of deep-rooted cover cropsor double-digging can alleviate this prob-lem. Alternatively, raised beds can beworked entirely by hand.

Adding soil amendmentsIncorporate slow-release additives such

as aged manure, limestone, rock fertiliz-ers, or green manure several weeks beforeplanting. Add soluble fertilizers andfinished compost just before planting.

When to plantRegardless of whether you plant seeds

directly in your garden, start your owntransplants, or purchase transplants, it’simportant to plant each crop at the cor-rect time. Air and soil temperatures arecritical to maintaining healthy plantgrowth, so planting too early or too late

may deny yourvegetables thechance togrow anddevelop undergood conditions.

For each type ofplant, there is aminimum, optimum,maximum, and criticalair temperature. Often,nighttime temperature ismost critical, especiallyfor fruit set on peppers,tomatoes, cucumbers, and melons. Tem-perature range often is more critical thanthe average. Table 1 shows minimum,optimum, and maximum air temperaturesfor common vegetables.

Another aspect of temperature is grow-ing degree days (GDD). This value mea-sures the heat units usable by a plant forgrowing. For each crop, it is based on thetemperature at which plants begin to grow(known as the base temperature). For cool-season crops, the base temperature is40°F; for most warm-season crops, it’s50°F; and for peppers, eggplants, melons,and other tropicals, it’s 60°F. Each croprequires a certain number of GDD tomature. For example, grapes require 1,000to 1,600 GDD to sweeten and ripen. GDDalso are used to predict pest emergence inorder to time controls optimally.

Table 1.—Air temperatures for vegetable growth.Crop Minimum (°F) Optimum (°F) Maximum (°F)Bean, snap 50 80–90 100–110Corn 50 85–90 100–115Cucumber 48–50 75–80 95–105Eggplant 60 70–85 95–100Melon 59–65 86–98 110–120Pepper 60 70–80 95–100Pea 38–42 50–60 70–75Potato 43–45 50–60 80–90Tomato 50–55 60–80 85–95 (Night temperatures for fruit set) 55–56 59–68 72


To calculate a day’s GDD, use the follow-ing equation:

GDD = Max temp + Min temp

– Base temp 2

Add up the GDD since planting tocalculate the accumulated GDD for a crop.

Soil temperature is as important as airtemperature for plant growth. All seedsgerminate best when soil temperature isabout 70°F. Table 2 shows minimum (notoptimum) soil temperatures for vegetablegrowth. The nitrogen cycle, which isimportant for making nutrients availableto plants, is inactive below 40°F and mostactive between 80° and 90°F. Check thesoil temperature at 9 a.m. at a 2-inchdepth for 7 consecutive days.

Starting from seedChoosing and purchasing vegetable

seeds is a most enjoyable gardeningpastime. Thumbing through colorfulcatalogs and dreaming of the season’sharvest make winter seem a little warmer.Make notes about the seeds you choose—their germination qualities, plant vigor,and insect and disease problems. Fromthis information, you can determinewhether a seed company meets yourneeds, and whether your chosen varietiesare suitable for your area and gardeningstyle. For example, if powdery mildew is abig problem on squash family plants inyour area, you may want to look formildew-resistant varieties.

Planting depthVarious factors such as seed size, soil

type, and season influence the depth tocover seeds. Some seeds require light togerminate and should not be covered atall. Read the packet directions. Instruc-tions apply to seeds planted both indoorsand out.

As a general rule, if soil is quite sandyor high in organic matter, plant seeds to adepth of four to five times their width, not

their length. Seedlings emerge quite easilyfrom sandy or organic soil.

If soil is heavy, with a high silt and/orclay content, cover seeds only two tothree times their diameter. Apply a bandof sand, fine compost, or vermiculite4 inches wide and 1⁄4 inch thick along therow. These materials help retain soilmoisture, reduce crusting, and make iteasier for seedlings to push through.

When you plant a fall garden in midsum-mer, the soil is warm and dry. Cover seedssix to eight times their diameter.

Starting seeds indoorsAdequate light is essential for starting

seeds indoors. More home-grown seed-lings are lost to inadequate light than toany other factor. Seedlings grown underlow-light conditions are leggy and weak,and topple over when they are 3 to4 inches tall. Unless you have a sunnyroom or porch with a southern exposure,you will need supplemental lights. Afluorescent shop light with two cool whitebulbs suffices. Two bulbs illuminate awidth of 12 inches along the length of thebulbs, although light intensity falls off atboth ends. Replace bulbs yearly.

A soilless or peat-lite mix is best forstarting seedlings. Garden soil contains

Table 2.—Minimum soil temperatures forvegetable growth.Crop Temperature (°F)Bean, snap 48–50Cabbage 38–40Carrot 39–41Corn* 60–65Eggplant 55–60Melon 55–60Onion 34–36Pea 34–36Pepper 55–60Potato 39–41Radish 48–50Tomato 50–55

*Supersweet varieties are very sensitive to lowtemperatures.

✿See Chapter 3,Propagation.


highly destructive disease organisms thatcan kill small plants. If you want to usesoil, pasteurize it first. To do so, placeslightly moist soil in a heat-resistantcontainer, cover it, and bake it in a 250°Foven. Use a candy or meat thermometerto ensure that the mix reaches 140°F for atleast 30 minutes. This is a smelly process,but it works.

You can make your own peat-lite mixwith 50 percent vermiculite or perlite and50 percent fine sphagnum peat. You alsocan add pasteurized soil as one-third ofthe mix.

There are several options for seed-starting containers:• Although expensive, preformed peat

pellets or cubes require no additionalsoil mix. Soak them until thoroughlywet, and plant seeds in the holesprovided. You then can plant thewhole cube in the garden withoutdisturbing the roots.

• You can plant seeds in rows in flats orother large containers and growseedlings until they have one or twosets of true leaves. At this time, trans-plant them into individual containersand grow them to transplant size.Economical options include pots, oldcans, cut-off milk cartons, margarinetubs, or other throwaways.

• Pop-out trays, available at gardencenters, are easy to use and reusable.

• Peat pots are good, especially for largeseeds and herbs. Sow one or two largeseeds, or several small seeds, directlyin each peat pot. Thin to one or twoseedlings per pot. Plant peat potsdirectly into the garden. Remove oneside and do not allow the edges to

stick above the soil; they act as a wickand evaporate moisture from theexposed surface.

• You can make paper pots or soil cubeswith or without special equipment, oryou can purchase pot-making kits.

Regardless of the container you use, fillit three-quarters full with a seed-startingmixture. Be sure there is adequate soildepth for the plant. Sow the seeds(Figure 3), cover them to the specifieddepth, and add water. If your home is dry,cover the containers with plastic wrap tomaintain a consistent moisture level untilthe seeds germinate.

Seeds and seedlings are extremelysensitive to drying out. Do not keep themsoaking wet, however, since constantmoisture is conducive to damping-off, afungal disease deadly to seedlings. Pre-vent or reduce damping-off by sprinklingmilled sphagnum moss, which contains anatural fungicide, on top of the soil.

Planting seeds directly in the gardenSoil temperature affects the speed of

seed germination (Table 2). In the spring,soil is cold, and many seeds rot beforethey have a chance to sprout. Pre-sprouting is useful for planting in coldsoils. To presprout seeds, place thembetween two layers of damp paper towels.Place the towels in a plastic bag and keepthem in a warm place until the seedsgerminate. Another method is to soakseeds for 4 hours. After presproutingseeds, plant them as usual. Handlesprouted seed very carefully to preventdamaging new roots.

When you plant a fall garden in midsum-mer, you may need to water lightly eachday to promote germination. Covering therow with a shallow mulch or board untilseedlings emerge retains moisture. Checkoften and remove the board when you seethe first seedlings. Shading the area keepsthe soil cooler for germination. Seedsrequiring a low germination temperatureFigure 3.—Seeding onions.


may benefit from 2 weeks of refrigerationbefore planting or presprouting.

For ease in planting, you can easilymake your own seed tapes. To do so, layout a strip of toilet tissue. Squeeze whiteglue into a lid, dip a toothpick in the glue,pick up a seed with the toothpick, andplace it on the tissue. Be sure to space theseeds correctly for planting. Let the gluedry, roll the tissue, and label and storeuntil needed. You also can place lines ofgelatin (dissolve gelatin in water followingpackage directions) on the tissue, lay theseeds in place, dry, and store.

Some seeds are difficult to germinate(e.g., parsley). To enhance germination,soak these seeds for 4 hours in a mixtureof 1 teaspoon saltpeter to 1 quart of water(Saltpeter is the active ingredient inStump Killer, which is available in mostgarden stores.)

Broadcast plantingYou can sow most crops in wide rows or

beds instead of in long, single rows(Figure 4). Radishes, spinach, beans, peas,beets, lettuce, scallions, and carrots areespecially suited to this type of culture.Sow seeds evenly, rake them in, and firmsoil over them. Thin young plants to allowroom for growth. This method of plantingmakes weeding challenging. Quadruple-row planting (leaving a space betweenblocks of four closely planted rows)allows you to use a hoe for weeding.

Hill plantingPlant larger vegetables such as melons,

squash, corn, and cucumbers in hills(Figure 4). A hill is not a mound, but agrouping of seeds. Plant four or five seedsper hill and firm the soil well. Thin tothree to five seedlings per hill.

Saving seeds from your gardenSaving your own seed can give you a

sense of self-sufficiency and save money.You also can maintain a variety notavailable commercially, which helps

perpetuate a broad genetic base of plantmaterial. Breeders search for old-timevarieties when attempting to improvecommercial plants; often heirloom variet-ies have inbred disease and pest resis-tance or cold hardiness. Participation in aseed-saver’s exchange is rewarding. Youcan trade your extra seeds for unusualtypes not available through other sources.

Common self-pollinated annuals forseed saving include lettuce, beans, peas,herbs, and tomatoes. Follow these guide-lines to save seed successfully:• Save seeds only from open-pollinated

varieties, since offspring of hybridsare not likely to be the same as theirparents. Some dealers have respondedto the increased interest in seedsaving by clearly marking open-pollinated varieties in their catalogs.

• Do not keep seeds from a diseasedcrop. It is possible to carry seed-bornediseases into the next year’s crop.

• Take care to prevent disease develop-ment during the seed drying process.Frequent rain or high humidity ham-pers seed drying. In cool, rainyweather, dry seeds indoors.

Rows Banded row HillsFigure 4.—Planting methods.


• Do not save seeds from cross-pollinated crops unless you are askilled seed saver. Typical problemcrops come from the squash andcarrot families. If you have ever savedsquash seed in a season when youplanted more than one type of squash,you probably have seen some weirdresults of cross-pollination.

