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Transit Oriented Development and its effectsExploring relationships between TOD, accessibility and labour productivity in Beijing, ChinaLyu, G.

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Citation for published version (APA):Lyu, G. (2019). Transit Oriented Development and its effects: Exploring relationships between TOD, accessibilityand labour productivity in Beijing, China.

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TOD and its effects: studies in Beijing, China

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Motivation

Many cities all over the world are facing similar problems, such as road congestion, air

pollution, urban sprawl, and increasing scarcity of available urban land. Transit

Oriented Development (TOD) is widely recognised as an urban planning strategy that

can address these challenges (Cervero et al., 2004; Curtis et al., 2009; Handy, 2002;

Renne, 2009). TOD is often advocated as a generic, ubiquitously applicable concept

that can integrate urban transport and land use systems, by combining a high level of

public transport connection with high-density, mixed-use, cycling- and pedestrian-

friendly developments, centred around a transit station (Calthorpe, 1993). However,

studies have demonstrated that the effects of TOD policies are greatly dependent on

the context where the TOD policy was applied and how it was implemented (e.g.,

Bertolini et al., 2012; Cervero et al., 2004; Chorus and Bertolini, 2016; Curtis et al.,

2009; Joshi et al., 2017; Knowles, 2012; Loo et al., 2010; Mu and De Jong, 2016; Pojani

and Stead, 2014; Yang and Lew, 2009; Zhang and Liu, 2007). It is within this tension

between a generic concept and specific contexts that this thesis is nested.

The point of departure of this thesis is the notion that while TOD can deliver

many benefits in theory, the actual impacts of TOD vary depending on the context

(sometimes having unintended, negative consequences) (Jones and Ley, 2016; Toole,

2007). The Chinese context is a particularly interesting case. First, Chinese cities suffer

from the numerous, aggravated urban problems that TOD is expected to address:

traffic congestion, air pollution, urban sprawl and increasing scarcity of available

urban land. China might profit from TOD, and many Chinese cities are advocating for

TOD. Second, TOD policy is being implemented in some Chinese cities for more than a

decade. It seems like an appropriate time to provide insights from the Chinese TOD

experience to the rest of the world. Third, as a Chinese citizen, the author has a strong

motivation to do research on the Chinese context and to offer a personal contribution

to his home country.

The following sections provide an international literature review on the debate

around the effects of TOD and, more specifically, a systematic review of TOD studies

in the Chinese context. Based on the literature review, the knowledge gaps and

research questions are identified, followed by a brief introduction of the selected case

city of Beijing. The chapter closes with an outline of the thesis.


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1.2 Identifying and debating the potential effects of TOD

1.2.1 Identifying the potential effects of TOD

The properties of an area that align with TOD principles are relatively high urban

density, diversity, cycling- and pedestrian-friendly development and high quality

transit node or public transport connection (e.g., Bertolini and Spit, 1998; Cervero,

1998; Cervero et al., 2004; Curtis et al., 2009). Given these properties and under

certain conditions, TOD is expected to have positive effects on many aspects. For

instance, TOD can enhance accessibility 1) by bringing origins and destinations closer

together and 2) by reducing the disutility of covering distances between origins and

destinations (Curtis and Scheurer, 2010; Handy, 2002; Papa and Bertolini, 2015). TOD

is also expected to encourage changes in travel behaviour (i.e., more cycling or

walking, more public transport use, and less private car use), with a likely positive

effect on human health (Langlois et al., 2016; Solitare et al., 2012) and the

environment (Kimball et al., 2013). Furthermore, TOD is expected to have positive

effects on the urban economy by creating potential for land value capture (e.g.,

Bartholomew and Ewing, 2011; Cervero et al., 2004; Cervero and Murakami, 2009;

Duncan, 2011; Mathur and Ferrell, 2009), by reducing transportation cost (e.g.,

Mudigonda et al., 2014; Nahlik and Chester, 2014), by stimulating employment (Belzer

et al., 2011; Schuetz, 2015), by spurring company founding and relocation (Iseki and

Jones, 2014; Noland, Chatman, et al., 2014; Zheng et al., 2016), and by increasing

industry net income (Seo et al., 2013). Moreover, TOD may foster the development of

social sustainability. As found by Kamruzzaman et al., (2014b), individuals living in

TOD areas had a significantly higher level of social capital compared to those who

lived in transit adjacent development areas (TADs are station areas characterised by

low densities, limited or no pedestrian accessibility and segregated land uses [Renne,

2009]). Besides, TOD is said to contribute to spatial equity (e.g., Fernandez and

Creutzig, 2017; Jang et al., 2017; Kaplan et al., 2014) and social inclusion (Waintrub et

al., 2016).

