the Seacat guided-missile system, twin 4.5-inch guns and a Wasp helicopter, whichcarries homing torpedoes to deal withsubmarines at long range. The mainpropulsion machinery consists of two setsof steam turbines developing 30,000 shafthorse-power and giving speeds in excessof 30 knots. They are among the finestsea-keeping ships ever possessed by theRoyal Navy and have an excellentperformance in bad weather. Certainships are being refitted to operate theIkara anti-submarine weapon system, andothers, the Exocet surface-to-surfaceguided-weapon system. Fifteen Leanderclass ships are in the review lines, show-ing the various weapon-fits above.

Type 12 Whitby Class FrigatesThe six Type 12 (Whitby class) frigateswere the first post-war design A/Sfrigates to join the Royal Navy. TheRothesay and Leander classes improvedon the Type 12 design. The remainingWhitby class ships are mainly used fortraining and their armament and accom-modation have been modified to fit thenew role. HMS Torquay, now used fornavigation training, and HMSEastbourne, used for MEA apprenticestraining, represent this class.

Type 81 Tribal Class FrigatesThe Tribal class are general-purposefrigates. New equipment includes theSeacaf missile system. The main machin-ery is supplemented by gas turbines toboost their speed and enable them toleave harbour at short notice. They areequipped with a Wasp helicopter. Four ofthis class of seven ships are at theReview. Their names, Ashanti, Eskimo,Gurkha, Mohawk, Nubian, Tartar andZulu, perpetuate some of the famousdestroyer names of World War II.

Type 61 Salisbury ClassFrigatesThese ships are primarily for thedirection of carrier-borne and shore-based aircraft. For this role they arefitted with highly developed electronicequipment. They can also be used foranti-submarine warfare. HMS Salisburyand HMS Lincoln have been fitted withthe Seacat missile system. HMS Lincolnis fitted with controllable pitchpropellers. HMS Chichester has beenmodified for guard-ship duties in the FarEast. HMS Salisbury is the only ship ofthis class in the Review.

FACING PAGE (top to bottom): HMS Zulu,a Tribal class frigate; HMS Sheffield,name ship of her class of destroyers;HMS Phoebe, a Leander class frigatewhich featured as HMS Hero in thepopular BBC TV series `Warship' ; HMSPlymouth, a Rothesay class frigate. THISPAGE (top to bottom): HMS Arrow, aType 21 frigate; HMS Salisbury, nameship of her class; HMS Dundas, aBlackwood class frigate; a MineCountermeasures squadron of the 'Ton'class (from top : HM Ships Crofton,Shavington, Walkerton, Stubbington,Ashton and Leverton).

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Type 41 Leopard Class FrigatesFour Leopard class frigates were builtfor the anti-aircraft protection of surfaceforces. Their armament is two twin 4.5automatic radar-controlled turrets and ananti-submarine mortar. HMS Lynx ispresent at the Review.

Type 14 Blackwood Class FrigatesThe Blackwood or Utility class frigateswere small A/S frigates armed with twosmall guns and two three-barrelled A/Smortars. HMS Exmouth was converted tobe the first gas-turbine-propelled majorwarship. Three ships of this class are stillused for training at .sea and two othersare retained as Harbour Training Ships.Two of the class are at the Review.

Patrol BoatsThe Navy has ordered four 190-ton Birdclass patrol boats, based on the Sealclass long-range recovery craft. Theirduties will include fishery protection.HMS Peterel is present at the Review,manned by men of the RNR.

A recent order has been placed for fiveIsle class patrol vessels for protection ofoil-rigs in the North Sea. These ships willbe approximately 1,250 tons and theearliest vessels have been launched.

Fast Training BoatsThree fast training boats, Scimitar,Cutlass and Sabre, provide anti-fast-patrol-craft training for ships and heli-copters of the fleet. They are powered bytwo sets of engines, the main engines

are gas turbines supplied by Rolls-RoyceLimited and the auxiliary drive enginesare diesels manufactured by FodensLimited. Their top speed is in excess of40 knots. All are at the review.

Mine Countermeasures VesselsThe Navy has 38 coastal minehunters orminesweepers remaining of the ' Ton'class which once numbered over 100ships. Between them, they can deal withall types of mine. Five ships have beenconverted to patrol craft and are fittedwith an extra 40-mm Bofors gun. HMSWilton, built of glass-reinforced plasticon existing lines, is the largest GRP shipin service. A new class of larger GRPMCM vessels has been orderedfollowing extensive trials with Wilton.Twenty `Ton' class vessels are present atthe Review.