• Clearly mark the variety and datesaved in permanent ink on seed stor-age containers. Store seeds in the darkat less than 50 percent humidity andless than 50°F. An ideal way to prepareseed for long-term storage is to placeseed packets in a jar, seal the jartightly, and place it in a refrigerator orfreezer. To help absorb moisture, placea small cloth bag filled with dry pow-dered milk beneath the seed packetsin the bottom of the jar. Use about1⁄2 cup of dry milk from a recentlyopened package. Seed viability isdirectly related to storage conditions.Table 3 shows typical viability ofvarious vegetable seeds.

• Test seeds for germination beforeplanting as follows:1. Moisten two or three layers of

paper towels.2. Place 25 to 50 seeds on the towels

and roll the towels loosely. Placethem in a plastic bag.

3. Keep the towels in a warm placesuch as on a kitchen counter or ontop of a water heater.

Some seeds, such as radish, germinatein 2 or 3 days. Peppers can take 10 to14 days. Observe the seed at 2-dayintervals to determine the speed andpercentage of germination.

For more information on saving seeds,see the books Growing Vegetables West ofthe Cascades, by Steve Solomon, andSaving Seeds, by Marc Rogers, and theexcellent information from the SeedSavers’ Exchange, 3076 North Winn Rd.,Decorah, Iowa 52101.

Table 3.—Viability of vegetable seeds.Vegetable Years* Vegetable Years*Asparagus 3 Leek 1Bean 3 Lettuce 5Beet 4 Muskmelon 5Broccoli 5 Mustard 4Brussels sprout 5 Okra 2Cabbage 5 Onion 1Carrot 3 Parsley 2Cauliflower 5 Parsnip 1Celery 5 Pea 3Chinese cabbage 5 Pepper 4Collard 5 Pumpkin 4Corn, sweet 1 Radish 5Cress, water 5 Rutabaga 5Cucumber 5 Spinach 5Eggplant 5 Tomato 4Kale 5

*Average number of years seeds may be saved.


Seeds easily savedTomato1. Save seed from the fully ripe fruit of

the desired tomato plant.2. Mash the tomato and drip the seeds

into a jar of water. Let them fermentfor 2 to 4 days, stirring two or threetimes each day. Good seeds will sink,and bad ones will float.

3. Rinse good seeds until clean. Squeezethem onto a paper towel or a piece ofscreen.

4. Leave the seeds at room temperatureuntil they are thoroughly dry.

PepperSelect a mature pepper, preferably one

turning red, and allow it to turn com-pletely red before extracting the seeds.Place seeds on a towel or a piece ofscreen until they are thoroughly dry.

Eggplant, husk tomato (groundcherry),and garden huckleberry

Separate seeds from the mature fruitand dry thoroughly at room temperature.

Bean, pea, soybean1. Leave pods on the plant until they are

“rattle dry.” Watch the pods carefullybecause some varieties split andscatter the seeds when they are dry.

2. Pick dried pods and place them in awell-ventilated area at room tempera-ture. When the pods are completelydry, remove the seeds.

3. To control possible weevil infestation,place seeds in a freezer for 24 to30 hours.

LettuceLettuce seeds are more difficult to

collect, but it is possible to save them.1. Leave a plant or two to produce a seed

stalk.2. After the plant blooms and the flower

forms a miniature “dandelion head,”gather the seeds.

3. Separate the seeds from the chaff byrubbing them with your fingers.

Seeds difficult to saveVine crops: cucumber, melon, squash, and pumpkin

It usually doesn’t pay to save theseseeds. Without controlled pollination,these crops cross with other varieties andsometimes other types. Muskmelons donot cross with cucumbers, however.

You can control pollination in yourgarden, but it requires careful attention.First, you need to distinguish betweenmale and female flowers. Male blossomsare on a longer stalk and do not have aminiature fruit at the base as do femaleblossoms.1. With careful observation, note the

blossoms that will open the followingday. They have a light yellow color anda distinct pointed tip.

2. In the evening, select male and femaleflowers on the same plant. With apaper clip for small flowers or arubber band for larger ones, preventthe flowers from opening. Flowersopen only early in the day.

3. In the morning, pluck the male blos-som and touch the cluster of pollen(called anthers) to the center of thefemale flower (called the stigma).

4. Close the female flower again so beescan’t get in.

5. Tag the blossom.6. Grow the fruit to maturity for the

desired seed.The fruit must be very ripe for seeds to

germinate correctly. Cucumbers must beentirely yellow, and squash and pumpkins


must be thoroughly mature. Separate theseeds from the fruit flesh and dry them atroom temperature.

Biennials: carrot, beet, onion, and cabbage familyBiennials are questionable for seed

collection. It takes a lot of work to carryover the plant root from the first seasonto the second year when seed stalks form.Many members of the cabbage familyintercross and also can cross with nativewild crucifers such as mustard, cress,radish, or turnip. Carrots cross with theprevalent wild carrot.• Select desirable beet or carrot roots

and keep them cool and moist, per-haps buried outdoors in sand. Inearly spring, plant the roots in anuncrowded area of the garden becausethey grow very large.

• Keep onion bulbs cool and dry duringthe winter, then plant them in earlyspring.

After spring growth, seed heads form.When heads are quite dry, gather themature, plump seed before it falls to theground, and complete the drying at roomtemperature.

Using transplantsFor a greater choice of varieties, to

control production from seed to harvest,and for economy, many gardeners preferto start their own transplants. Others lacktime and controlled growing conditions,so they prefer to purchase starts. Therules governing quality (discussed below)are the same in both cases.

Table 4 lists some common vegetablesand how well they work as transplants.

Annual plantsAnnual vegetable transplants should be

stocky, healthy, free from disease, andhave good roots. They should have a fewsets of true leaves, but should not be toomature (yellow, woody, or already flower-ing). Flowers or immature fruit often dropafter transplanting. Be sure plants havebeen hardened off so they will easilyadapt to environmental change.

Successful transplanting interruptsplant growth as little as possible, a majoradvantage in using peat pots, soil cubes,or peat pellets. Transplant on a shady day,in late afternoon, or in early evening toprevent wilting. Water plants severalhours before transplanting. Do not let

Table 4.—Transplantability of vegetable plants.Easily survive Require care Not successful*Broccoli Beet BeanCabbage Carrot (young) PeaCauliflower Celery OkraEggplant Chard RadishLettuce MelonChinese cabbage SquashOnion (tends to bolt) CornTomato CucumberPepperLeekBrussels sprout

*Using usual methods.


them dry out completely at any time.Handle plants carefully and avoid disturb-ing roots or bruising stems.

Dig a hole wider than and slightlydeeper than the root ball. Tomatoes arean exception to this rule. They developroots all along their stem, so you canplant them deeply enough to leave onlytwo or three sets of leaves exposed. Acommon method is to lay the tomatoplant in a trench and then prop up thetop.

After you place a transplant in its hole,pour about a cup of starter solution in thehole around the plant. Starter solution canbe half-strength fertilizer, fish emulsion, ormanure tea. One good starter solution is1 tablespoon fish emulsion plus 1 table-spoon liquid seaweed to 1 gallon of water.Lukewarm water gives an extra boost towarm-season crops. Finally, fill the holewith soil and press soil firmly around theplant’s roots.

For a few days after transplanting,protect transplants from wind and sun byplacing newspaper or cardboard on theirsouth sides or by covering them with jugs,baskets, or flower pots. Floating rowcover also is an excellent protectivematerial. Water the plants once or twiceduring the next week if there is insuffi-cient rain.

Perennial plantsWhen buying perennial crowns such as

asparagus, order early or buy from reli-able local outlets. Select disease-resistantvarieties that do well in your growingconditions. Dormant bare roots and 1- or2-year-old crowns are preferred. Look forroots that are full, slightly moist, and lightcolored. Dry brown or soggy black rootsindicate poor storage and probably willgive poor results. Check crowns for viable

buds and signs of insects or disease. Ifmail-order plants are unsatisfactory, writethe dealer.

Until they are planted, keep roots moist,but not soaking wet, by misting occasion-ally. Avoid temperature extremes. If it isnecessary to keep crowns for more than afew days, place them in cold storage (notfreezing) or “heel them in” in a trench ofmoist soil in a shaded location. Pack soilfirmly against roots to eliminate air pock-ets.

Transplant crowns according to direc-tions, digging holes large enough to givethe roots plenty of room to spread.Remove any discolored or dried-out roots.Perennials appreciate a dose of compostmixed into the bottom of the hole. Do notcreate a bowl of soil that is different fromyour native soil; the two must be thor-oughly mixed.

Shade transplants if necessary andwater when needed. Extra care at thebeginning of their growth will result inproductive, healthy plants.


IrrigatingAdequate moisture is essential for good

crop growth. A healthy plant is 75 to90 percent water, which is used for theplant’s vital functions, including photo-synthesis, support (rigidity), and trans-port of nutrients and sugars. For the first2 weeks of growth, plants also need waterto build their root systems.

Vegetables need about 1 inch of water aweek from April to September. Theamount varies depending on weather andstage of growth.

During dry periods, a thorough weeklywatering of 1 to 2 inches (65 to 130 gallonsper 100 square feet) is adequate for mostsoils. Water to a depth of 5 to 6 inches, orto the root depth. Average garden soilstores about 2 to 4 inches of water perfoot of depth, although storage capacityvaries by soil type.

Don’t water again until the top fewinches begin to dry out. Testing soilmoisture by digging is the most efficientway to monitor water needs.

Frequent, light watering encouragesshallow rooting; plants will suffer moreduring droughts and will not be as strong.Too much water, especially in poorlydrained soils, deprives plants of oxygen,and they drown. Obviously, seedlingsneed more water at a shallower depth,and mature plants need less frequent, butdeeper, watering.

Some basic techniques and principlesfor watering are:• Unless the soil has exceptionally good

drainage, apply water at about 1⁄2 inchper hour to avoid runoff. Determinethe rate of sprinkler application byplacing small cans in the area andchecking the water level in the cansafter 15 minutes.

• Place oscillating sprinklers above croplevel so water isn’t blocked by plants.Overlap the watering pattern by half ateach move to even out the pattern.

• To reduce foliar disease, water in earlymorning so leaves dry by evening.

• Place drip hoses close to the row.Water does not move well laterally.

• Soak the soil to a depth of at least 5 to6 inches. You’ll need about 2⁄3 gallon foreach square foot or about 65 to130 gallons per 100 square feet,although the quantity needed varieswith soil type.

• To use limited water efficiently, knowthe critical watering periods for veg-etables. Water is most needed rightafter transplanting, during the first fewweeks of development, and duringflower and fruit development. Table 5shows critical moisture periods forspecific vegetables.