1.2.2 Debating the potential effects of TOD

TOD has also come under criticism. For instance, some argue that TOD might increase

car traffic (Rubin and Mansour, 2013; Toole, 2007), due to the often accompanying

gentrification push (Jones and Ley, 2016). TOD can lead to increases in property/land

values and rents, with higher-income residents/renters potentially displacing lower-

income residents/renters within very desirable TOD areas. A population shift towards

a higher-come group is expected to increase the vehicle ownership rate and car traffic


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in TOD areas. And driving the lower-income groups out of the TOD areas is expected

to increase the travel distances to reach public transits for the lower-income groups.

Critics also argue that the high-density development within a TOD area may actually

cause congestion and noise, lowering the quality of the living environment in that

area (Lin and Gau, 2006). The implementation of TOD might also raise spatial and

social equity issues. The growing differences in public transit service and urban

developments between transit areas and other areas can potentially increase spatial

inequity (Lin and Gau, 2006). The gentrification dynamics induced by this spatial

differentiation in urban qualities might then reinforce social inequity (Jones and Ley,

2016).

Others warn that TOD can deliver many benefits in theory but that the actual

effects of TOD vary. The literature documents that the connection between

implementation of TOD policies (measured as TOD-ness in some literature, see Singh

et al., 2014) and their actual effects largely depends on the context and on how TOD

was implemented (e.g., Bertolini et al., 2012; Cervero et al., 2004; Chorus and

Bertolini, 2016; Curtis et al., 2009; Joshi et al., 2017; Knowles, 2012; Loo et al., 2010;

Mu and De Jong, 2016; Pojani and Stead, 2014; Yang and Lew, 2009; Zhang and Liu,

2007).

Policy goals and TOD implementation strategies differ according to context

specifics. For instance, in North America and Australia, TOD seems mostly to be aimed

at curbing suburban sprawl by relatively high-density and diverse developments

around transit stops (e.g., Cervero, 1998; Cervero et al., 2004; Dittmar and Ohland,

2004; Hemsley, 2009). In Europe it seems often to focus on the redevelopment of

existing station/urban areas (e.g., Bertolini and Spit, 1998) and on improving regional

accessibility (e.g., Papa et al., 2013). In Asia and South America, TOD seems to be

utilized as a strategy for channelling or managing the growth of megacities along mass

rapid transit corridors (e.g., Chorus and Bertolini, 2016; Rodriguez and Vergel Tovar,

2013; Yang and Lew, 2009).

The literature also shows differences in the form and the actual effects of TOD –

both within the same context and across similar contexts. For instance, Papa and

Bertolini (2015) found varying TOD degrees across six metropolises within the

European context and discovered that cumulative rail-based accessibility was higher

in cities with a higher TOD degree. Kamruzzaman et al., (2014a) identified four types

of TOD areas – residential TODs, activity centre TODs, potential TODs (TADs), and non-

TOD within the context of the same city (Brisbane). They found that inhabitants in

residential TODs and activity centre TODs had a significantly higher level of trust,


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reciprocity and connections with neighbours compared to inhabitants in potential

TODs.

To summarise, TOD can deliver many effects, but the actual effects of TOD vary

depending on the context of application (sometimes even leading to unintended,

negative consequences).

1.3 TOD studies in China

1.3.1 Why study TOD in China

This section provides an introduction to the Chinese context, a discussion of why

China might need TOD policies, and the position of this PhD study in the broader

academic context of TOD studies in China.

Since 1978, when the Chinese central government started implementing an open-

door policy of economic reform, the country has been undergoing rapid urbanisation.

From 1978 to 2011, the urban population of China increased from 172 million to 690

million, and the urbanisation ratio rose from 17.9% to 51.3% (Pan and Xu, 2014).

