Translation and Cultural Context of La Constitución Política de las Comunidades de

Castilla

by Erin Fick

Dr. Lola Lorenzo and Dr. Oscar Pereira Zazo, Co-Advisors

A undergraduate thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science with Honors with

Highest Distinction in Spanish and Mathematics

University of Nebraska – Lincoln

July, 2015

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Translation and Cultural Context of La Constitución Política de las Comunidades de Castilla by Erin Fick Abstract The idea of a political constitution written by the common people rather than by the government

has been repeated throughout history. La Constitución Política de las Comunidades de Castilla

(The Political Constitution of the Communities of Castile) is one of such constitutions, written in

the early 1500s by the comuneros of the kingdom of Castile, Spain. This thesis focuses on this

constitution in two ways: (1) the translation of this document into English and (2) providing a

cultural context surrounding the writing of the original document. In the first aspect, a glossary

introduces many difficult words that were faced during translating. A short paper explaining the

methods used during the process of translation follows, along with the actual English translation.

The second part of this thesis, the cultural context, includes a paper on the historical context

surround the writing of the constitution and the consequences of the document in the kingdom of

Castile. Finally, a paper exploring the phonetic differences between Old Spanish used in the

original copy and the modern-day Spanish in the first translation of this document (see: special

thanks) finishes the thesis. This thesis primarily makes a part of Spanish history accessible to

English speakers, while also exploring the different aspects of a historical document.

Special thanks to Joseba Moreno for providing his translation of La Constitución Política de las Comunidades de Castilla from Old Spanish to modern-day Spanish for my use in this thesis.

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Traducción y Contexto Cultural de La Constitución Política de las Comunidades de Castilla por Erin Fick Resumen La idea de una constitución política que estaba escrito por la gente común y no el gobierno ha

sido repetido a lo largo de la historia mundial. La Constitución Política de las Comunidades de

Castilla es una de ese tipo de constituciones, escrito por los comuneros del reino de Castilla en

España a principios del siglo XVI. Esta tesis se enfoca en esta constitución en dos maneras: (1) la

traducción de este documente al inglés y (2) la provisión de un contexto cultural acerca del hecho

de escribir el documento original. En la parte de la traducción, hay un glosario que introduce

muchas palabras que eran difíciles de traducir durante el tiempo de traducir. Sigue un ensayo

pequeño que explica los métodos que se usaban durante el proceso de traducir y luego la

traducción en inglés. El contexto cultural de esta tesis incluye un ensayo sobre el contexto

histórico acerca de la constitución y las consecuencias que este documento ha tenido en el reino

de Castilla. Por fin, hay un ensayo que explora las diferencias fonéticas entre el español antiguo

en el documento original y el español moderno en la primera traducción de este documento (ver:

agradecimientos especiales). Esta tesis hace que una parte de la historia española esté disponible

para los hablantes de inglés y también explora los aspecto diferentes de un documento histórico.

Agradecimientos especiales a Joseba Moreno por proveer su traducción de La Constitución Política de las Comunidades de Castilla del español antiguo a español moderno para que yo pudiera usarla en esta tesis.

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Índice Traducción

Glosario ...................................................................................................................................... 5

Comentarios sobre el proceso de traducir La Constitución ..................................................... 11

Traducción al inglés

The Political Constitution of the Communities of Castile ................................................ 16

Contexto Cultural

Acerca de la historia de La Constitución .................................................................................. 58

Una comparación entre el castellano antiguo y el español moderno usando

La Constitución como ejemplo ......................................................................................... 70

Bibliografía .................................................................................................................................. 80

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Glosario

Palabra o frase

Española Significado en inglés y comentarios

Primera vista en capítulo…

Abonado To say or credit something as being good, (RAE) lxxxii Acaecer To happen, to take place, (WR) lvii

Acostamiento Stipend, (RAE) lx Agravado Offended, disrespected, harmed, (WR) cvii