• If watering plants with used water, useonly household gray water (generatedfrom hand washing, clothes washing,and dish washing), where allowed by

Table 5.—Critical moisture periods for vegetables.Crop Growth periodBean During flowering and pod developmentBroccoli and related cole crops During head formation and enlargementCorn From tassel to silk and ear fillingCucumber During flowering and fruit developmentEggplant From blossom set through fruit enlargementOnion During bulb formationPea During flowering and pod fillingPepper From blossom set through fruit enlargementPotato After initial tubers formTomato From blossom set through fruit enlargement

✿See Chapter 1,Botany.


local regulations, to avoid the possibil-ity of contamination from fecal organ-isms. Avoid wastewater containinggrease, nonbiodegradable detergents,boron, washing soda, bleach, soften-ers, and other harsh cleansers. Wash-ing machine water should be a mixtureof wash and rinse water to dilute thesoap content. Filter gray water andapply it only to the soil; do not spray itover plants.

Irrigation methodsTrickle irrigation is much more efficient

than sprinklers. Because it places wateronly at the crop roots, it also reducesdiseases and weed growth.

Soaker hoses probably are the leastexpensive and easiest trickle-type irriga-tion to use. These fibrous hoses allowwater to seep out slowly along their entirelength.

There also are hoses with holes thatwork the same way. Use a flow regulatorwith these hoses so the water can reachthe hose end but not spray at full force.Special double-wall hoses also maintainan even flow.

Finally, emitter-type systems deliverwater right to plant roots. These systemsare the most expensive form of dripirrigation and the most complex to set,but they do not water weeds and theyminimize evaporation. Use in combinationwith a coarse mulch or black plastic.These systems need filters and/orself-flushing features to prevent clogging.

Most gardeners, however, use overheadsprinkling. If done early in the day, whiledew is on plants, there is less evaporationloss.

Moisture availabilityNot all water in the soil is available to

plants, particularly if the soil is heavyclay. Clay particles hold soil moisture

tightly. Forexample, if thereare 41⁄2 inches ofwater per foot ofclay soil, as littleas 11⁄2 inches may be avail-able for plants.

Adding organic matter isthe first step in improvingmoisture conditions in thegarden. In clay soils, organicmatter improves water availabil-ity. It causes clay to form aggre-gates or large clumps of particles,thereby creating air spaces. As a result,moisture drains to lower levels, where it isstored as a reserve instead of puddlingand running off the top of the soil.

Additions of organic matter alsoimprove moisture retention of sandy soils.Although water is available in sandy soils,it drains so quickly that plants are unableto reach it even a few days after a rain.Humus holds water until it is needed byplants.

Mulching can significantly decrease theamount of water needed. A 6- to 8-inchlayer of organic mulch can reduce waterneeds by as much as half by smotheringmoisture-using weeds and reducingevaporation. Organic mulches hold waterand increase humidity around plants.Black plastic mulch also conserves mois-ture, but increases soil temperaturedramatically during the summer if notcovered by other mulches or foliage.

Shading also conserves moisture.Partial afternoon shade prevents wiltingduring summer. Protect small plants inparticular.

Moving air removes moisture from leafsurfaces, causing plants to use morewater. Roots may not keep up with leafdemands, and plants wilt. Windbreaks canhelp tremendously.



FertilizingThe amount of fertilizer to apply to a

garden depends on the natural fertility ofthe soil, the amount of organic matterpresent, the type of fertilizer used, andthe crop being grown. Test your soil todetermine fertilizer needs.

Vegetables are heavy, medium, or lightfeeders (Table 6). Group crops accordingto their fertilizer requirements to makeapplication easier.

Weed controlMost gardeners soon learn

that the old saying, “Oneyear’s seeding—7 yearsweeding,” contains moretruth than myth. Weeds aremuch better adapted to garden conditionsthan are the vegetables we prize so highly.Many weeds, which otherwise would growin a lawn or natural area, spring up as ifby magic when soil is cultivated. Weedseeds may remain viable for 7 years orlonger until conditions are right forgrowth. When brought to the surface bytilling and uninhibited by sod, shade, orother factors, they germinate and becomepests that take water, nutrients, sunlight,and space from vegetables.

Beneficial weedsMany weeds have positive attributes.

Some are edible, providing nutritiousvariety to the regular diet. Dandelion,pigweed, purslane, chickweed, cress,mustard, and lamb’s-quarter providegreens. Blackberries produce sweet fruits.Jerusalem artichokes (sunchokes) are thetubers of the native sunflower. Beforeeating wild plants, be sure to identifythem correctly. Taking a course in identi-fying wild edibles probably is the bestway to learn.

Weeds provide habitat for variousinsects, including beneficials. They pro-vide shelter, pollen, and nectar for beesand garden pest predators such as para-sitic wasps. Weeds in the Apiaceae (pars-ley) family and Asteraceae (daisy) familyare especially valuable.

Wild plants also have other virtues:• Some are used in natural dyes and for

other homemade products.• Weeds are a good source of nitrogen

and trace elements for the compostpile if pulled before flowering. Manyhave long roots, which bring elementsfrom the subsoil to the weed’s

Table 6.—Plants grouped according to nutrient needs.Heavy feeders Light feeders Soil buildersAsparagus Carrot AlfalfaBeet Garlic Bean, broadBroccoli* Leek Bean, limaBrussels sprout* Mustard Bean, snapCabbage* Onion CloverCantaloupe* Parsnip PeaCauliflower Pepper PeanutCelery Potato SoybeanCollard RutabagaCorn ShallotCucumber* Sweet potatoEggplant* Swiss chardEndive TurnipKaleKohlrabiLettuceOkraParsleyPumpkin*RadishRhubarbSpinachSquash, summer*Squash, winter*SunflowerTomato*Watermelon*

*Fertilize at least twice.

✿See Chapter 17,Weeds.



aboveground tissues. Compostingmakes these elements available toother plants.

• Some native plants are indicators ofcertain soil problems, for example,nutrient deficiencies, pH changes, andsoil compaction.

Control methodsSince weeds extract large quantities of

moisture and nutrients from the soil, it isbest to remove them as soon as possible.Also, weeding is easier when weeds areyoung and tender. This section discussesweed-control issues specific to vegetablegardens. See Chapter 17, Weeds, foradditional information.

Turning under weeds before they flowerprovides organic matter to the soil. Youalso can add young weeds to your com-post pile. Keep in mind, however, thatcomposting may not destroy weed seedsif the pile doesn’t heat adequately. Also,grasses that spread by rhizomes or sto-lons present a problem if not completelydried. Despite their potential value asorganic material, it’s better to let the trashor yard waste collection take away prob-lem weeds, or to burn them and spreadthe ashes.

CultivationHand pulling and digging work well in

small gardens and raised beds. A scufflehoe is preferable for larger areas. Manualand powered rotary cultivators cannotweed very close to vegetables withoutdamaging their roots. Therefore, handpulling or gentle hoeing is best for closeweeding. Deep cultivation with any instru-ment is likely to damage roots or stems.

Pull or hoe weeds when the soil isdamp, but not wet. Working wet soildamages soil structure, especially ofheavy soils. Conversely, when soil is toodry, weeds are hard to pull or hoe. A dayor two after a rain or irrigation probably isthe best time to cultivate. Remember that

the work is more pleasant inthe cool temperatures ofearly morning orevening.

MulchingMulching can

be an alternativeto weeding if materi-als are readily available.Thick layers of organic mulch preventmost annual weeds from poking through,and those that do are pulled easily. Weedswith runners are more difficult, so blackplastic or landscape cloth may be a betterchoice where these weeds grow. Forpaths, newspaper, old carpeting, or simi-lar materials covered with sawdust pro-vide excellent weed suppression.

Close spacingIf vegetables are planted closely

together, they shade the soil and preventmany weed seedlings from growing. Youcan achieve this effect with well-plannedraised beds in which plants are spaced sothat adjacent plants touch and form aclosed canopy when mature. (See “Inten-sive gardening” later in this chapter.)

Other practicesSeveral other practices can help man-

age weeds in vegetable gardens:• Planting cover crops for several

seasons in a particularly weedy areacan reduce weed problems. However,this method requires leaving part ofyour garden uncultivated, therebyreducing gardening space. Mow orharvest cover crops regularly. Investi-gate crop rotations thoroughly andthen try them in small sections of yourgarden to determine their effective-ness.

• Mowing around the garden helpsprevent weeds and seeds from spread-ing.

• Regularly mowed grass works well inpaths between raised beds.


Intensive gardeningThe purpose of an intensively grown

garden is to harvest the most producepossible from a given space. Traditionally,American gardens have consisted of long,single rows of vegetables spaced widelyapart; much of the garden area is taken bythe space between rows. An intensivegarden, on the other hand, reduceswasted space to a minimum. Table 7shows the average amount of produceneeded for one adult for a year, and thespace needed to produce this amount if agarden is planted intensively.

Table 8 shows recommended spacingfor an intensively planted garden. Thesespacings are for average-size cultivars andexperienced gardeners. Be sure to fertilize

and water adequately for the tighterspacings.

The distance recommended on a seedpacket for plants within a row is thedistance from the center of one plant tothe center of the next. Many intensivelyplanted gardens use equidistant spacing.To use this method, plant so the center ofone plant is the same distance from eachsurrounding plant. In beds of more thantwo rows, stagger rows so that plants inone row are between those in adjacentrows. (Tip: Measure your own hand spanand fingers for an easy garden ruler.)

Intensive gardening is not just for thosewith limited space, however. Even inlarger spaces, it concentrates effort tocreate an ideal plant environment. It gives

Table 7.—Amount of produce and space needed per adult for 1 year. Average pounds for one adult per year Square feet needed

Crop Fresh Processed Total Fresh Processed TotalBean, bush 15 25 40 38 62 100Bean, pole 15 25 40 21 36 57Beet 3 4 7 2 3 5Broccoli 5 6 11 10 12 22Cabbage 10 10 20 10 10 20Cantaloupe 12 12 24 40 40 80Carrot 8 8 16 4 4 8Cauliflower 6 9 15 9 12 21Chard 3 5 8 2 3 5Corn, sweet 17 33 50 57 110 167Cucumber 6 12 18 9 17 26Eggplant 2 3 5 4 6 10Kohlrabi 4 2 6 13 7 20Lettuce, head 5 0 5 6 0 6Lettuce, leaf 5 0 5 10 0 10Onion 10 0 10 5 0 5Parsnip 5 0 5 6 0 6Pea 5 8 13 25 40 65Pepper 3 7 10 4 9 13Potato 70 0 70 47 0 47Radish 1 0 1 3 0 3Spinach 3 5 8 6 10 16Squash, summer 7 10 17 10 14 24Squash, winter 20 20 40 40 40 80Tomato 35 50 85 14 20 34Watermelon 10 0 10 33 0 33


better yields with less labor, and useswater and other inputs more efficiently.