According to United Nations estimates, nearly 70% of Chinese will live in urban areas

by 2030 (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2018).

The first challenge for planning professionals and policymakers comes from the

pressures brought on by this accelerated urbanisation. The provision of urban services

may not expand as rapidly as the urban population, resulting in a dramatic decrease of

per capita urban services for residents.

A second challenge is the disappearance of the Danwei – the self-contained, live-

work units (neighbourhoods that balance housing and access to jobs) – during this

prolonged economic boom. The end result is the creation of relatively separate living

and work districts, which leads to longer commutes (Wang and Chai, 2009).

Third, Chinese cities face increasing urban land scarcity due to growing urban

sprawl. With the implementation of the farmland protection policy in 1994, this

challenge has become more visible and felt (Lichtenberg and Ding, 2008). For

example, in recent years, a large share of high-quality farmland is being lost due to

rapid urban sprawl. Consequently, the farmland protection policy has become

increasingly stricter, further constraining the area of available urban land.

Rapid urbanisation coupled with wealth increases also induced a drastic growth in

private motorised mobility in China. Car passenger numbers in the main metropolitan

cities (e.g., Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Tianjin, Wuhan, Xi’an) have been growing by

15.1% annually since 2000 (Zhao, 2014). This rapid growth of private motorised

mobility has greatly increased people’s mobility and improved their quality of life;


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however, it has also brought on severe urban problems: high energy consumption,

growing greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, noise pollution and poor road safety.

Many authors find that TOD is well positioned to address the challenges discussed

above, for three main reasons (Doulet et al., 2017; Lu and Zhao, 2008; Wang, 2013;

Wang et al., 2007; Xu et al., 2017; Zhang and Liu, 2007). First, TOD seems to offer

solutions to the Chinese urbanisation problems described above: 1) by providing a

relatively cheap, clean, safe mass rapid transportation to a growing urban population

and commuter base, and 2) by infill developments around transit nodes, which help

elevate the economic efficiency of areas. Second, the Chinese context is already

aligned with TOD principles to some extent (see the similar arguments by Doulet et

al., 2017): 1) Chinese cities are already very dense; 2) private car use is not that high;

and 3) rail/metro-based public transit is relatively abundant. Third, since the land is

owned by the state or by collectives (e.g., a village community), it is easier to

implement TOD policy or planning than in other countries where the state has weaker

control over development.

Many Chinese cities are advocating for TOD (Xu et al., 2017) and also

implementing TOD policies, in some cases for more than a decade, such as in Beijing.

Therefore, it seems like an appropriate time to provide insights on the Chinese

experience with TOD. Besides its specific empirical relevance and interest, a study

focusing on the Chinese context will contribute to the evolving international literature

on TOD by providing insights from a context with characteristics markedly different

from those of the North/South American, Australian, and West European contexts

discussed so far, and yet a context with a very large global weight.

1.3.2 Previous TOD studies in the Chinese context

Existing TOD studies in the Chinese context can be subdivided into three groups.1 The

first group introduces what TOD is and what it can deliver in the Chinese context; the

second concerns the effects of implemented TOD policies; and the third looks at the

challenges and the arrangements for implementing TOD (see more in each specific

section of Appendix. Table 1-1).

1 The majority of previous TOD studies in the Chinese context was identified according to a key word search of the Google Scholar Search Engine (‘Transit Oriented Development’ and ‘China/Chinese’), carried out at the start of the PhD project in October 2014 and updated in January 2018. In addition, all references of the reviewed literature were scanned to identify those TOD studies that referred to the Chinese context.


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The first part of the literature mainly focuses on introducing TOD and what it can

deliver in the Chinese context (e.g., Li et al., 2015; Wang, 2013; Wang et al., 2007).

Several researchers looked at the experiences with TOD practices in the Chinese

context (e.g., Yang and Li, 2004; Zhang and Liu, 2007) and proposed guidelines of TOD

principles appropriate for the Chinese context (e.g., Wang, 2013; Zhang and Liu,

2007). Furthermore, some researchers examined what TOD means for the station

area from an urban design perspective. Based on their interpretation of TOD, these

authors proposed land use optimisation models that follow general TOD principles for

the targeted station areas (Li et al., 2010; Lu and Zhao, 2008). While covering the

concept of TOD and its principles for the Chinese context, these studies neglect a key

point made by the international literature, namely that the actual implementation of

TOD varies in different contexts, even within the same city. A TOD typology within a

Chinese city is yet to be elaborated (Li et al., 2015).