The ' Ham' class of inshore mine-sweepers also once numbered over 100vessels. Nine ships of this class arepresent here — either as the training shipof university RNR units or as RNXSships. The RNXS ships can be seenpatrolling the anchorage.

Survey ShipsOne of the most important peacetimetasks of the Royal Navy is hydrographicand oceanographic surveying. Infor-mation from surveys is needed forAdmiralty charts which have a world-wide sale and are used by ships of manynations. The surveys are the responsi-bility of the Navy' s Surveying Servicewhich has been operating throughout theworld since the formation of theHydrographic Department in 1795. It hasocean-going ships, coastal vessels andinshore craft, each carrying survey motorboats. Some ships also carry helicopters.Three ocean survey ships (one flying theflag of the Hydrographer of the Navy),four coastal survey ships and five inshoresurvey craft are present.

LEFT: Naval fixed wing aircraft taking partin the Fly Past (from top to bottom):Phantom. A twin-engined, all-weatherfighter and ground attack aircraft oper-ated from HMS Ark Royal. Crew : pilotand observer. Maximum speed greater thanMach 2.Buccaneer. A twin-engined, low-level strikeaircraft operated from HMS Ark Royal Crew :pilot and observer. Maximum speech ofapprox. 700 mph.Gannet. A turbo-prop aircraft operateefrom HMS Ark Royal. Its main roleairborne early warning, i.e. the detectionof enemy air and surface forces at greatdistances from the carrier. Crew : pilottwo observers. Maximum speed 310 mph.Canberra and Hunter (not illustrated)These aircraft are based at RNASYeovilton and are operated by the Fleet,Requirements and Air Direction Unit (FRADU). Their duties include target-towing, direction training and weapon:alignment.

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Helicopter Support ShipRFA Engadine, helicopter support ship, wasspecially designed to meet trainingrequirements for the flying, handling andmaintenance of helicopters. She does notcarry her own flight, hut the hangar canhouse four Wessex and two Wasp or twoSea King helicopters.

The Royal Fleet AuxiliaryThe Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA), theMerchant Navy manned fleet whichreplenishes warships at sea with fuel andstores, comprises some 40 ships, rangingfrom a 1,000-grt coastal carrier to a 42,500- grt mobile reserve tanker. Some arefitted to operate helicopters. Five Roverclass tankers are in service. The RoyalFleet Auxiliary is also responsible for theSir Lancelot class logistic ships used inamphibious landings.

Naval Hovercraft Trials UnitThe Naval Hovercraft Trials Unit carriesout trials and associated training in sup-port of the possible development ofhovercraft in the mine countermeasuresrole. Two hovercraft are moored in thelines of the Review, and have been usedduring the previous week to ferry mail,passengers and urgently needed stores tothe anchored Fleet.

Other UnitsIn addition to the classes already des-cribed, the Royal Navy and its sea-goingsupporters, the Royal Fleet Auxiliary,Royal Maritime Auxiliary Service andRoyal Naval Auxiliary Service, operatemany other vessels. These include theAntarctic patrol ship HMS Endurance,small oilers, waterboats, ammunition andstore carriers, harbour tugs, torpedo-recovery vessels and small cross-harbourpassenger craft.

RIGHT: Naval helicopters participating in theFly Past (from top to bottom):Sea King. HAS 1. A two-engined anti-submarine helicopter which can be used onother duties where its long endurance andall weather capability are of advantage.Crew : two pilots, observer, sonar operator.Wessex. HAS 3, HU 5 and HAR 1. Allthree versions are in service with the FAAand are used on anti-submarine, troop-carrying and search and rescue duties.Marks 1 and 3 have a single gas turbine;Mark 5 has two. Max. speed 120 mph.Lynx. HAS 2. This new twin-enginedhelicopter which will replace the Wasp willenter service shortly and operate fromfrigates and destroyers. Crew : pilot andobserver. Max. speed over 150 mph. Wasp.A single-engined helicopter operated fromfrigates, destroyers and survey ships. Itsmain roles are anti-submarine and anti-fastpatrol boat. Crew : pilot and missile aimer.Max. speed 120 mph.Gazelle. Light single-engined helicopterused for training. Normally shore basedbut it is also used by the Royal Marines onsea-borne operations. Crew : pilot. Max.speed 190 mph.