A good intensive garden requires early,thorough planning for the best use of timeand space. Before planting, consider plantinterrelationships, nutrient needs, shadetolerance, above- and below-groundgrowth patterns, and growing seasons.Using the following techniques, anyonecan develop a high-yielding intensivegarden.

Raised bedsA raised bed or wide, flat growing bed is

the basic unit of an intensive garden(Figure 5). Beds allow you to concentratesoil preparation in small areas, resultingin effective use of soil amendments andcreating an ideal environment for veg-etable growth.

Table 8.—Planting distances for intensivegardens.

Space between plantsCrop (inches)Bean, bush 6 x 6Bean, pole 4 x 36Beet 4 x 4Broccoli 18 x 18Cabbage 18 x 18Cantaloupe 36 x 48Carrot 2 x 2Chard 9 x 9Corn, sweet 9 x 24Cucumber 12 x 48Eggplant 18 x 18Kohlrabi 4 x 4Lettuce, head 12 x 12Lettuce, leaf 6 x 6Onion 3 x 3Parsnip 4 x 4Pea 2 x 2Pepper 12 x 12Potato 9 x 9Radish 1 x 1Spinach 4 x 4Squash, summer 48 x 48Squash, winter 60 x 60Tomato 24 x 24Watermelon 60 x 60

Figure 5.—Raised beds.

Raised beds are a form of wide-bedgardening, a technique by which seedsand transplants are planted in wide bandsor broadcast in a wide strip. Space plantsat equal distances from each other on allsides so their leaves will touch at matu-rity. This method saves space, and theclose plantings reduce moisture loss anddiscourage weeds.

Raised bed gardening breaks work intounits. Instead of gazing desperately at agarden full of weeds and thinking you’llnever have time to clean it up, you canlook at each bed and say, “I can do that inhalf an hour today.” Other chores areaccomplished with the same ease. Usingpermanent sides also reduces weeding,and defined beds can make record keep-ing and crop rotation easier.

Beds generally are 3 to 4 feet wide andas long as desired. The gardener worksfrom either side of the bed, eliminatingcompaction caused by walking on the soil.Determine the proper width by reachingin from each side; you should be able toreach just past the center of the bed.

Soil preparation is the key to successfulintensive gardening. To grow so closelytogether, plants must have adequatenutrients and water. Providing extrafertilizer and irrigation helps, but there isno substitute for deep, fertile soil high inorganic matter. Humus-rich soil holdsextra nutrients. Existing elements that are“locked up” in the soil are released by theaction of earthworms, microorganisms,


and acids, making them available for plantuse.

If your soil is not deep, double-dig bedsfor best results. Remove the top 12 inchesof soil from the bed. Insert a spade orspading fork into the next 10 to 12 inchesof soil and wiggle the handle back andforth to break up compacted layers.Repeat every 6 to 8 inches. Mix the topsoilwith a generous amount of compost ormanure and return the mixture to the bed.It should be fluffy and slightly raised. Tocreate a true raised bed, take topsoil fromneighboring pathways and mix it in aswell.

This method is a lot of work! Try one ortwo beds for your most valuable plants. Ifyou like the results, proceed to otherbeds.

Vertical gardeningThe use of trellises, nets, strings, cages,

or poles to support growing plants consti-tutes vertical gardening (Figures 6 and 7).This technique is especially suited, butnot limited, to gardeners with little space.Plants grown vertically take up much lessground space, and although the yield perplant may be less, the yield per squarefoot is much greater.

Vining and sprawling plants, such ascucumbers, tomatoes, melons, and polebeans, are obvious candidates for thistype of gardening. Some plants entwinethemselves onto the support, while othersrequire tying.

Because vertically grown plants aremore exposed, they dry out faster andrequire more water than if they werespread over the ground. Rapid drying isadvantageous to plants susceptible tofungal diseases.

Vertically grown plants may need morefertilizer. Also, soil should be deep andwell drained to allow roots to extendvertically so they don’t have to competewith shallow-rooted plants.

Vertical planting casts a shadow, soavoid shading sun-loving crops. Plantshade-tolerant crops near vertical ones.

InterplantingGrowing two or more types of veg-

etables in the same place at the same timeis known as interplanting. Proper planningis essential to obtain high production and

Figure 6.—Tomatoes supported with wire cagesor stakes.

Figure 7.—String trellis and poles for vertical gardening.


increased crop quality. This technique hasbeen practiced for thousands of years, butis just now gaining widespread support inthis country.

Interplanting helps keeps insect anddisease problems under control. Pestsusually are fairly crop-specific; they prefervegetables of one type or family. Mixingplant families breaks up expanses of cropsand confines early pest damage to a smallarea, thereby allowing you more time torespond. One disadvantage is that it’shard to ensure that all plants are pro-tected when spraying.

When interplanting, consider the follow-ing factors for each plant:• Time to maturity—Long-season (slow-

maturing) and short-season (quick-maturing) plants, such as carrots andradishes respectively, can be plantedat the same time. Harvest the radishesbefore they begin to crowd the car-rots. See Tables 9 and 10.

Table 10.—Long-season crops.Crop Average days to maturity Season of growthBean, pole 108 MidseasonBroccoli 110 (60 after transplanting) Early or late*Brussels sprout 130 (85 after transplanting) Whole seasonCabbage 140 (90 after transplanting) Early or late*Cauliflower 110 (60 after transplanting) Early or late*Corn 70–90 MidseasonEggplant 120 (70 after transplanting) MidseasonGarlic 90 Mid- to whole seasonLeek 150 Whole seasonMelon 90 MidseasonOnion, storage 100 Whole seasonParsley 80 Whole seasonParsnip 120 Whole seasonPea 70 Early or late*Peanut 120–140 Whole seasonPepper 125 (75 after transplanting) MidseasonPotato, sweet 140–150 Whole seasonPotato, white 80–140 Mid- to whole seasonPumpkin 110–120 Whole seasonSalsify 120 Whole seasonSquash, winter 80–100 Mid- to whole seasonTomato 125 (70 after transplanting) MidseasonWatermelon 75–90 Midseason

*Late plantings may be appropriate west of the Cascades only.

Table 9.—Short-season crops.Crop Days to maturity SeasonArugula 45 EarlyBeet 50–60 Early or late*Carrot 70 Early or late*Cress, garden 10–20 Early or late*Kohlrabi 45–55 Early or late*Lettuce, leaf 45–60 Any (heat-resistant types)Lettuce, loosehead 55–70 Early or late*Onion, green (from sets) 30–40 AnyRadish 20–25 AnySpinach 45–50 Early or late*Spinach, New Zealand 55 MidseasonSwiss chard 55–60 AnyTurnip 40–75 Early or late*

*Late plantings may be appropriate west of the Cascades only.

• Aboveground growth pattern—Plantingsmall plants close to larger plants—forexample, radishes at the base of polebeans or broccoli—is an example ofcombining growth patterns. Table 11shows some other possible pairings.


• Root growth pattern—Combining plantswith complementary root growthpatterns saves space. Roots of theseplants won’t compete with each otherand will make the best use of theavailable space underground. Table 12shows typical rooting depths of veg-etables, and Table 13 lists suggestedpairings based on root patterns.

• Possible negative effects on otherplants—Don’t place plants such as

Table 11.—Complementary aboveground growth patterns.Bean–celery Kohlrabi–beetBean–corn Leek–carrotBean–corn–squash, melon, Leek–parsley cucumber Lettuce–carrot–onionBean–radish Lettuce–onionBean–tomato (staked) Lettuce–radishCabbage–chive Melon–radishCabbage–pepper Onion–cabbageCabbage–squash, melon, cucumber Onion–carrotCabbage–tomato Onion–eggplantCole crops–carrot, leek, onion Onion–pepperCorn–cabbage Onion–spinachCorn–Chinese cabbage Peas on trellis–Corn–lettuce cole crops, lettuce,Corn–potato carrot, kohlrabi,Corn–pumpkin spinach, radish,Corn–squash, melon, cucumber turnipCucumber–okra

Table 12.—Characteristic rooting depths.Shallow-rooting Medium-rooting Deep-rooting(18–36") (36–48") (48"+)Broccoli Bean, snap ArtichokeBrussels sprout Beet AsparagusCabbage Carrot Bean, limaCauliflower Cucumber ParsnipCelery Eggplant PumpkinChinese cabbage Mustard Squash, winterCorn Pea Sweet potatoEndive Pepper TomatoGarlic RutabagaLeek Squash, summerLettuce Swiss chardOnion TurnipParsleyPotatoRadishSpinach

sunflowers and Jerusalem artichokes,which can suppress growth of nearbyplants, too close to other crops.

• Light requirements—Plant shade-tolerant species, such as lettuce,spinach, and celery, in the shadow oftaller crops.

• Season of growth—Interplant cool-weather and warm-weather crops. Bythe time the warm-weather crops growto full size, the cool-weather crops willhave finished producing.

• Nutrient requirements—Interplantheavy feeders, such as cabbage familycrops, with less demanding plants(Table 6).

• Water requirements—Group plantswith similar water requirementstogether to avoid over-watering someplants in order to supply enoughmoisture to others.

Interplanting can be accomplished byalternating rows within a bed (forexample, planting a row of peppers nextto a row of onions), by mixing plantswithin a row, or by placing various speciesthroughout a bed. For beginners, alternat-ing rows may be the easiest method.

Individual plants are spaced closely inan interplanted garden, resulting in effi-cient use of space and less area to weedand mulch. However, plants should not beso crowded that disease problems arise orcompetition causes stunting.

Table 13.—Complementary root patterns.Bean–carrot Melon–radishBean–celery Onion–cabbageBean–corn Onion–carrotBean–cucumber Onion–eggplantBean–onion Onion–pepperBean–radish Onion–radishBean–squash Onion–spinachCorn–lettuce Parsnip–lettuceCorn–potato Pea–radishKohlrabi–beet Pea–turnipLeek–carrot Salsify–lettuceLettuce–carrot–onion Swiss chard–Lettuce–radish cucumber


Succession plantingSuccession planting makes the most of

an intensive garden and is successful westof the Cascades. To obtain a succession ofcrops, plant something new in spotsvacated by spent plants. Corn after peasis a type of succession. See Figure 8 for anexample of succession plantings. Graphpaper makes it easy to plot times tomaturity, especially if you make onesquare equal to 1 week.

Planting a spring, summer, and fallgarden is another form of successionplanting. Cool-season crops (e.g., broccoli,lettuce, peas) are followed by warm-season crops (e.g., beans, tomatoes,peppers). Where possible, these may befollowed by more cool-season plants, oreven a fall/winter crop.