The second group in the literature concerns the benefits that TOD has actually

delivered to Chinese cities. In line with other international TOD studies, TOD is found

as having delivered several benefits. For instance, TOD enhances accessibility (Cervero

and Day, 2008; Dou et al., 2016), reduces urban carbon emissions (Dou et al., 2016),

encourages transit use (Cervero and Murakami, 2009; Huang et al., 2016; Pan et al.,

2015) and walking (Jiang et al., 2012), and spurs urban expansion (Xu et al., 2017) and

the urban economy (Li et al., 2011). Studies also found a positive correlation between

TOD and transaction price of land (Yang, Chen, et al., 2016; Yang, Quan, et al., 2016)

and between TOD and housing price (Zhang et al., 2014; Zhang and Wang, 2013).

However, Pan et al. (2011) found that in the urban periphery TOD did not effectively

reduce car ownership and use, contrary to findings from the international literature

(e.g., Cervero, 2006; Noland, Ozbay, et al., 2014), but in line with others (Rubin and

Mansour, 2013; Toole, 2007), suggesting the need for further enquiry. Also when not

controversial, most of these studies are based on findings from very specific

geographical contexts (a single or a few cities). However, the international literature

warns that they might not apply to other contexts, suggesting the need of a broader

empirical base and methodologies for systemic comparison.

The third group of the literature concerns the challenges and the necessary

arrangements for implementing TOD policies in the Chinese context. For instance,

several studies focus on the pre-conditions (Mu and De Jong, 2012), built environment

factors (Qu et al., 2014) or the challenges (Thomas and Deakin, 2008) for effectively

implementing TOD policies. Some studies emphasise successful TOD experiences, by

looking at governance (Mu and De Jong, 2016) or financial arrangements (Li et al.,


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2013) that have made TOD implementation possible. This literature highlights the

importance of contextual variables for successful TOD implementation in China;

however, it usually lacks the quantitative analysis –a growing requirement under

evidence-based planning in China (Liu et al., 2015) – that can clarify the relationship

between specific contexts (e.g., a geographic or planning context) and the

implementation of TOD measures and the delivered benefits.

1.4 Knowledge gaps and research questions

This section identifies the knowledge gaps and research questions that emerged from

the review of international and Chinese TOD studies. The central notion is the

argument that TOD can deliver many benefits in theory, but that both the form and

actual effects of TOD vary in different contexts, even within the same country or city.

Therefore, a context-based TOD typology should be developed as a starting point for

exploring the relationship between TOD and its actual effects in context.

The overarching research questions of the thesis (ORQ) are: How to develop a

context-based TOD typology in a systematic way? And how is TOD related to its

effects in a specific context? For both questions, Beijing city will be the context of

application (see point 1.5 below for the justification of this choice), in order to fill the

specific knowledge gaps on TOD in China.

The literature shows that a context-based TOD typology could provide many

insights for improving TOD planning and implementation (e.g., Kamruzzaman et al.,

2014a; Vale, 2015). The similarities within one area type could allow to develop more

targeted sets of strategies to promote TOD or maximise its effects (Reusser et al.,

2008). And, a context-based typology could improve the planning professionals’

understanding of the relationships between TOD and its effects, by allowing for

comparison of the effects in the identified TOD area types. Many authors (Austin et

al., 2010; Kamruzzaman, Baker, et al., 2014; Vale, 2015; Zemp et al., 2011) have

developed context-based TOD typologies to account for the fact that the actual

effects of TOD vary depending on the context of application. However, no study has

systematically developed a TOD typology for a Chinese city, and Chapter 2 (originally

published in 2016) fills this knowledge gap by answering the first research sub-

question (RQ1):

RQ1: How to develop a context-based TOD typology for a city in a systematic way?