Agravio Grievance, damage, (WR) xxiv Albaquía Residual or the rest of some bill or rent that is still left to

be paid, balances due or remainders (RAE) -Will be left as albaquía

lii

Alcabala Castilian sales tax, usually about 10 percent (Kamen) -Will be left as alcabala

lxvi

Alcalde Elected or nominated local magistrates, (Kamen) xi Alguacil Court clerk, sheriff, (WR) xiii

Alguacilazgos Office of alguacil, (RAE) xiii Allende Further beyond, in addition to, as well as, (WR) lv

Almojarifazgo Word of Arabic origin applied to the customs duties in the south of Spain, particularly those of Seville (Kamen) -Will be left as almorjarifazgo

lxix

Amonedar To mint (a coin), (WR) lxxviii Aparejo Preparation, (WR) lxxxi

Apelación Appeal, (WR) xlv Apercibimiento Warning, (WR) lvii

Aposentar To lodge (a guest), (WR) ix Apremiado Hurried, rushed, (WR) viii

Arancel Tariff, duty, (WR) xcii Arrendador Tax farmer (Kamen) lii

Arrendar To rent, lease, (RAE) lii Ayuntar (Ajuntar) To join together, (WR) lxxi

Baldamente Cripplingly, harmfully, (WR) lvii Bochar To reject something, (RAE) xxvii Botica Pharmacy, chemist, (WR) xcviii

Bullicio Hubbub noise, riot, (WR) lxxxii Calidad Importance or gravity of something, (RAE)

The status of a person, their nature, age, and other xxv xxxviii

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conditions and circumstances and are required for some position, (RAE)

Cámara Chamber, (WR) xxvii Chancillería Castilian high courts in Valladolid and Granada, (Kamen) xiv

Canonjía Sinecure, clergy’s privileges, (RAE) See: Dignidad, Ración

xxi

Casa Real Royal House, or Royal Family, (WR) x Caudal Riches, wealth, (WR) iv Causa Lawsuit, (WR) xxv

Cautelosamente Cunningly, (WR) xcvi Cédula Document in which debt or other obligation is recognized,

(RAE) xii

Celador Porter, security guard, (WR) In general, one who watches over

iii

Celo Enthusiasm, zeal, (WR) lxxix Codicia Greed, (WR) xxv

Cohecho Bribe, (WR) lxviii Comendador Knight, commander, (WR) lxxxix Competente Competent, proper, (WR) lvii Comuneros Commoners of the Communities of Castile, (RAE) Introducción

Condado County, (WR) ix Confederar To make an alliance, join in union with, (RAE) lxxxvii

Conferir To confer, (WR) lxxi Conformar To be in agreement with, (RAE) lxix Consejo de

Justicia Council of Justice or Justice Council, (WR) Prólogo

Contador Counter, Accountant, (WR) xi Convenir To be advisable, agreeable, (WR) lxxxiv

Corregidor Crown-appointed civil governor in main Castilian towns, (Kamen) -Will be left as corregidor

lvi

Corregimiento County subdivisions in Castile, (RAE) xiii Criar To establish for the first time, to create, (RAE) xxiii

Cuento Million, (RAE) - this definition only used in certain places

xxxvii

Cuero Leather, hide, (WR) lxxv Cumplidamente Continually, (WR) xciv

Dehesa Pasture, meadow, (WR) lxxvii Deleito Crime, felony, (RAE) xxv

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Derecho What is charged (in money), charges, (RAE) ciii Desagraviar To make amends with, (WR) cvii

Despedir To release, to fire, (WR) iv Dignidad Sinecure, clergy’s privileges, (RAE)

See: Canonjía, Ración xxi

Disponer To mandate, to decree what is to be done, (RAE) liii Dinero Silver and copper coin used in Castile in the 14th century,

equal to 2 coronados, (RAE) x

Dobla Gold money in Castile, minted in the Middle Ages, eventually replaced by the maravedí, (RAE)

li

Ducado Ducat, old money, (WR) xxvii Eclesiástica Ecclesiastical, “of the church”, (WR) xxi Embargar To seize, confiscate, (WR) lii Enajenar To alienate, transfer, (WR) xlvi