Starting seeds indoors for transplantingis an important aspect of successiongardening. To obtain the most from your

March April May June July August September

Beet (60 days)

Carrot (70 days)

Broccoli (60 days1)

Cabbage (55 days1)

Radish (25 days)

Bean, snap (50 days)

Pepper (75 days1,2)

Tomato (70 days1,2)

Figure 8.—Example of succession plantings in a vegetable garden. Beets, carrots, and early cab-bage vacate areas for peppers and tomatoes. Early staggered plantings of radishes give way tostaggered bush beans. When the beans are finished, fall cabbage and carrots are planted.1Days from transplanting.2These crops take 70 to 75 days to mature their first crop and continue to produce until frost.


garden plot, a new crop should be readyto take the place of one being removed.You can gain several weeks by having6-inch transplants ready for vacant areas.Don’t forget to recondition the soil for thenew plants.

Container gardeningIf you lack space for a vegetable garden,

or if your present garden is too small,consider raising fresh, nutritious veg-etables in containers (Figure 9). A win-dowsill, patio, balcony, or doorstep canprovide sufficient space for a productivecontainer garden. Container gardeningovercomes problems with soilbornediseases, nematodes, or poor soil.

Grow vegetables that take little space,such as carrots, radishes, and lettuce, orthose that fruit over a period of time, suchas tomatoes and peppers. Dwarf or minia-ture varieties mature and bear early, butmost do not produce as well overall asstandard varieties. As interest in con-tainer gardening increases, plant breedersand seed companies are breeding veg-etables specifically for container culture.These varieties are not necessarily

miniature or dwarf, and may produce aswell as standard types if properly tended.

The amount of sunlight your containergarden receives determines which cropscan be grown. Root and leaf crops toleratepartial shade, but fruiting vegetablesrequire at least 6 hours of full, directsunlight each day and perform better with8 to 10 hours. Increase available light byusing materials such as aluminum foil,white-painted surfaces, or marble chips toreflect light.

Container gardening lends itself toattractive plantscaping. A dull patio canbe brightened by baskets of cascadingtomatoes or a colorful herb mix. Con-tainer gardening presents opportunitiesfor creative innovation. Using trelliseswith your containers greatly expands yourpossibilities. For example, planter boxeswith trellises can create a cool, shadyapartment balcony.

ContainersThere are many possible containers for

gardening. Containers for vegetable plantsmust:• Be large enough to support plants

when they are fully grown• Hold soil without spilling• Have adequate drainage• Never have held toxic products

Redwood and cedar make the mostdecay-resistant planter boxes. Never usewood treated with creosote or pentachlo-rophenol (Penta) wood preservatives.These substances are toxic to plants andhumans.

Some gardeners build vertical plantersfrom wood lattice lined with black plasticand filled with a lightweight medium.Another design uses welded wire formedinto cylinders, which then are lined withsphagnum moss and filled with soil.

It’s fun to be imaginative in using dis-carded items to create attractive patioplanters. Consider barrels, flowerpots,cut-off milk and bleach jugs, recycledFigure 9.—Container gardening on a balcony.


Styrofoam coolers, window boxes, plastic-lined baskets with drainage holes, or evenpieces of drainage pipe or cinder block.

Whatever type of container you use, besure there are drainage holes in thebottom so the roots do not stand in water.Containers should be at least 6 to 8 inchesdeep for adequate rooting. Place 2-inchdiameter perforated plastic pipes insidelarge containers to aid watering.

Use dollies or platforms with wheels orcasters to move heavy containers. Theability to move plants is especially usefulfor apartment or balcony gardening soyou can make maximum use of availablespace and sunlight as well as avoid par-ticularly nasty weather.

MediaContainer vegetable gardening requires

a fairly lightweight potting mix. Straightgarden soil is too heavy. Media must beporous because roots require both air andwater. Packaged potting soil available atgarden centers is relatively lightweightand makes a good container mix. Thereeven are special mixes for large contain-ers.

Soilless mixes such as peat-lite mix aretoo light for container vegetable garden-ing, as they don’t offer plant roots enoughsupport. If the container also is light-weight, a strong wind can blow plantsover. Soilless mixes contain few nutrients,so even if you add major nutrients, thereare no trace elements. Add soil, leaf mold,or compost to a soilless mix to make itsuitable for container gardening.

Alternatively, you can make your ownmix with 1 part peat moss, 1 part gardenloam, 1 part clean, coarse builder’s sand,and just enough slow-release balancedfertilizer for the container size (about11⁄2 tablespoon of 10-10-10 for a 12-inch-diameter pot). Peat moss absorbs waterand mixes better if soaked with warmwater before mixing. Add lime to bring thepH to around 6.5.

PlantingFill a clean container to

within 1⁄2 inch of the topwith slightly damp soilmixture. Sow the seedsor set transplants.Label each containerwith the name, vari-ety, and date ofplanting. Gently soakthe soil with warmwater, being carefulnot to displaceseeds. Thin seed-lings for properspacing when theplants have two orthree leaves. If cages,stakes, or other supportsare needed, add them when theplants are very small to avoid rootdamage.

WateringBecause the volume of soil in contain-

ers is relatively small, it dries out quickly,especially on a concrete patio in full sun.Daily or even twice daily watering may benecessary.

Apply water until it runs out the drain-age holes. On an upstairs balcony, watercan drain onto your neighbors’ balcony,so make provisions for drainage. Largetrays filled with coarse marble chips orrocks and placed underneath the con-tainer work nicely. Soil should never besoggy, and water should never stand ontop of the chips.

Here are some tips to maintain propersoil moisture:• Clay pots and other porous containers

allow additional evaporation fromtheir sides, so you must water themmore often. Small pots also tend to dryout more quickly than larger ones.

• If the soil appears excessively dry,group containers so the foliage shadesthe soil and keeps it cool.


• On a hot patio, put containers onpallets or other structures that allowair movement beneath the pots andprevent direct contact with cement.

• Check containers daily (twice daily onhot, dry, or windy days). Feel the soilto determine its dampness.

• Mulching and windbreaks help reducewater requirements.

• If you are away a lot, consider anautomatic drip-emitter irrigationsystem.

• Dark pots create lethal root tempera-tures. Either insulate them or paintthem white.

FertilizingIf you use a soil mix with added fertil-

izer, your plants will have enough nutri-ents for 8 to 10 weeks. Then add awater-soluble fertilizer at the recom-mended rate and repeat every 2 to3 weeks. Slow-release synthetic or organicfertilizers work best. An occasional doseof fish emulsion or compost adds traceelements to the soil.

Do not add more than the recom-mended rate of fertilizer; too much fertil-izer can burn and kill plants. Containerplants do not have large volumes of soiland humus to protect them fromover-fertilizing or over-liming.

General care Periodically inspectplants for insects and

diseases, as commongarden pests alsoattack containervegetables. Protectplants from very highheat caused by light

reflection frompavement. Movethem to a coolspot or shadethem during thehottest part of

the day. Shelter plants during severe rain,hail, or wind storms, and protect themfrom fall frosts.

Indoor container gardeningTry indoor container gardening for

fresh, home-grown vegetables over thewinter. You cannot have a full gardenindoors, but with a bright, sunny window,you can grow fresh food all year. Severaltypes of greens and many herbs will growindoors.

Follow directions given above forpreparing pots, watering, fertilizing, etc.However, note that plants use less waterand fertilizer indoors, as they grow moreslowly. To make watering easier, set thepots in large trays containing an inch ortwo of decorative stones. Not only doesthis setup prevent your having to movethe plants to water them, it also provideshumidity during winter, when the house iswarm and dry.

A sunny, south-facing window is a mustfor indoor vegetable growing. Insufficientlight results in tall, spindly plants andfailure to flower and set fruit. Generally,there is not enough winter sunlight togrow fruiting vegetables west of theCascades. They need supplemental light,such as a combination warm white/coolwhite fluorescent fixture.

Herbs are a first choice for many indoorgardeners. They are less demanding thanvegetables, and cooks find it pleasant tosnip off a few sprigs of fresh parsley orchop some chives from the windowsillherb garden. Herbs prefer cool conditionswith good light, but grow well on a kitchenwindowsill.

One or two pots of chives providesleaves for seasoning salads and soups.Plant seeds or small bulbs in a 6-inch pot.The plants should be about 1 inch apartover the entire surface. About 12 weeksafter seeds are planted, you can startcutting a few leaves. For variety, try garlicor Chinese chives, which grow in a similarfashion, but have a mild garlic flavor.


You can plant parsley seeds directlyinto 6-inch pots or transplant young,healthy plants from the garden. Onevigorous plant per pot is enough. Leavescan be clipped about 10 to 12 weeks afterseeding. Standard parsley developsattractive, green, curly leaves about 6 or8 inches tall. Italian (single-leaf) parsleyhas a slightly stronger flavor and is afavorite for pasta dishes.

Cilantro, the leaves of the young corian-der plant, also can be grown in a window-sill. Cilantro is used fresh in Asian andMexican dishes. Grow cilantro as youwould parsley. Thyme and other herbsalso do well indoors.

Some small-fruited peppers may begrown as houseplants. Like tomatoes,they need warm, bright conditions togrow well. Peppers and tomatoes areready to harvest about 10 weeks afterplanting.

Whiteflies and aphids may present aproblem on indoor tomato and pepperplants. Keep a close watch for these pestsso they do not get established. Yellowsticky traps, either purchased or home-made, are effective in trapping whiteflies.Insecticidal soap or other pesticidesapproved for vegetable plants can be usedto control aphids. Fortunately, problemswith pests and diseases are less severethan in outside gardens.

For a quick-growing crop, try radishes.They must be grown in strong light to becrisp and succulent. Scatter radish seedson moist soil in a 6- to 8-inch pot. Coverwith 1⁄4 inch of soil and place a piece ofglass or plastic wrap over the pot toconserve moisture until the seeds germi-nate. Carrots grow more slowly, but canbe grown in the same way. Use small-rooted varieties such as ‘Little Finger’ forbest results indoors.

Experiment with various types of let-tuce. Leaf lettuce and miniature TomThumb butterhead work well in pots.Space plants about 12 inches apart. Keeplettuce moist and in a sunny spot.

If light is limited, an old standby forfresh taste and high food value issprouted seeds such as wheat, corn,barley, alfalfa, lentils, soybeans, rye, peas,radishes, mung beans, and sunflowers.Use only special seeds for sprouting(available from health food or grocerystores) to avoid the possibility of gettingtreated seeds. Use any wide-mouthedcontainer such as a Mason or mayonnaisejar. Soak seeds overnight, drain, and placethem in the container. Cover with asprouting lid or a double layer of cheese-cloth held with rubber bands. Set thecontainer in a consistently warm spot andrinse and drain the seeds two or threetimes daily. In 3 to 5 days, sprouts will be1 to 3 inches long and ready for harvest.