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New Classes of ShipsUnder ConstructionTo meet the changing role of the RoyalNavy, new classes of ships are being built.Some of the largest ship-types include :a. The anti-submarine or ' through-deck'

cruiser — a class planned to consistof three ships capable of operatingthe Sea Harrier V/STOL aircraft andSea King helicopters. The plannedcomplement is approximately 1,000officers and ratings. The ships will bepropelled by gas-turbine engines.HMS Invincible, the name-ship of theclass, was ordered from Vickers ofBarrow on 17 April 1973. The secondship, to be named Illustrious, wasordered from Swan Hunter in 1976.

b. The Type 22 frigates are the first all-metric ships designed for the RoyalNavy. They will displace 3,500 tons,be gas-turbine propelled, armed withthe Sea Wolf missile system, and willoperate a Lynx helicopter. HMSBroadsword, the lead-ship, waslaunched on 12 May 1976 by Yarrow.Her sisters, HMS Battleaxe, and oneunnamed (at time of writing) havebeen ordered.

c. Fort class Royal Fleet Auxiliaries twounder construction. These 605foot-long diesel-engined afloat supportships, will he capable of operating ahelicopter. The first vessel, namedFort Grange, was launched on 9December 1976.

Fleet Reviews of the PastFleets have gathered at Spithead formore than 2,000 years. This is becauseof Spithead' s unique situation—a largesheltered anchorage with access to thesea at both ends, near Europe and yetreasonably close to the ancient andmodern capitals of England, Winchesterand London. Roman ships from Port-chester and Chichester would gather atSpithead before departing in companyfor France (Gaul) and a few centurieslater Alfred the Great' s war vessels methere before leaving to fight the Danes.

More than 1,000 ships gathered in theanchorage in June 1346 before KingEdward III sailed to fight in France inJuly, but it was not until 1415 that HenryV made the first Royal Review of shipsbefore sailing in the expedition whichresulted in the victory at Agincourt.

Queen Elizabeth I reviewed a squadronat Spithead in 1582 and records indicatethat this was the first time yards weremanned and salutes fired. King CharlesII inspected a fleet at Portsmouth in May1662, bringing his royal watermen downfrom the Thames to row him out.William III reviewed the fleet on 16February 1693, shortly after Vice-Admiral Rooke' s victory at La Hogue.

Mock naval battles were to becomepopular at reviews and possibly the firstone in British waters marked the visit ofPeter the Great, Czar of Muscovy, toPortsmouth in March 1700. ' The rep-resentation of a sea engagement wasexcellently performed and continued aconsiderable time, each ship having 12lb. of powder allowed, but all thebullets were locked up in the hold forfear the sailors should mistake.'

In June 1773, King George IIItravelled from Kew to visit his fleet atSpithead. On arrival at Portsmouth, His

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Majesty was saluted by a ' tripledischarge of cannon' and, attended byLord Spencer, First Lord of theAdmiralty, proceeded to the dockyardlanding place where the admirals andcaptains of the fleet were assembled eachwith his barge to escort the King' s andAdmiralty barges to Spithead. On 22June, the fleet at Spithead consisted of20 ships of the line, led by the Barfleur (90 guns), two frigates and three sloops,most of them being ships which hadfought the French and Spanish navies inthe Seven Years' War and were soon tofight again across the Atlantic Ocean inthe War of American Independence.

The King was rowed out to theBarfieur, and after inspecting theofficers' quarters, retired aft to theadmiral' s cabin, where at 3.30 p.m. he 'sat down to a table of thirty covers' .Later, His Majesty was rowed round thelines of ships with his escort ofcaptains' barges, being saluted with 21guns from each ship, and finallyboarded the royal yacht Augusta andsailed up harbour. For four days thisprogramme was repeated until on thefinal day the royal yacht led the bluedivision of the fleet in a short cruise toSandown Bay. During the visit, 12ladies of Portsmouth asked the honourof rowing the King from the dockyardto a man-of-war and he afterwards saidthat his barge had been `manned' by 12of the finest women in Portsmouth!

On 15 June 1794, Admiral Lord Howe,with the fleet and some captured Frenchships under his command, arrived atSpithead after his glorious victory of thefirst of June. On the 26th of the month,the King and Queen arrived at Ports-mouth and were conveyed by royalbarge to Spithead. On board the Queen

Charlotte the King presented Howe with3 sword richly set with diamonds. Howe,on receiving the gift, pointed to theseamen and said with emphasis : "Tis notI ; ' tis those brave fellows who havegained the victory.' This is the onlyauthenticated review of a victorious fleetby the Sovereign immediately after thebattle.

A review of the fleet took place on 25June 1814 to celebrate the Treaty of Parisand to show the Allied sovereigns `thetremendous naval armaments which hadswept from the ocean the fleets of Franceand Spain and secured to Britain thedomain of the sea' . On this occasion, thePrince Regent was host to the Czar ofRussia and the King of Prussia and theships they inspected were very littledifferent from those that had assembledfor King George III' s review, 41 yearsearlier. This was the last review in whichonly sailing vessels took part.