The international and Chinese literatures present substantial empirical evidence

of the positive relationship between TOD and the effects that TOD is expected to

deliver (e.g., Cervero and Day, 2008; Dou et al., 2016; Duncan, 2011; Kimball et al.,


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2013; Noland et al., 2014a; Pan et al., 2015, 2011; Papa and Bertolini, 2015; Seo et al.,

2013; Solitare et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2016a, 2016b; Zhang and Wang,

2013). They found that 1) changes in accessibility can be recognised as the primary

and direct effects of TOD; and 2) accessibility is closely associated with other indirect,

secondary effects of TOD (Papa and Bertolini, 2015). However, previous TOD

accessibility studies (e.g., Dou et al., 2016; Papa and Bertolini, 2015) did not explore

the relationships between specific TOD components (e.g., the position of a station in

the city and the transit network, the frequency of transit service, density and diversity

of land uses, or walkability) and accessibility. Furthermore, also here the specificities

of the Chinese context demand a targeted, contextual analysis of the relationship

between TOD and accessibility. And the analyses of previous studies are limited at the

intercity or regional levels and, therefore, do not provide insights regarding the

relationship between TOD and accessibility at the local, i.e. station area level. In

addition, the findings of previous studies on the relationship between TOD and

accessibility paint a mixed picture with respect to the land use component (e.g.,

Chatman, 2013; Levine et al., 2012; Papa and Bertolini, 2015). Understanding which

TOD components (e.g., public transport connection, pedestrian-friendly urban design,

or densification or diversity land use) should be emphasised in order to enhance a

station area’s accessibility provides valuable insights for urban planning professionals.

Therefore, Chapter 3 will explore the relationships between specific TOD

characteristics and accessibility via the second research sub-question (RQ2):

RQ2: How does Transit Oriented Development contribute to station area accessibility?

With the relationship between TOD and accessibility already elaborated, Chapter

4 turns to the relationship between TOD and its indirect effects. TOD’s link with

economic development is a particularly important field of investigation (e.g.,

Bartholomew and Ewing, 2011; Belzer et al., 2011; Cervero and Murakami, 2009;

Duncan, 2011; Noland et al., 2014a; Schuetz, 2015; Seo et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2016a,

2016b; Zhang et al., 2014; Zheng et al., 2016). However, the key relationship between

TOD and urban economic efficiency (in this thesis defined in terms of labour

productivity) is not covered by previous studies. Filling this knowledge gap is

important for two main reasons: 1) knowing how TOD relates to labour productivity,

as an illustrative example, is helpful for exploring the relationships between TOD and

other indirect effects (e.g., effects on the employment rate, land prices, or spatial

equity); and 2) improved understanding of this connection can enhance urban

planning and other policies aimed at achieving higher labour productivity in urban


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areas (an important urban planning goal for many cities). The research sub-question

(RQ3) for this part is defined as follows:

RQ3: Is labour productivity significantly higher in a more transit oriented developed

area, and how do the specific TOD characteristics contribute to the clustering of labour

productivity?

These three specific research sub-questions (RQ1, RQ2, and RQ3) are answered in

Chapters 2, 3, and 4, respectively. The necessary theoretical and methodological tools

are also developed, altogether constituting the main body of this thesis.

1.5 Introduction of the selected case city: Beijing

This section provides audiences with a brief introduction to Beijing, the reasons why

the author chose Beijing as the case study city, and how this choice is related to the

research sub-questions in the thesis.

In the last four decades, China’s capital city has seen rapid urbanisation and urban

sprawl (Pesaresi and Freire, 2016, also see Figure 1-1). In 2014, the total urban and

rural population in Beijing municipality reached 21.5 million, with 86.4% living in its

urban areas (Beijing Municipal Statistics Bureau, 2015). Beijing is a relatively dense

city, with urban population density of 8,975 persons per square kilometre in the built-

up areas (2,217.40 km2) in 2015.

Figure 1-1 Urban expansion in Beijing (1975-2014)

Map is drawn by Robbin-Jan van Duijne


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Data is derived from Global Human Settlement Layer city centres database (Pesaresi

and Freire, 2016)

Beijing provides an excellent study case for the following reasons. First, TOD

strategies, based on the metro system, have been implemented for many years

(Beijing municipal government, 2003). The travel share of public transport (especially

metro) has increased rapidly since the TOD policy was proposed, while the travel

share of private cars has stabilised (see Figure 1-2). However, there is no study or

report that has systematically assessed the actual implementation of TOD policy at

the station area level in Beijing (especially, a TOD typology). Therefore, it is interesting

and relevant to examine the TOD policy and undertake a systematic assessment of the

implementation, by developing a TOD typology for Beijing’s metro station areas and

providing a few insights from Beijing’s TOD experience to the world (in Chapter 2).