Fall and winter gardeningFall gardening

By planting a fall vegetable garden, it ispossible to have fresh vegetables up toand even past the first frosts. Just whenretail vegetable prices are increasing, youcan reap large and varied harvests fromyour still-productive garden.

Many varieties of vegetables can beplanted in mid- to late summer for fallharvest. Succession plantings of warm-season crops such as corn and beans canbe harvested until the first killing frost.Cool-season crops, such as kale, turnips,mustard, broccoli, and cabbage, with-stand frost and grow well during cool falldays.

Some of the best vegetables are pro-duced during the warm days and coolnights of fall. These environmental condi-tions add sugar to sweet corn and crisp-ness to carrots. Parsnips, kale, collards,and Jerusalem artichokes are examples ofcrops that are greatly improved by atouch of frost.

Timely planting is the key to a success-ful fall garden. To determine the time toplant a particular vegetable for the latest


harvest in your area, you need to knowthe average date of the first killing frostand the number of days to maturity forthe variety grown. Choose the fastestmaturing varieties for late plantings. Theformula below will help you determinewhen to start your fall garden:

Number of days from seeding or transplanting outdoors to harvest

+ Number of days from seed to transplant (if you grow your own transplants)

+ Average harvest period+ Fall factor (about 2 weeks)+ Frost-tender factor (if applicable)

= Days to count back from first frost date

The frost tender factor is added only forthose crops that are sensitive to frost(e.g., corn, beans, cucumbers, tomatoes,and squash), as these crops must mature2 weeks before frost to produce a reason-able harvest. The fall factor takes intoaccount the fact that plants grow moreslowly during the cool, short days ofautumn.

You can reduce the fall factor by 2 to5 days by presprouting seeds. (See “Plant-ing seeds directly in the garden” earlier inthis chapter.) Almost any crop can benefitfrom presprouting. Sprout seeds indoors,allowing the seedlings to reach a length ofup to 1 inch. Be careful not to break theroots when planting. You can plantsprouted seeds more deeply than normalto help prevent drying out. Water well

until the plants break the soil surface. When planting fall

crops, prepare the soil byrestoring nutrientsremoved by spring andsummer crops. A light

layer of compost oraged manure or a small

application of completechemical or organic fertilizer boosts

soil nutrients in preparation foranother crop.

Once young plants are established,you can use a heavier mulch to holdmoisture and control weeds. Irrigate

when necessary so the young plants havesufficient moisture.

Fall plantings often have few insectproblems, as they avoid the peak insectactivity of midsummer. However, someinsects, such as cabbage worms andcabbage root maggots, may be even worselate in the year than in summer. Vigilanceis still required! Limit pests and diseasesby planting crops where those of a differ-ent family were growing before. Rowcovers and cloches also help deter insectsas well as extend the season.

Fall garden care intensifies when theweather forecast predicts the arrival offrost. Your main concern then should beto harvest all ripe tender crops beforethey are chill damaged. For example,tomatoes, summer squash, melons,eggplants, cucumbers, and pepperscannot withstand frost and should bepicked immediately. Store the vegetablesuntil needed.

If the frost warning is mild (the tem-perature is not expected to fall below30oF), try covering tender plants that stillhold a lot of immature fruit. Baskets,burlap or canvas sacks, boxes, blankets,or buckets help protect plants from frost.Warm days will mature some of the fruitas long as the plants have nightly frostprotection. Much depends on yourgarden’s microclimate. If your spot is lowand unsheltered, it is likely to be a frostpocket. Gardens sheltered from wind andon the upper side of a slope are lesssusceptible to early frost damage.

Winter gardeningIn mild-winter areas of western Oregon

and Washington, it’s possible to growmany vegetables throughout the winter.To be successful, you need to plan ahead,choose varieties wisely, and give propercare to your plants. Table 14 lists veg-etables that are appropriate for wintergardens.

Microclimates vary from yard to yard.For example, urban gardens tend to be


much warmer than rural gardens. Evenwithin a yard, there are differences.Generally, a south-facing garden withsome protection from prevailing winds ismost successful.

Many factors other than temperatureare involved in winter gardening. Onemajor factor is excess moisture, either inthe ground or falling as rain. Coveringplants with a cloche, cold frame, or rowcover not only protects them from freez-ing temperatures, but, just as important,shields them from excess rain. A raisedbed also helps by improving drainage.

Crops that go through the winter mustbe well established, but not yet mature,unless you simply are storing them in theground. Do not fertilize overwintered

crops late in the fall, because too muchnitrogen encourages water-filled tissue,which is susceptible to freezing.

Most winter crops are planted fromJune to early August. Table 15 showsrecommended planting dates for severalwinter vegetables.

Season extendersTo get the most from a garden, extend

the growing season by sheltering plantsfrom cold weather in both early springand fall. Cool-season crops, such as leaflettuce, cabbage, kale, cauliflower, col-lards, broccoli, spinach, mustard greens,and brussels sprouts, can withstand somecold.

Table 14.—Vegetables for winter gardening.Minimum Start well Store Early spring Recommended

Crop temperature (°F) ahead in garden harvest varieties/comments

Beet 15 ■ ■ ■ Winterkeeper, AlbinaVerduna. Will resprout inspring for greens.

Broccoli 10 ■ Purple Sprouting, WhiteSprouting Late

Brussels sprout 10 ■ Jade Cross “E,” Lunet,Oliver, Red Rubine

Cabbage 10 ■ ■ ■ Danish Ballhead, Excel,Gloria, Melissa, Zerlina

Carrot 15 ■ Bolero, Merida, RoyalChantenay

Cauliflower 10 ■ Snow Crown, Snow BallCeleriac 20 Can go to 10°F if cloched.Celery 10 ■ ■ Utah Improved. Needs some

protection.Celtuce 20 Can go to 10°F if cloched.Chive 0 ■ —Collard 0 ■ ChampionCorn salad, 0 ■ Use small-leaf varieties. fetticus, feldsalat, lambs’ lettuceCress, winter 15 —Endive 10 President, Perfect. Best

under cloche.

continues on next page


Table 14.—Vegetables for winter gardening (continued).Minimum Start well Store Early spring Recommended

Crop temperature (°F) ahead in garden harvest varieties/commentsFava bean 15 Aquadulce, Sweet Lorane for

eating. Plant August–September for May harvest.Many varieties even hardier.

Fennel 20 Can go to 10°F if cloched.Self-sows freely.

Garlic 0 ■ Mulch.Horseradish 0 ■ Restrict spread!Jerusalem artichoke 0 ■ ■ Restrict spread!Kale 0 ■ Winter Red, Winterbor,

SiberianKohlrabi 15 ■ Winner, Grand Duke, KongoLeek 0 ■ ■ Durabel, Alaska, Goliath,

Siberia, McKwinaLettuce, leaf 15 ■ Winter Density, Top Gun,

Oak Leaf, Merveille desQuatre Saisons (also known asContinuity). Best undercloche to prevent raindamage.

Mustard 20 ■ Mizuna. Can go to 10°F ifcloched.

Onion 0 ■ Bulbs: Walla Walla, Keepwell,Hi-Ball, Buffalo, Red Cross.Bulblets and tops: EgyptianTop, Multiplier. Scallions:Hardy white bunching, Kincho

Parsley 0 ■ Italian plain leaf; curled typeswith some protection

Parsnip 0 ■ ■ Cobham Marrow, GladiatorRadish, Oriental 10 ■ ■ All Season’s White Long,

China RoseRutabaga 20 ■ Marian, American Purple Top,

Improved Laurentian. Can goto 10°F if cloched.

Salsify 0 ■ ■ —Spinach 0 ■ Bloomsdale Savoy, Tyee,

Olympia, Hybrid 424,Melody, Wolter Baker,St. Helens, Skookum. Plant inwell-drained soil.

Swiss chard 10 ■ Perpetual, Dorat, Ruby Red.Even spring-planted chardoften comes through thewinter and resprouts.

Turnip 10 ■ Purple Top, White Globe.Also good for late fall harvest.


Winter gardening, or overwinteringvegetables to be more exact, is a goodpossibility, especially west of the moun-tains. Kale, spinach, evergreen bunchingonions, lettuce, parsley, parsnips, carrots,and salsify may survive all winter. Most ofthese vegetables can be dug or picked asneeded throughout the winter or earlyspring. Row covers, cloches, Wall-o-water, plastic mulches, and other trickscan greatly extend the season in themaritime Pacific Northwest.

Cold frames and hotbedsCold frames and hotbeds are inexpen-

sive structures for growing cool-weathercrops in early spring, fall, and even intowinter. They range from simple to elabo-rate. Cold frames rely on the sun for their

Table 15.—Recommended planting dates for winter vegetables.*Crop Planting date Planting methodBeet July 15 SeedBroccoli June Transplant or seed

July Transplant or seedBrussels sprout July 10–15 TransplantCabbage, extra early June Transplant or seed

July 15–August 1 Transplant or seedCabbage, late May 20–June 25 Transplant or seedCarrot July 15 SeedCeleriac June TransplantCelery June 1–July 15 TransplantChinese cabbage July 1–15 SeedCollard July 15 SeedCorn salad September SeedFava bean September; February 1–March 31 SeedKale June Transplant or seed

July 20–August 10 Transplant or seedKohlrabi June Transplant or seed

July 20–August 10 Transplant or seedLettuce, head To July 15 Transplant or seedLettuce, leaf To August 10 and December–January Transplant or seedMustard August 15–October 10 SeedOnion, bulbing August 1 SetsOnion, multiplier September SetsParsnip May 15–June 15 SeedRutabaga July 10–31 SeedSpinach August 1–15 Transplant or seedSwiss chard June–July SeedTurnip August Seed

*Dates recommended for the mid-Willamette Valley, Oregon. Planting dates may vary in other areas.

Figure 10.—Cold frame.

sole source of heat. Heat is collectedwhen the sun’s rays penetrate clearplastic, glass, or fiberglass (Figure 10).Hotbeds are heated by soil-heating cables,steam-carrying pipes, or fresh, strawymanure buried beneath theplant rooting zone.

In early spring, a coldframe is useful forhardening offseedlings thatwere startedindoors or in agreenhouse.Hardening off isimportantbecause seed-lings can be setback seriously if


they are moved directly from a protectedlocation to a garden. A cold frame pro-vides a place for gradual adjustment tooutdoor weather. You also can start cool-weather crops right in the cold frame totransplant later to the garden, or you cangrow them to maturity in the frame.