In March 1842, Admiral Sir EdwardCodrington welcomed the young QueenVictoria and Prince Albert, accompaniedby the Duke of Wellington, to a `GrandNaval Review' held in their honour. HerMajesty won the hearts of thebluejackets of HMS Queen, a three-decker of 110 guns, by drinking rumfrom a mess basin and tasting soup withone of the iron spoons used in the mess.The men cheered vociferously and theQueen, with a tear in her eye, said : `Ifeel today that I am indeed old

ABOVE: The Coronation Review of the Fleetin 1952, from a painting by NormanWilkinson in the National Maritime Museum.Her Majesty reviewed the Fleet from HMSSurprise which is seen in the rightforeground.

Ocean' s youthful queen and that I amindeed surrounded by those who willuphold that title in the battle and thebreeze.'

On 23 June 1845 a naval review of theExperimental Squadron at Spithead waswitnessed by the Queen and PrinceAlbert. The squadron had been formedspecially for testing the speed and sea-going qualities of ships of variousdesigns. The Queen was embarked in hernew yacht Victoria and Albert, a paddler,and the Board of Admiralty attended intheir steam yacht, the Black Eagle, also apaddler.

The first royal inspection of a fleet ofsteam warships, held at Spithead on 11August 1853 when war with Russia wasimminent, attracted extraordinaryattention and was remarkable for twofacts. First, it included screw ships of theline as well as paddlers, and second,spectators were brought down fromLondon by train. At the end of theirinspection, the Queen and the PrinceConsort led the fleet to sea to meet,outside the Nab, an ' enemy fleet' con-sisting of the three great sailing ships ofthe line, Prince Regent, London andQueen. They were engaged by the steam-ers (who, of course, won easily) and thereview ended with a race back to Spit-head, again won easily by the steamships.

On St George' s Day 1856, led by theRoyal George in honour of the occasion, agreat naval review of the fleet by QueenVictoria took place after the return fromthe Baltic. The fleet mustered at Spitheadnumbered 254 ships of all classes, mannedby over 50,000 men and carrying 1,132guns. The squadrons were composed of 22line-of-battleships, 16 screw frigates andsloops, 26 paddle frigates and sloops, 8royal yachts and tenders, 7 screw mortarvessels and floating batteries, 6 troopships, 7 sailing vessels and 188 gunboats,the latter ' puffing about like locomotiveengines with wisps of white steam trailingfrom their funnels' . The spectacle includedan attack by the gunboats on the landdefences, but the sailors, firing blankcartridges, landed unopposed. At the lastmoment the lieutenant-governor ashorediscovered that he was expected to pay forthe ammunition used by the soldiers and,to relieve his pocket, withdrew everyround.

On 17 July 1867 an imposing navaldemonstration was made at Spithead inhonour of the Sultan of Turkey, accom-panied by Queen Victoria and theViceroy of Egypt. For the first timeevery ship present flew the WhiteEnsign, for the old red, white and bluesquadrons were now no more and everyship in one column was either iron-builtor ironclad.

On 23 July 1887, celebrations of QueenVictoria' s Golden Jubilee were concludedby a naval review. New types of shipappeared, among them HMS Collingwoodwith her guns in barbettes, the large brig-rigged HMS Infiexible with four 80-tonmuzzle-loading guns, and a Nordenfeltsubmarine. The torpedo had

made its appearance and was carried byseveral torpedo boats and torpedocruisers. A total of 136 ships wereengaged and after dark all were illumi-nated with coloured lights.

By 26 June 1897, Queen Victoria wastoo old and too frail to attend herDiamond Jubilee Review and the Princeof Wales (later King Edward VII)deputised for her. No less than 173British warships were assembled betweenPortsmouth and the Isle of Wight,arranged in four lines, each about fivemiles in length. Outside them were twoother columns, one composed of warshipssent by other Powers and the other ofspecial merchant vessels. The smallTurbinia, Sir Charles Parsons' newventure which was to revolutionise steampropulsion in all the navies of the world,stole the show by displaying her speedand ease of manoeuvre.

The Coronation Review of KingEdward, on Saturday 16 August 1902,concluded with the dispersal of the shipson 18 August. This review was the lastoccasion on which ships appeared withtheir black hulls, a red or green boot-top,yellow and white topsides, buff masts andfunnels, and gilt ' gingerbread' work onbows and sterns.

On 31 July 1909 the King held the firstreview at which battle cruisers made theirappearance, the original ship of the type,the Indomitable, having in the previousyear made her record run to Canada andback with the King. The large number ofsubmarines among the warships indicatedthe high value now placed on them.