Figure 1-2. The share of transport mode (not including walking) since 1986 in Beijing

city

Source: Beijing transportation research centre, (2017, 2015)

Second, since TOD strategies were officially proposed in Beijing’s Urban Master

Plan 2004–2020, metro-based TOD strategies have been considered as one of the key

policy tools for increasing public transit use, reducing carbon emissions and air

pollution, and channelling urban growth along mass transit corridors (Beijing

municipal commission of transport, 2012, 2016; Beijing municipal commission of

urban planning, 2009; Beijing municipal government, 2003). The expected benefits of

TOD are all related to the enhancement of accessibility. A close examination of the

relationship between TOD and accessibility is therefore warranted. Furthermore, the

official Urban Master Plan 2016–2030 (Beijing municipal commission of planning and

0

20

40

60

80

100

1986 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Car Bus(including tram) Metro Cycling Taxi other


11

land resource management, 2017) emphasised TOD as a policy for bringing jobs and

housing closer to each other within each urban district, but it did not provide the

specific strategies how to achieve this planning goal. This focus of Beijing’s urban

planning professionals further demands careful investigation of the relationship

between TOD and accessibility to jobs and inhabitants (to be addressed through the

second research sub-questions in Chapter 3).

Third, TOD strategies are also considered as one of the key tools for intensive and

cost-effective urban land use (Beijing municipal commission of urban planning, 2009)

and boosting the urban economy (e.g., Yang et al., 2016b; Zhang et al., 2014). The

official Urban Master Plan 2016–2030 (Beijing municipal commission of planning and

land resource management, 2017) uses labour productivity as an important indicator

to measure the efficiency of Beijing’s economy. It proposes increasing labour

productivity in Beijing from 196,000 Chinese Yuan per worker in 2015 to

230,000 Chinese Yuan per worker in 2020; however, it does not provide any specific

strategies how to achieve this planning goal. A study of the relationship between TOD

and labour productivity of an area (the focus of the third research sub-question in

Chapter 4) could be a useful contribution to this effort.

1.6 Outline of the thesis

This thesis is based on a series of papers that were published or submitted to

international peer-reviewed journals.

Chapter 2: Developing a TOD typology for Beijing metro station areas

Brief Introduction:

This chapter develops a TOD typology for metro station areas in Beijing. The approach

is based on the node-place model, which charts ‘Transit’ and ‘Development’

characteristics of metro station areas, expanding it with a third, ‘Oriented’, dimension

to quantify 1) proximity between a metro node and developments and 2) walkability

within metro areas. This chapter generates context-based TOD indicators by reviewing

the main TOD indicators in the international literature and selecting those appropriate

for the Beijing context with the help of local TOD experts. It evaluates TOD

characteristics of each metro station area, classifies them into six types via cluster

analysis and characterises each cluster.

Chapter 3: How does Transit Oriented Development contribute to station area

accessibility? A study of Beijing

Brief Introduction:


12

This chapter develops a methodology to explore how specific TOD characteristics are

related to accessibility as well as their relative contribution to accessibility. It first

assesses the accessibility of any given metro station area in Beijing. Then, it studies

how the specific TOD characteristics are related to accessibility at the metro station

area’s one-hour travel time catchment level. The results highlight that in the Beijing

context a station area’s location relative to the city centre and the land use pattern

(e.g., a relatively lower average residential density; a relatively higher average all-job

density; a relatively lower average job density in the sector of retail, accommodation,

and catering; a relatively higher average job density in the sector of education, health,

and culture; and a relatively lower average degree of functional mixes) around all the

stations within the targeted station’s one-hour travel catchment are relatively more

important for enhancing the area’s accessibility than improving the area’s transit

performance. This outcome provides insights for developing area-specific and

targeted strategies to enhance the accessibility of a given metro station area in

Beijing.