Spring and summer uses of cold framescenter around plant propagation. Youngseedlings of hardy and half-hardy annualscan be started in a frame many weeksbefore they can be started in the open.You can replace the soil in a portion of thecold frame bed with a medium suitable forrooting cuttings.

Fall is another good time to sow cool-weather crops in frames. If provided withadequate moisture and fertilization, mostcool-season crops continue to growthrough early winter in the protectedenvironment of a cold frame.

The ideal location for a cold frame is ona slight southern or southeastern slope toensure good drainage and maximumexposure to the sun. A sheltered spot witha wall or hedge to the north providesprotection against winter winds. Sinkingthe frame into the ground a bit also pro-vides earth insulation.

To simplify use of the frame, consider awalkway to the front, adequate spacebehind the frame for removing the top,and perhaps a counterbalance to make iteasier to raise and lower the top. Somegardeners make their cold frame light-weight enough to be moved from onesection of the garden to another. Anexample is the Dutch light (Figure 11),which is a large, but portable, greenhouse-like structure.

Frames can be built from many materi-als; wood and cinder block are mostcommon. If you use wood, choose aspecies that resists decay or one of thenew plastic woods. Never use creosote- orpentachlorophenol-treated wood, becausethese substances are harmful to plantsand humans. Kits are available, some ofwhich contain automatic ventilationequipment.

There is no standard size for a coldframe. Size depends on the amount ofavailable space, desired crops, and size ofthe available covering. Do not make theframe so wide that you can’t reach allparts of the interior for weeding and plantcare; 4 to 5 feet usually is the maximumwidth.

A simple method of insulation is toplace burlap sacks filled with leaves overthe frame at night to protect againstfreezing. Another method is to stack balesof straw against the frame.

Figure 11.—Dutch light. Figure 12.—Solar pod.


New cold frame designs include sys-tems for passive solar energy storage,such as black containers filled with waterthat absorb heat during the day andrelease it at night. An example is the solarpod, which is shaped like a tunnel(Figure 12). Other designs have a veryhigh back and a steep glass slope and arewell insulated. They may include movableinsulation that is folded up in the day anddown at night or during extremely coldweather.

Ventilation is most critical in late winter,early spring, and early fall on clear, sunnydays when temperatures rise above 45°F.Raise the top to prevent heat buildupinside the frame. Lower it early enough toconserve heat for the night. An automaticnonelectric lifter is a good investment.

A cold frame can be converted to ahotbed. For a manure-heated bed:1. Dig out an area 8 or 9 inches deep

(deeper if you need to add gravel forincreased drainage).

2. Add an 8-inch layer of strawy horsemanure.

3. Cover with 6 inches of good soil.For an electric-heated bed:

1. Dig out an area 8 or 9 inches deep.2. Lay down thermostatically controlled

electric cable in 6- to 8-inch loops,evenly spacing the cable but neverallowing it to cross.

3. Cover with 2 inches of sand or soil.4. Lay out hardware cloth to protect the

cable.5. Cover with 4 to 6 inches of good soil.

Cloches and row coversCloches originally were bell-shaped

glass jars set over delicate plants toprotect them from the elements. Thedefinition now includes many types ofportable structures that shelter plantsfrom drying winds, rain, and cold air. Theidea is to provide a greenhouse-likeatmosphere for seeds and small plants inorder to get an early start on the seasonor to extend the fall garden as long aspossible.

Cloches are set over individual plantsor made into tunnels for whole rows. Theytrap solar radiation and moisture evapo-rating from the soil and plants. Clochesgenerally are lightweight, portable, andreusable. The best designs can be closedcompletely at night to prevent frostdamage and opened or completelyremoved during the day for good aircirculation. Make sure cloches areanchored or are heavy enough that theydon’t blow away.

The hotcap and the cut-off plasticjug are simple cloches (Figure 13).More elaborate ones include fiberglasstunnels, special plastic cloches, rowcovers with slits to allow aeration, and

Figure 13.—Cloche made from a cut-off plasticjug. (Reprinted by permission from Short-Season Vegetable Gardening, PNW 497, Univer-sity of Idaho.)


panes of glass connected by speciallydesigned hinges to form a tent (Figure 14).

You can quickly assemble an excellentQuonset-type cloche by covering a 4- to5-foot piece of concrete reinforcing wirewith row cover or plastic. The heavy-dutywire comes in 5- and 7-foot lengths. It isstrong enough to shrug off snow loads.

Now popular is a row cover made ofspun-bonded polypropylene. It permitspassage of air and water, but is substantialenough to trap heat, shield young plantsfrom wind and insects, and provide amodified atmosphere for early vegetablecrops. Lay these row covers loosely overa planted row in early spring. As theplants grow, they raise the lightweightcover. You can leave these covers on mostvegetable plants until warmer weather.

Harvesting vegetablesHome-grown is no guarantee of quality

if you do not harvest at the proper time.Table 16 shows typical times to maturityfor several vegetables. Here are some tipsto ensure good-quality produce:• Pick tomatoes when they are fully

colored but still firm. Once fully col-ored, tomatoes remain in prime eating

condition for about 1 week. Overripetomatoes become mushy and loseflavor. Tomatoes also lose flavor whenexposed to temperatures below 50oF.You may have unripe tomatoes onyour vines at the end of the season.Those with a clear white star on theblossom end will ripen with goodflavor. Use others as fried green toma-toes or in other recipes.

• Cut green bell peppers when they arefirm and the size you want. All greenbells eventually turn red and becomemore nutritious. Pick other bellswhen they turn their geneticallyprogrammed color, e.g., orange orpurple. Hot peppers usually becomehotter as they mature. You can samplefor heat once they are full size.

• Snap beans are best when the bean isabout half-developed in the pod. Thepods are edible and of good quality atany stage until the beans are nearlyfull size and the pods begin to soften.

• Harvest shelling peas when the podsare full and still a uniform green color.As they become lighter green, theylose quality. Use snap peas from thetime they first set on until they fill thepods. Pick snow peas before the peasinside swell.

Figure 14.—Season extenders and plant protection methods. (Reprinted by permission from Short-Season Vegetable Gardening, PNW 497, University of Idaho.)


• Harvest summer squash while the skinstill is tender. Once the skin begins tofeel smooth or slick, they are past thebest eating stage. Baby squash withthe flower still attached are a gourmetvegetable.

• Winter squash (such as hubbard,acorn, butternut, and sweet meat)must be fully mature before harvest-ing. The skin should not puncturewhen you push a thumbnail into it.There is no hurry to harvest thesesquash until cold weather. Cut themwith the stem attached and cure at 60°to 70°F for at least a week. Then storeat cool room temperature. They willkeep 3 to 5 months.

• Harvest sweet corn as soon as thekernels are well filled and still milky.Feel the husk. When it is firm, the earshould be ready. If in doubt, peel backthe husk a little and look at severalkernels. If it is not ready, fold the huskback over the ear and check again in aday or two.

• Begin to use head lettuce and cab-bage as soon as the heads are firm. Ifyou have a lot of cabbage, give a

quarter-turn twist to those with firmheads to break part of the roots,retard further growth, and help pre-vent splitting. Both of these vegetablesgrow new small heads if you leave theplant after harvesting the main head.

• Beets, turnips, and kohlrabi usuallyare best when they are 2 to 21⁄2 inchesin diameter. As they grow larger, theytend to become woody. Exceptions arethe new super-large kohlrabi, mangels,and sugar beets.

If you are new to gardening and unsureabout the best size or stage of maturityfor your vegetables, try them at differentstages and see what you prefer.

Garden cleanupWhen tender crops have been har-

vested and overwintering crops cared for,pull up all stakes and trellises in thegarden except those that are clearlymarking the sites of overwintering plants.Clean remnants of plant materials and soiloff stakes and trellises. Hose them downand allow them to dry in the sun. Sunlightis a great disinfectant.

Table 16.—Days from pollination to maturity under warm conditions.Vegetable Days to maturityBean, green 17–20Cantaloupe 42–46Corn, sweet (from 50 percent silking) 18–23Cucumber, pickling (3⁄4" to 11⁄8" diameter) 4–5Cucumber, slicing 15–18Eggplant 25–40Okra 4–6Pepper, green 45–55Pepper, red 60–70Squash, acorn 55–60Squash, summer crookneck or straightneck (1⁄4 to 1⁄2 pound) 5–7Squash, zucchini (1⁄4 to 1⁄2 pound) 3–4Tomato, cherry 35–40Tomato, mature green 35–45Tomato, vine red 40–50Watermelon, icebox type 28–32


Tie stakes in bundles and stack them sothey won’t get lost over the winter. Ifpossible, roll up trellises and tie themsecurely. Store these items inside yourattic, barn, garage, or shed where they areout of the way and where rodents andother animals cannot get to them.

Pull all dead and unproductive plantsand place this residue in the compostheap. Remove any diseased or insect-infested plant material to protect nextyear’s crops. If this plant material is left inthe garden, you are leaving an inoculum ofdiseases and insects that will reproducethe next spring and cause serious prob-lems.

Cleanup also gives you a chance to addcompost or other organic material to yourgarden. Some excellent sources of organicmaterial are available during the fall:• Leaves are abundant, and neighbors

usually are glad to give them away. Putsome on your garden now and storesome for next year’s mulch. If you putleaves on too thickly, however, theywill mat and will not decomposequickly. Help leaves break down moreeasily by shredding them or running alawn mower back and forth over thepile. Put the shredded leaves directlyonto the garden or compost them. Donot use walnut leaves, which mayinhibit next year’s crop growth.

• Sawdust and wood chips are easy toobtain from farms and stables; how-ever, they may take years to fullydecompose. In the meantime, they tieup valuable nitrogen and make itunavailable to your plants. It’s best touse these materials as mulch only.

• Hot, or very fresh, manure can burnyoung seedlings. By adding thesematerials in the fall, you give themplenty of time to decompose andblend into the soil before plantingtime.

If you don’t have enough organic mate-rial for the entire garden, at least try tocover those areas that you want espe-cially rich for next summer’s crops.

If the weather stays dry enough, youcan plow or rototill in the fall. Turningunder vegetation in the fall allows earlierplanting in the spring and is especiallygood for heavy soils; exposure to freezingand thawing during winter helps improvesoil structure.

Cover cropsIf you have a rainy fall, or if

your garden is steep andsubject to erosion, you maydecide to plant a cover cropfor winter protection. A covercrop decreases soil erosion, preventscompaction, adds organic material whenit is incorporated in the spring, improvessoil tilth and porosity, and reduces leach-ing of nutrients.

Winter cover crops can be planted asearly as August 1. They make somegrowth before frost kills them or stopstheir growth. Where fall crops are grow-ing, sow cover crop seed between therows a month or less before expectedharvest. This technique lets the covercrop get a good start without interferingwith vegetable growth. Chapter 2, Soilsand Fertilizers, includes a list of covercrops suitable for winter use. Mixtures of



legumes and nonlegumes are most effec-tive. Ask your county Extension officeabout recommended varieties and plant-ing rates for your area.