Encabezamiento System of tax-collection by which a regions would agree on the total of taxes to be paid, but exercise full local control over assessment and collection, (Kamen) -Will be left as encabezamiento

lxvi

Encomienda In mediaeval Spain, a grant of land by the king, usually on condition that the holder assist in defense, (Kamen) -Will be left as encomienda

lxii

Encubrir To cover, (WR) xcvi Enmienda Correction, amendment, (WR) lxxxv Escribanía Notary, clerkship, (WR) xiii Escribano Notary, scribe, (WR) xiv

Estancia Every day spent sick in the hospital, (RAE) Prólogo Estorbar To hinder, (WR) lxxi

Exenciones por dineros

Tax exemptions, (WR) l

Exentar To exempt, (WR) cv Expedir To dispatch, send out, (WR) xl

Extorsión Blackmail, (WR) xcvii Fiador Guarantor, (WR) xcvii

Fiel cogedor (Ciellero), granary worker, (RAE) xcvii Flandes Flanders, (WR) ix

Fortaleza Fortress, (WR) lxii Frenero Bit-maker (bits for horses), (WR) cv

Ganados Herd (of livestock), (WR) Earnings (i.e. income), (WR)

iv

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- the term used in translating will depend on the context

Guarnicionero Harness making (for horses), (WR) cv Hacerse eco de Repeat, talk about, discuss, (WR) viii

Hacer Residencia

Make/do residence (literally translated) - Hacer residencia is to have a set time in office,

such as a presidential 4-year term. I have translated this as “have tenure”, not like a teacher tenure, but a term in office

- Also can mean: “have an assessment” like a job assessment. Depends on the context

v

Hacienda Fortune, wealth, (WR) Or, more specifically, a house or residence, (WR)

iv

Hallarse bien de To be content with…, (RAE) xv Herbaje Herbage, pastures, (WR) lxxvii

Herrador Farrier (a blacksmith who makes horseshoes), (WR) cv Hidalguía Nobility, (WR) l Hijodalgo Nobleman, gentleman, (WR) li

Idóneo Suitable, fit, (WR) lxxxiv Imposición Deposit, investment, (WR) lxxv

(Las) Indias America, as it was originally called (16th Century Spain) vi Infantes Spanish name for royal children, the princes and princess

to be - will be left as Infantes

x

Inhábil Unable, unqualified, (WR) lxi Labrar To engrave, (WR) lxxviii

Libranza Money order, warrant (WR) xxvii Librar To dispatch, (WR) xl

Ligeramente Subtly, slightly, (WR) lxxxii Lugar In Galicia, a country home that is rented out, (RAE) lxxi

Lugarteniente Representative, place holder, (WR) xcviii Maestrazgo “Masterships” of the Military Orders, (Kamen) lxiii

Maña Ability, skill, (WR) xcix Maravedí Old Spanish coin, (WR)

- will be left in the Spanish form ii

Meaja Ancient copper money used in Castile, valuing half of a maravedí, (RAE)

xliv

Mengua Reduction, decrease, (WR) vii Mercader Merchant, dealer, trader, (WR) lxxx

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Merced, Hacer Merced

Merced – mercy, gift, favor (WR) Hacer Merced – do/make mercy or a gift - I have translated this as “make/give favors/gifts”

viii

Obispo Bishop, (WR) lx Obispado Bishopric – an area served by a bishop, (WR) xxiii

Ocasión Danger, (RAE) lxxi Osar To dare to, (WR) lxxx

Otrosí Furthermore iv Ordenanza Ordinance, (WR) lxxxix

Partido, Partir

A share, part, percentage, (WR) To part, take in parts, (RAE)

xciv

Patrimonio Patrimony, heritage, assets, (WR) v Pedimento Petition, (WR) xii

Perpetuo Lifetime, perpetual, (WR) xx Persona

Interpuesta Intermediary (person), (WR) xxv

Persona Particular

Private citizen, (WR) lxxxvii

Perteneciente Belongings, (WR) xcv Pesquisa An investigation, inquiry lvii

Pesquisidor Investigator, Inquirer, (WR) lvii Plegar To submit to, yield to, (WR) viii