Chapter 4: Is labour productivity higher in Transit Oriented Development areas? A

study of Beijing

Brief Introduction:

This chapter operationalizes economic efficiency as labour productivity and develops

a methodology to assess the values of labour productivities and their clustering

(derived from a hotspot analysis) in different area types (according to distance from a

metro station) across different types of industries. Furthermore, the study explores

the relationships between the specific TOD characteristics and the clustering of labour

productivities in certain industry sectors. The results show that in most industry

sectors, the distribution of labour productivity has no significant association with TOD.

However, the results suggest that within certain tertiary industry sectors (i.e.

wholesale and retail trades; accommodation and catering; and culture, sports, and

entertainment), labour productivity is significantly higher in a more transit oriented

developed area. Furthermore, the paper has identified specific TOD components that

are related to the clustering of labour productivities in certain industry sectors and the

extent of the effect (e.g., in Beijing, the densification and diversification of

development around a station area or along the transit network is more relevant than

the transport connection of an area). These outcomes provide insights for developing

targeted strategies to foster the clustering of labour productivities in certain

industries at a given station area in Beijing.

Chapter 5: Conclusion and discussion


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This chapter brings together the findings and contributions of the entire thesis,

reflects on the limitations of the study, and discusses potential directions for TOD

research.


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Appendix of Chapter 1

Table 1-1

The overview of TOD studies in the Chinese context

Theme/topic Study case/focus

What has been done or what is the main finding?

What is missing, has been neglected?

Literature reference

Review of TOD studies in the American and Chinese contexts

TOD studies in the American and Chinese contexts

TOD principles and its interpretation in the Chinese context were reviewed

A review of TOD practices (e.g. TOD plan for cities or for neighbourhoods) in the Chinese context was neglected

(Wang et al., 2007)

The mechanism why TOD can deliver many benefits

Metro corridors in Beijing city

The mechanism by which TOD can deliver many benefits was discussed. And a guideline for TOD planning in the Chinese context was proposed

Empirical studies which can support the mechanism by which TOD can deliver many benefits were neglected

(Wang, 2013)

TOD practice in a city

A TOD plan in Dalian city

TOD principles and a TOD plan for Dalian city was introduced

Empirical studies which can support the expectation that TOD can deliver many benefits were neglected

(Yang and Li, 2004)

TOD principles for Chinese cities

TOD practices in Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Taipei

The TOD principles based on the Chinese context were generalised

China is a large and diverse country. Regions or cities demand more context-specific principles for

(Zhang and Liu, 2007)


21

developing TOD.

Multi-objective optimisation models for sustainable developments

A station area in Shenzhen city

A TOD planning paradigm to ensure a multi-objective optimisation on sustainable developments was provided

The mechanism of optimisation has not been supported by relevant empirical studies

(Li et al., 2010)

Multi-objective optimisation models for TOD planning

Station areas in Beijing city

The key issues of TOD planning in the Chinese context were identified and a multi-objective optimisation model for TOD planning at the neighbourhood level was proposed

The mechanism of optimisation has not been supported by relevant empirical studies

(Lu and Zhao, 2008)

TOD's principles and typology

TOD studies in the American and Chinese contexts

TOD principles and several classical types of TOD areas were reviewed

No Chinese TOD typology was discussed or developed

(Li et al., 2015)

Travel behaviours

Individuals within three neighbourhoods in Shanghai city

Due to the residential relocation from urban centre to the periphery, job accessibility decreases, but TOD moderates such losses in job accessibility. And TOD encourages transit commuting

A comprehensive evaluation of TOD characteristics of the three sampled locations was neglected

(Cervero and Day, 2008)

Travel behaviours

Individuals within 19

People walk farther to transit

Inter-dependency of

(Jiang et al., 2012)


22

station areas in Jinan city

stations when the walking environment has certain TOD characteristics

TOD variables and some factors related to walk distance were neglected

Travel behaviours

Individuals in two station areas in the periphery of Shanghai city

TOD does not effectively reduce car ownership and use in the urban periphery

The impacts of TOD might lag in time

(Pan et al., 2011)