Prepare the soil for cover crop seed bytilling under plant wastes from the sum-mer. Broadcast the seed, preferably beforea rain, and rake it evenly into the soil.

Spring planting may be delayed some-what by cover cropping, since you mustallow time for the cover crop residue tobreak down. If some crops need to beplanted very early, you may prefer toleave a section of your garden mulched.

When time or weather conditionsprohibit tilling or cover cropping, you maywish to let your garden lie under a mulchof compost, plant wastes, or leaves allwinter to be plowed or tilled under in thespring. In mild climates, earthworms andother soil life break down a great deal ofraw organic matter during the winter.However, a heavy mulch such as wholeleaves does not break down quickly andmay keep the soil cold and wet longenough to delay planting. The addition ofhigh-nitrogen fertilizer helps break downorganic matter more quickly.

Herb gardeningWhile a discussion of herbs and their

culture could fill two large volumes, wehave included a concise list of the morecommon herbs, their uses, and growinghints (Table 17). All require essentially thesame soil and growing conditions asvegetables. Herbs often can be grown insmall plots or containers to complementthe vegetable garden in appearance, taste,and aroma.

Herbs do have a few special require-ments:• When growing herb seedlings, sow 9

to 12 in a 6-inch pot. Allow them all togrow together. They support eachother and grow much better than ifsown singly. When it’s time to trans-plant, they will be strong enough todivide.

• Italian-type herbs such as thyme androsemary resent winter moisturearound their crowns and should bemulched with rock only. They also losequality if over-fertilized or over-watered.

Table 17.—Herb uses and growing hints.Common name/ SpacingBotanical name Height Row Plants Cultural hints Uses

(inches) (inches)AnnualsAnise 24 18 10 Grow from seed. Plant Leaves used forPimpinella anisum after frost. Sun. seasoning, garnish;

dried seed for spice.

Basil, sweet 20–24 18 12 Grow from seed. Plant Used as seasoning forOcimum basilicum after frost. Sun. soups, stews, salads,

omelets.

Borage 24 18 12 Grow from seed, self- Young leaves, flowersBorago officinalis sowing. Best in dry, used in salads and

sunny areas. cool drinks.

Caraway* 12–24 18 10 Grow from seed. Biennial Used as flavoring, espe-Carum carvi seed bearer. Sun. cially in bakery items.

Chervil 10 15 3–6 Sow in early spring. Aromatic leaves used inAnthriscus cerefolium Partial shade. soups and salads.

*Biennial. continues on next page


Table 17.—Herb uses and growing hints (continued).Common name/ SpacingBotanical name Height Row Plants Cultural hints Uses

(inches) (inches)Annuals (continued)Coriander (cilantro) 24 24 18 Grow from seed. Sow in Seeds used in confec-Coriandrum sativum spring. Sun or partial tions; leaves in salads,

shade. Mexican, Chinese dishes.

Dill 24–36 24 12 Grow from seed. Sow in Leaves and seeds usedAnethum graveolens early spring. Sun or for flavoring and pickling.

partial shade.

Fennel 60 18 18 Grow from seed. Sow in Has anise-like flavor.(Florence fennel) early spring. Sun or Stalks eaten raw orFinocchio foeniculum partial shade. braised.Foeniculum officinalis

Parsley* 6 18 6 Grow from seed. Sow in Brings out flavor ofPetroselinum crispum early spring. Slow to other herbs.

germinate. Sun.

Summer savory 18 18 18 Grow in well-worked loam. Leaves used fresh or drySatureja hortensis Sow seed in spring. Sun. for salads, dressings,

stews.

PerennialsCatnip 36–48 24 18 Hardy. Grow from seed or Leaves used for tea andNepeta cataria by division. Sun or shade. seasoning.

Chives 12 12 12 Little care. Divide when Favorite of chefs.Allium shoenoprasum overcrowded. Grow from Snip tops finely.

seed or by division. Good indoor pot plant.

Horehound 24 18 15 Grow in light soil, full Leaves used in candy orMarribium vulgare sun, intense heat. Protect as seasoning.

during winter in coldclimates. Grow from seed,cuttings, or division.

Hyssop 24 18 15 Grows in poor soil. From A mint with highlyHyssopus officinalis seed. Hardy. Sun. aromatic, pungent leaves.

Lavender 24 18 18 Grows in dry, rocky, Used fresh in salads;Lavandula vera sunny locations with flowers dried for

plenty of lime in soil. sachets, potpourri.

Lovage 36–48 30 30 Rich, moist soil. Sow Cultivated in EuropeanLevisticum officinale seed in late summer. gardens as an herbal

Sun or partial shade. remedy.

Oregano 24 18 9 Grows in poor soil from Used as flavoring forOriganum vulgare seed or division. Sun. tomato dishes, pasta.

Peppermint 36 24 18 Can start from seed, Aromatic, leaves used asMentha piperata but cuttings, division flavoring; oil used in

recommended. Sun or products such asshade. Cut before it chewing gum, liqueurs,goes to seed. candy, toilet water, soap.

*Biennial.continues on next page


For more informationWSU Cooperative Extension publicationsAnthracnose on Lettuce (EB1864)Beans and Peas (PNW0495)Bitterness in Cucumbers (EB1250)Botrytis Neck Rot of Onion (EB1359)Cabbage Maggot in the Home Garden

(EB0859)Carrot Rust Fly (EB0921)Caterpillar Pests of the Cabbage Family

(EB1414)Club Root of Cabbage and Other Crucifers

(EB1049)

Colorado Potato Beetle (EB0919)Corn Earworm (EB1455)Curly Top of Tomato (EB1255)Downy Mildew of Onion (EB1310)Fertilizer Guide for Home Vegetable Gar-

dens in Irrigated Central Washington(FG0052)

Fertilizer Guide for Vegetable and FlowerGardens, Except Irrigated CentralWashington (FG0050)

Garden Symphylan: Its Biology and Control(EB1351)

Home Gardens (EB0422)Late Blight of Potato and Tomato (EB0958)

Table 17.—Herb uses and growing hints (continued).Common name/ SpacingBotanical name Height Row Plants Cultural hints Uses

(inches) (inches)Perennials (continued)Rosemary 36–72 18 12 Grows in well-drained, Leaves used to flavorRosmarinus officinalis nonacid soil. From sauces, meats, soups.

cuttings or seed. Sun.

Sage 18 24 12 From seed or cuttings. Used as seasoning forSalvia officinalis Full sun. Grows slowly meats, herb teas; use

from seed. Renew bed either fresh or dried.every 3–4 years.

Spearmint 18 24 18 Grows in most soils. Aromatic, used forMentha spicata Hardy. From cuttings, flavoring, condiments,

division. Sun. teas.

Sweet marjoram 12 18 12 From seed or cuttings, as Used as seasoning, freshMarjorana hortensis annual, or overwinter as or dried.Origanum marjorana pot plant. Sun.

Sweet woodruff 8 18 12 May need winter Used as flavoring inGalium odoratum protection. Semishade. drinks.

Tarragon 24 24 24 Does best in semishade. European herb of asterArtemisia dracunculus From divisions or root family; used as aromatic

cuttings. Protect in cold seasoning.winters.

Thyme 8–12 18 12 Grows in light, well- Aromatic foliage usedThymus vulgaris drained soil. Renew for seasoning meats,

plants every few years. soups, sauces,From cuttings, seed, dressings.division. Sun.

Winter savory 24 15 18 Grow in light, sandy soil. Used as seasoning forSatureja montana Trim out dead wood. From stuffing, eggs, sausage;

cuttings or seed. Sun. accents strong flavors.


Organic Gardening (EB0648)Pea Wilt and Pea Root Rots in the Home

Garden (EB1262)Pest Control in Home Vegetable Gardens

(EB0825)Potato Flea Beetle: Biology and Control

(EB1198)Potato Scab (EB1243)Slug Control (EB0968)Springtails (EB1510)Storing Vegetables and Fruits at Home

(EB1326)Sweet Corn Varieties for Western

Washington (EB0908)Washington Asparagus Production Guide

(EB0997)WSU Drought Advisory: Sweet Corn

(EM4815)WSU Drought Advisory: Vegetable Crops

(EM4830)

OSU Extension publicationsBlossom-end Rot of Tomatoes (FS 139)Constructing Cold Frames and Hotbeds

(FS 246)El Control de Babosas (EC 1536-S)Cover Crops for Home Gardens (FS 304)Los Cultivos de Cobertura: Una Manera

Fácil de Mejorar el Suelo (EC 1538-S)Eastern Oregon Vegetable Garden Guide

(EC 1491)Fall and Winter Vegetable Gardening in the

Pacific Northwest (PNW 548)Fertilizing Your Garden: Vegetables, Fruits,

and Ornamentals (EC 1503)Garlic for the Home Garden (FS 138)Grow Your Own Beans and Peas (PNW 495)Grow Your Own Beets, Carrots, Radishes,

Onions, and Similar Crops (EC 1231)Grow Your Own Cabbage (EC 876)Grow Your Own Cucumbers (EC 1226)Grow Your Own Lettuce, Spinach, and Swiss

Chard (EC 1268)Grow Your Own Peppers (EC 1227)Grow Your Own Potatoes (EC 1004)Grow Your Own Rhubarb (EC 797)Grow Your Own Sweet Corn (EC 1260)Grow Your Own Tomatoes (EC 1333)Grow Your Own Vegetable Sprouts

(EC 1358)

Growing Your Own (a tabloid offeringpractical gardening advice on veg-etable varieties, planting dates, insectcontrol, soil preparation, containergardening, and more) (GROW)

A List of Analytical Labs Serving Oregon(EM 8677)

Planning and Preparing Your VegetableGarden Site (EC 1228)

Producing Transplants at Home (FS 225)Short-Season Vegetable Gardening

(PNW 497)Slugs (FS 277)Soil Sampling for Home Gardens and Small

Acreages (EC 628)Storing Pumpkin and Winter Squash at

Home (FS 230)

Available from the Web and OSUExtension county officesAdapting Garden Tools to Overcome Physi-

cal Challenges (EM 8504)Conserving Water in the Garden: Growing a

Vegetable Garden (EM 8375)Guía de Plantar para los Legumbres y

Verduras en Oregon (EM 8769-S)El Riego en los Huertos y Jardines

(EM 8765-S)

Other publicationsSolomon, S. Growing Vegetables West of the

Cascades (Sasquatsch Publishing,Seattle, 1989).

Rogers, M. Saving Seeds (Storey Publish-ing, Pownal, VT, 1990).

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