King George V' s Coronation Reviewon 24 June 1911 was the principal eventof the year. Unlike some earlier reviewsnone of the 165 vessels present had beenspecially commissioned or brought for-ward from reserve. The official pro-gramme stated that ' naval estimates19101911 total £40,603,700—aprodigious sum it may appear forpreserving the integrity of the Empire' .

The most impressive review to datewas the one witnessed on 9 July 1912 bymembers of both houses of Parliament.New elements were introduced by thepresence of aerial craft (one of whichmade an ascent from the deck of HMSLondon) and hydroplanes (which took aprominent part in the evolutions).

On 16 July 1914, the historic anchor-age at Spithead witnessed a navalspectacle that excelled in power andmajesty the many imposing past fleetreviews. In all, there were some 40 milesof ships drawn up in 12 long lines, whichincluded over 50 battleships. This specialmobilisation was organised by theAdmiralty ostensibly to test theefficiency of the reserve system, butactually because they foresaw the earlyuse of the fleet in terrible earnest.

On 26 July 1924, it was a vastly alteredfleet of more than 200 ships which wasreviewed in Spithead. In numbers therewas little difference, but in types thechange was astounding. In the 1914review there were 55 battleships, in 1924

there were 10. The battle cruisers hadbeen reduced from 4 to 1, the cruisersfrom 55 to 9. The aircraft carrierappeared for the first time. Destroyersincreased from 46 to 88 and submarinesincreased by 4. Significant of one of thegreat changes brought about by the warwas the presence of numerousminesweepers.

In July 1935, the King reviewed shipsof the Mediterranean, Home and ReserveFleets. The review included a fly past ofthe Fleet Air Arm and ended with theKing leading the Battle Fleet to sea. Theliner Lancastria (later sunk at Dunkirk)made a special six-day voyage roundfrom Liverpool with spectators.

Two years later, on 20 May 1937, theships of the fleet assembled once againin Spithead for a Coronation Review.Battleships by now were reduced to 11,while 5 carriers were present, two morethan had previously been collectedtogether at Spithead. The 60 fleetdestroyers, which graced the reviewwith their swift, slim hulls, were anadded commentary on the overall costof the battleship, for their duties werelargely tied up in the essential serviceof escorting the bigger ships in war.

The greatest, but probably the leastpublicised, modern assembly inSpithead occurred in early June 1944when King George VI inspected the `D-day' Isle of Wight anchorage area. Onthis occasion, the lines stretched fromHurst Castle in the west to Foreland inthe east, with over 800 ships, most ofthem landing craft and minesweepers.

On 15 June 1953, another fleetassembled at Spithead for HM TheQueen' s Coronation Review. It wasevident how the experience of World WarII had influenced naval thought anddesign. In the place of 11 battleships of1937, there was one, but 8 moderncarriers and a fly past of 350 navalaircraft, including jet-propelled fighters,gave emphasis to the growth and develop-ment of naval aviation in recent years.For the first time specialist landing shipsand craft appeared. The ships weremainly veterans of World War II andsome had seen service off Korea. HMSReclaim is the only ship to be present atboth 1953 and 1977 reviews.

On 28 June 1977, as the Fleetassembles once more at Spithead, thistime to celebrate the Queen' s SilverJubilee, we can observe marked changesin the design and employment of differentclasses of ships since the Queen' sCoronation Review in 1953.

HMS Valiant is the oldest ship' s namepresent today. The Valiant first appearedin 1794 and since then a Valiant has beenpresent at five other reviews. The nameof HMS London has appeared most fre-quently; 1977 will be the ninth Spitheadreview containing a ship of that name. Inall, 55 ships present today bear thenames of ships which have attendedprevious reviews. The names live on andhelp to perpetuate the proud traditions ofthe Royal Navy.

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The Submarine ServiceTwo hundred years ago, on 6 September1776, Ezra Lee, a sergeant in the Ameri-can Revolutionary Army, set off in astrange barrel-shaped object to make thefirst submarine attack in history-29years before the Battle of Trafalgar.Lee' s target was HMSEagle, the flagshipof the British fleet blockading New Yorkharbour during the American War ofIndependence. His submarine, the Turtle,resembled a wooden beer-barrel, waspowered by foot-operated propellers andcontained enough air to remain sub-merged for only 30 minutes.

The method of attack was to submergebelow the target, then rise up under-neath its hull • and screw in an auger towhich was attached a delayed-actionmine. Having done that, Ezra Lee wassupposed to pedal away (his pedals wereconnected with one of the first propellersever invented), and await the destructionof the ship he had attacked. Things wentwrong for Ezra Lee. He found it im-possible to penetrate the Eagle' s hull. Hewas probably suffering from the effectsof carbon-dioxide poisoning inside histiny craft.