Prejudicial Harmful, damaging, detrimental, (WR) iv Prelado Prelate, a high ranking church official, (WR) liv

Principado Principality, (WR) lxxxiii Probanza Proof, evidence, (WR) ciii

Proceso Trial, (WR) ciii Procurar To get, to make sure of Prólogo

Procurador Representative of the towns in the Castilian Cortes, (Kamen)

Introducción

Protomédico The King’s doctors, (RAE) xcviii Proveer To provide, supply xii

Provisión Provision, the providing of, (WR) xxi Punir To punish, (RAE) xli

Ración Sinecure, clergy’s privileges, (RAE) See: Canonjía, Dignidad

xxi

Rebeldía Rebellion, (RAE) xliv Receptor Magistrate, (RAE) xiv

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Rectamente Properly, (WR) xli Refrendario A person who authenticates or signs after their superior,

(RAE) xl

Regidor ADJ – governing Noun – town councilor, (WR)

Prólogo

Regimiento Office of regidor, councilor, (RAE) xiii Remitir To remit, (WR) lxxix

Remitirse To comply with, (WR) xl Restituir To return, (WR) xciv Rezagar Something left behind, (RAE) xcii

Sacar Pan To take grains out of the Kingdom, (RAE) lxxxv Salina Salt mine, (WR) lxix

Santa Junta de Ávila

Holy Assembly of Ávila, (Kamen) - Used here to refer to the political assembly where these proposed changes are to be made

Introducción

Seglar Secular, (WR) xcii Señorío Lordship, applied to jurisdiction over an area (Kamen) ix Servicio A Service or grant of taxes made by the Cortes, and

renewable only by them (Kamen) Prólogo

Sesmo A group of associated cities or towns, (RAE) -Will be left as sesmo

lxx

Situado Salary, pay, (in Spain), (RAE) lxvii Súbdito Subject (of the king) (WR) Prólogo

Suplicar To plead, beg, request, (WR) xl Susodicho Aforementioned, what was said before as such, (WR) xxviii

Tasa Tax, fee, (WR) lxxvii Tenencia Position/office of lieutenant (RAE) xxxix Ternera Calf, heifer, (WR) civ

Tierra Firme Tierra Firme, a province of Spain at this time, located in current-day South America - Will be left as Tierra Firme

vi

Torpe Hopeless, inappropriate, (WR) xcv Turbación Discomfiture, embarrassment, bewilderment, (WR) lxxxii

Vasallo Vassal, (WR) Prólogo Vedamiento From the verb “vedar”, to ban or to prohibit, (WR) xlvi Veinticuatro Local Councilors, (RAE) lx

**Las fuentes de estas palabras en paréntesis están citados en la bibliografía al final. He abreviado los siguientes: (WR) - Word Reference, (RAE) – Diccionario de la Lengua Española, y los otros corresponden con el nombre de la fuente en la bibliografía.

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Comentarios sobre el proceso de traducir La Constitución Política de las Comunidades de Castilla

Método de traducir y dificultades en el proceso de traducir

Al empezar un proyecto de este tamaño, yo estaba muy nerviosa por la cantidad de

trabajo en traducir tantas páginas. Entonces, la primera cosa que hice fue organizar todo. Quise

tener un documento de tal formato para que pudiera leer el documento original en español al lado

de mi traducción al inglés al lado de comentarios y notas sobre significados de palabras difíciles.

Al principio, cree un documento Word con tres columnas para poder poner estas tres cosas una al

lado de la otra. Pero tenía un problema, que era cuando estás al final de la primera columna, las

palabras siguen en la segunda columna de la misma página, y no en la primera columna de la

página próxima. También el documento Word tenía problemas para distinguir entre lo que estaba

escrito en inglés y en español, y todo era subrayado en royo como si todas las palabras fueran

mal deletreadas.