Travel behaviours

Individuals in several sampled metro station areas in Shanghai city

People’s intention to use metro has negative effects on mode choice of driving and car ownership; denser road network and more mixed land use at workplaces may result in less car purchasing; residents are more likely to commute by metro instead of car if the ratio of access time from homes/jobs to a station is smaller

A systematic evaluation of TOD characteristics (e.g. parking in the TOD's residential areas, pedestrian- or cycling-friendly developments) of station areas was neglected

(Pan et al., 2015)


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Attitudes and travel behaviours

Individuals within five neighbourhoods in Xi'an city

Individuals with a strong propensity to use transit commute by transit no matter whether they live near metro transit. Living near metro transit tends to promote transit commute for those with a weak propensity to use transit.

The TOD characteristics (e.g. walkability, urban diversity) of studied residential areas were neglected

(Huang et al., 2016)

Accessibility and carbon emissions in different TOD scenarios

A TOD network in Shanghai city

TOD enhances accessibility and reduces urban carbon emissions

The relationship between TOD and travel behavioural change was neglected

(Dou et al., 2016)

Ridership and housing prices in TODs

Station areas in Hong Kong city

TOD increases ridership and housing prices

A comprehensive evaluation of TOD characteristics of station areas was neglected

(Cervero and Murakami, 2009)

Land use change after TOD planning

Subway corridors in Nanning city

TOD land use becomes denser but less diverse and urban economy is expected to be fostered

The actual changes on land use were neglected

(Li et al., 2011)


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TOD's impacts on land expansion

50 cities in China

The second- and third-class cities will probably have greater potential to achieve large urban form impacts from TOD than the first-class cities in China

Some factors (e.g. human decisions that lead to spread of urban areas) are not considered into the cellular automaton model

(Xu et al., 2017)

TOD and land transaction price

Land parcels nearby transit stations in Shenzhen city

Transit stations were likely planned/designed at the less-developed areas of the city for the potential development of the areas. A positive correlation between TOD implementation and land transaction price was identified

The relationships between land transaction price and more specific TOD characteristics (e.g. land use density, diversity, walkability) were neglected

(Yang, Chen, et al., 2016)

TOD and land transaction price

Land parcels nearby transit stations within Beijing city

A positive correlation between TOD characteristics and land transaction price over time was identified. The barriers to reaching the higher economic potential development of TOD were identified

More specific TOD characteristics (e.g. land use diversity and walkability) were neglected in the spatial regression model

(Yang, Quan, et al., 2016)


25

TOD and housing price

Housing nearby transit stations within Beijing

A positive correlation between the proximity to transit stations and housing prices was identified

Some specific TOD characteristics (overall transportation level, land use diversity, pedestrian-friendly development) that may be related to housing price were neglected

(Zhang and Wang, 2013)

TOD and housing price

Housing nearby transit stations within Beijing

A positive correlation between the proximity of transit stations and housing prices was presented

Spatial autocorrelation of housing price and some TOD characteristics (overall transportation level, land use diversity, pedestrian-friendly development) that may be related to housing price were neglected

(Zhang et al., 2014)

Challenges to implementing TOD

Jinan city Land use challenges to implementing Transit-Oriented Development were identified

Land use challenges on more specific aspects (e.g. regarding urban diversity) were neglected

(Thomas and Deakin, 2008)


26

The conditions for effective TOD

Dalian city The conditions for effective transit-oriented development in Dalian, China were evaluated

A quantitative evaluation of the conditions for effective transit-oriented development was neglected

(Mu and De Jong, 2012)

Built environments that are essential for TOD success

Station areas in Nanchang city

Higher density, quality, and more pedestrian-friendly developments will likely to be essential for TOD success

The study was conducted before the metro line is operated, a continued study (or a validation) was neglected

(Qu et al., 2014)

TOD's funding and planning framework beyond municipal boundaries

A case of intercity railway TOD project in the Pearl River Delta

Revealed how a new funding and planning framework for intercity TOD has been developed out of pre-existing organisational and legal constraints

How the experience of the studied case applies to another case of TOD project in the same region is unclear

(Li et al., 2013)

Governance of TOD

Urumqi city Governance strategies used in Urumqi, China were identified

An evaluation for TOD's success in Urumqi was neglected

(Mu and De Jong, 2016)

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