However he was sensible enough toretreat when he saw his efforts wereuseless, but by this time the Britishfleet had been alerted and one or moreBritish rowing boats began to pursue him.Lee realised that the large explosivepackage on the back of his craft wasslowing him down so he jettisoned it.The package blew up in the faces of thepursuing British and although it did nodamage must have been very frightening.In any event it probably persuaded theBritish admiral—Admiral Lord Howe—to retire to the comparative safety of theouter harbour where the effect of his

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blockading fleet must have been muchless.

The attack itself was not especiallysignificant except that it marks the firstsubmerged attack by any vessel againstany ship. For that alone the events of6 September 1776 are historic. What ismore important is the strategic effect ofthis tiny unit of the revolutionary forcesagainst an overwhelming enemy force.In brief, it proved to be a deterrent. Itproved that a submarine does notnecessarily have to sink a ship or evenfire a weapon to achieve its aim. Some-times its feared presence alone can beenough. In that respect, Turtle of 200years ago had much in common withBritain' s present-day deterrent, thenuclear-powered Polaris submarine.

However, the British Government andthe Royal Navy took a long time toappreciate the value of the submarine. Itwas not until 125 years after the Turtle

attack that the Royal Navy acquired itsfirst submarine. But 167 years later,during World War II, the Turtle' sexploit was almost exactly copied byRoyal Naval midget submarines, whichsuccessfully attacked the German battle-ship Tirpitz.

Turtle was a concept in advance of itstime—but the submarine story reallybegan centuries before : it was Archimedeswho formulated the principles of physicalsubmersion in the 3rd century BC andthe first recorded mention of a realsubmarine stems from the writings ofan Englishman, William Bourne, in1578. In the 17th century submarinedesigns were abundant and designersgradually concentrated more and moreon the sinister purpose of a vessel whichcould hide beneath the waves.

After the Turtle exploit Britain had theopportunity to acquire its own sub-marine when another American, Robert

Fulton, offered his Nautilus design to theBritish Government after the French hadrejected it as ' a dishonourable form ofwarfare.' In 1804 Fulton' s submarine wasexamined by a committee of which Pittwas a member. Pitt' s enthusiasm wasscathingly dismissed by one of Britain' sgreatest sailors, the First Sea Lord, theEarl St Vincent, who said: ' Pitt is thegreatest fool that ever existed to en-courage a mode of war which those whocommand the seas do not want and ifsuccessful will deprive them of it.' Theearl' s view was to be the basis of Britishpolicy for nearly 100 years.

As the 20th century dawned six naviesowned a total of 10 submarines. Elevenmore were being built. France was wellin the lead with a total of 14 built orbuilding. The United States had two, ofwhich the Holland-type was reckoned tobe the best in the world. Even Italy,Portugal, Spain and Turkey had at leastone craft each. Only in Britain was therestill active discouragement.

In 1901, during exercises, the Frenchsubmarine Gustave Zede made a mockattack on the French battleship, CharlesMartel, and hit her with a dummytorpedo. This was a lesson in the futureshape of sea power which could no longerbe ignored and the British Admiraltywere finally forced to reject St Vincent' spolicy. Five submarines of the AmericanHolland-type were promptly ordered forthe Royal Navy for intensive researchinto anti-submarine measures.

When HM Submarine No. 1 wentdown the slipway at Vickers' Barrow-in-Furness shipyard on 2 October 1901,there were still those in the Royal Navyand in the Government who hoped itwould fail. At that time Britannia ruledthe seas. Anything that might put a stopto such a happy state of affairs was greatlyto be discouraged and, although they didnot admit it, both the admirals and thepoliticians of the time recognised thatunderwater devices of any kind mightvery well jeopardise the existence of themighty British battle fleets upon whichthe whole might and majesty of theBritish Empire depended. Underhand,unfair and damned un-English—that wasa popular view. One admiral was evenpublicly advocating that captured sub-mariners in wartime should be hung aspirates.

However, submarines found, a cham-pion in the form of Admiral JackyFisher, the man responsible for thebuilding of the massive Dreadnoughtbattleships that formed the spearheadof the British Fleet during World War I.

FACING PAGE (above): Britain' s mostdevastating weapon : the nuclear propelledballistic missile Polaris submarine. None ofthe ships of her class will be at the Review—all are deployed on deterrent duty 24 hoursa day. (below): The Royal Navy' s firstsubmarine, Holland Boat No. 2, launchedin 1902.RIGHT: A stern-on view of a Polarissubmarine.

In 1904 Admiral Fisher wrote: ' It' sastounding to me, perfectly astounding,how the very best amongst us absolutelyfailed to realise the vast impendingrevolution in naval warfare and navalstrategy that the submarine willaccomplish

Thereafter submarines never lookedback. They became more efficient andmore self-sufficient. There were manysetbacks in the early days and some tragiclosses but steadily the Royal Navy' sconfidence, experience and knowledgegrew and by 1914 the submarine servicewas formidable, effective and efficient.

For more than 100 years since theAmerican Civil War, submarines hadbeen thought of merely as harbourdefence vessels and a counter to block-ading ships. The German submarine,U-9, put paid to that ' defence only'concept a few days after the opening ofhostilities in World War I. In less than anhour this lone submarine, operating inthe North Sea well away from her base,sank three British cruisers, Aboukir,Cressy and Hogue.

This traumatic demonstration for theBritish gave massive impetus to thesubmarine-building programme. As aresult naval strategy had to be drasticallychanged. The Fleet had to steam at highspeed, zigzag and be escorted by destroyerscreens at all times. Later in the war itsoperations were severely restricted in theNorth Sea and it was considered toodangerous for it to go into the southernpart at all. The Germans, however, con-centrated their U-boats directly againstcommerce and by April 1917 they weresinking merchant ships at such a ratethat defeat for the Allies was in sight.

U-boats were defeated—but only just—as a result of a huge Allied effort, bothnaval and civil and based on the convoysystem. It was, however, a very closerun thing, and the U-boats provedthemselves something which a greatlysuperior battle fleet, on which sea powerhad depended for centuries, had beenhelpless to counter. By attacking com-merce the submarine had become apotentially war-winning weapon.

British submarines were not withouttheir successes during World War I.They were particularly active in thecampaign around Turkey. Four VictoriaCrosses were won by submarine com-manders in these waters. Submarine E-14was so successful in its attacks that theTurks believed they were being invaded.

One of the most heroic operations bya British submarine was its part in theimmobilisation of the U-boat base atBruges. In 1917 Allied merchant shiplosses reached the staggering total ofnearly 4,000,000 tons — most of it causedby U-boats operating from the base.

A daring plan to immobilise the basewas set for St George' s Day 1918. Akey to this famous attack on Zeebruggewas the destruction of a viaduct whichwould prevent reinforcements getting tothe harbour defence positions. SubmarineC-3, commanded by Lieutenant RichardSandford, was filled with explosives and

ordered to ram the viaduct. Having runthe final mile under full view of theGerman guns, Sandford ploughed hissubmarine through the girders of theviaduct, lit the five-minute fuse, then heand his five crew members made theirescape in a small boat. Under heavyfire Sandford and two of his crew werewounded but were saved by the shatter-ing explosion as C-3 blew up.

Between the wars—apart from somerather odd designs—there was littledevelopment in the submarine field inBritain. Britain' s between-the-war atti-tude towards the submarine is reflectedin the stands she took at two inter-national conferences—in 1922 and 1930—in pressing for the abolition of thesubmarine as a weapon of war. Britainreceived scant support for her proposalsbut did succeed in getting agreement thatsubmarines would never again be usedfor commerce-raiding.

However, during World War IIU-boats came as near to winning as inWorld War I by concentrating onmerchant shipping and again were onlynarrowly defeated. Underwater detectionequipment (ASDIC), radar, the convoysystem and American shipbuilding poten-tial were mainly responsible.

Allied submarines suffered terriblelosses also, but achieved great successes—sinking approximately a third of theJapanese Navy' s warships and contribu-

15

ting largely to the defeat of Rommel inNorth Africa by cutting off his supplyline in the Mediterranean.

It was in the Mediterranean that HMSubmarine Upholder, commanded byLieutenant-Commander David Wanklyn,failed to return after 24 brilliant wartimepatrols. The Admiralty took the un-precedented step of publishing a specialcommuniqué praising Upholder and allher crew for their long and arduous dutyin the Mediterranean. ' The ship and hercompany are gone but the example andinspiration remain.' Wanklyn had alreadyestablished himself as a brilliantlysuccessful submarine commander whenon his seventh patrol he sank severallarge merchant ships, even though hislistening gear was out of action. For thispatrol Wanklyn was awarded the VictoriaCross but he went on to score even moresuccesses before his boat was lost.

In spite of their small size Royal Navymidget submarines scored manysuccesses against the enemy.

In 1943 heavy German warships wereusing Norwegian fiords as bases fromwhich to attack trade routes to the NorthAtlantic. In an attempt to strike theGerman raiders, six midget submarines,known as X-craft, were sent to force anentry into the protected anchorages.After travelling for 10 days and covering1,000 miles, two midget submarinescommanded by Lieutenant DonaldCameron and Lieutenant Godfrey Placearrived at their objective within minutesof each other on 22 September andattacked the battleship Tirpitz in Kaafiord. Cameron and Place released theircharges and attempted to escape, but bythis time the German defences wereaware of their presence and a heavycounter-attack resulted in both menhaving to scuttle their craft. They wereawarded the Victoria Cross.

Another midget submarine succeededin sinking the Japanese cruiser Takao inthe Johore Strait, Singapore, by placinglimpet mines under the great ship' s hull.

The captain, Lieutenant Ian Fraser, and theship' s diver, Leading Seaman JosephMagennis, were also awarded the VictoriaCross.

These attacks bore a marked similarityto the exploit of the Turtle in theAmerican War of Independence.

Submarines were used for a variety oftasks during World War II. Their naturalstealth made them ideal for cloak-and-dagger operations—landing spies,commando raids, picking up importantrefugees and escapers from the enemycoast. Submarines also used their `invisibility' to sneak close inshore tobombard enemy shore installations,trains, tunnels, viaducts, jetties, and evenshore batteries. The submarine' s need tosurface periodically for a ' breath of air'was still its weakness however.

In spite of their defeat the Germans hadled the field in submarine developmentand, by 1944, had perfected theschnorkel-fitted high-speed underwatercraft, on which the diesel-electric sub-marines in service with the Royal Navytoday are largely based. If this type hadcome into service earlier in large numbersthe Germans could have won World WarII. The schnorkel, or snort, as it is knownin the Royal Navy, enabled submarines to' breathe' without surfacing and, for thefirst time ever, to remain submerged forseveral weeks. The British fleet adoptedthis system after World War II and madeit extremely effective.

At the Coronation Review of 1953 thesubmarines taking part were among themost important units of the fleet. But 10years later the Royal Navy entered thenuclear age and the whole concept ofsubmarine warfare altered once again.

Nuclear power at last freed thesubmarine from any dependence on theearth' s natural atmosphere. It gave thesubmarine an almost unlimited endur-ance, high underwater speed and a vastsource of electrical power with which tooperate the increasingly complex andsophisticated forms of sensors, com

puters and other electronic aids to theirfighting capabilities. The nuclear sub-marine, able to control her own atmos-phere, could dive into the ocean' s depthsand remain submerged for weeks—circumnavigating the world underwaterif need be.

Today the Royal Navy has ninenuclear-powered attack submarines inservice. Three others are under con-struction and there are plans for evenmore advanced classes of this type.There are four nuclear-powered Polarissubmarines which carry Polaris missileswhich form Britain' s contribution to theNATO strategic deterrent. In additionthere are 18 diesel-electric submarines.

Submarines of all types are among themost powerful vessels in the world. Butmost important, they are masters of thedeterrent. Deterrence is an overworkedand little understood word nowadays.We tend to think of it in terms of thenuclear deterrent—Polaris.

There is no doubt that Polaris and itssuccessors are the most effective deter-rents against world war that have everbeen devised, but deterrence is notsimply a matter of threatening an enemywith total destruction. The modernsubmarine, nuclear or diesel-electric, isable to act in the role of a speed-trap orto look from behind hidden windows orto listen discreetly to whatever is in theair. It can do so in waters where apotential enemy may wish to operate oroff a coastline where a potential or actualenemy is hoping to mount some kind ofwarfare. If the potential or actual enemysuspects that a submarine is in thevicinity, that submarine becomes a very,very effective deterrent. Furthermore, thesubmarine, lying passively in wait like acrocodile, is ready and able to switch tothe offensive at a moment' s notice. It isalready where the naval staff require it tobe and it is hidden and extremelydifficult to find.

In short, submarines have become,over the years, an exceedingly effectivedeterrent with other forms of defensiveforces. Nuclear submarines obviouslyhave enormous advantages by means oftheir virtually unlimited endurance athigh speed and their capability of travel-ling vast distances undetected. But itmust not be thought that the diesel-electric submarines are outdated: theyhave more problems when operating inenemy-controlled areas, but their chancesof success and survival rate highly in theface of the weapons available to unitsopposed to them.

The Turtle, 200 years ago, showed theway towards a submerged deterrent that isunique in modern warfare.

HMS Warspite, a fleet submarine. Ships ofher class are nuclear propelled butconventionally armed and they provide theNavy with its most deadly anti-submarineweapon. Of great endurance, they can cruisearound the world undersea withoutsurfacing.

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