No quise usar un sistema así, con tantos problemas, luego pregunté a mi profesora de mi

clase de traducción si ella tenía una buena idea de cómo establecer el formato en mi documento.

Ella mi dijo que debía usar una tabla en mi documento Word, porque las columnas de una tabla

siguen por todas páginas y se puede elegir el idioma por cada columna para que Word pueda

corregir las palabras mal deletreadas. Al usar este formato, la organización del documento

cambió a estar muy fácil de usar y no tenía ningún problema irritante que pudiera impedir el

proceso de traducir.

Ya que tenía todo bien organizado, mi próximo obstáculo fue cómo debo emprender un

proyecto tan grande. Antes de este documento, solo había traducido unas 12 páginas a la vez, y

esto lo hice con un compañero de clase. Un proyecto de unas 40 páginas me dio un poco de

miedo. Mi primer método era leer un capitulo entero, identificar palabras difíciles en el capitulo,

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mentalmente imaginar como iba a escribir la frase, y luego escribirla. Aunque este método

funcionó bien, gastó mucho tiempo y me hizo impaciente. Por consiguiente, busqué otro método

de traducir. Empecé a traducir frase por frase, y si no sabía como traducir una parte, lo puse en

amarillo en mi documento. Luego, regresé a las partes amarillas en cada capítulo y intentaba

traducirlas mejor, o las dejaba si no podía en aquel momento. Este método resultó ser más

rápido, y cuando había traducido una buen cantidad de páginas por mi primer método, ya

conocía la manera en que el documento estaba escrito. Una cosa común en La Constitución es

que tiene muchas frases que son muy largas y no se usaban muchas comas, y hay que dividirlas

en las partes subordinadas y no subordinadas. Por ejemplo, en el capítulo vii:

Ítem porque se ha dicho que Su majestad quería quitar la contratación de las Indias

e Tierra Firme que se hace en la ciudad de Sevilla y pasarla a Flandes, que esto se estorbe

y que en ninguna manera se haga,…

Yo lo dividiría así:

Ítem

porquesehadichoqueSumajestad

queríaquitarlacontración

delasIndieseTierraFirme

quesehaceenlaciudaddeSevilla

ypasarlaaFlandes

queesto(todolodemás)

seestorbe yqueenningunamanerasehaga,

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Aunque no hice un diagrama así por cada frase, lo podía hace en mi mente para mejor entender

lo que la frase quería decir y como debía traducirla. Este tipo de diagrama he aprendido en una

clase de lingüística sobre la jerarquía de frases.

Cuando encontré una palabra que no sabía como traducir, ni estaba en mi diccionario

entre inglés y español, ni había un significado del diccionario de la Real Academia Española que

podía usar en mi traducción, hice una búsqueda de Google con la frase. Este método me ayudó

algunas veces. Algunas palabras estaban escritas en otros documentos históricos de España (por

ejemplo, “hacer merced” yo encontré en un documento sobre la historia de España en este

tiempo). Otras palabras tenían conexiones con algún artículo de una enciclopedia en línea. Con

palabras en las cuales no podía encontrar nada por el internet, pregunté a Joseba Moreno (un

estudiante graduado en la universidad que hizo la traducción del español antiguo a moderno)

porque él ha hecho mucho con este documento. Él me ayudó con palabras como “hacer

residencia”. También, tenía que pensar y buscar por el significado de palabras en este tiempo –

“servicio” era una tasa del Rey, no un trabajo para otros como lo definimos actualmente. Con

todas estas fuentes y la época del documento en mente, podía encontrar una definición y traducir

bien estas palabras difíciles.

Ahora, con un documento bien organizado, un método de traducir, y fuentes de palabras

difíciles de traducir, tenía que hacer la parte más difícil que es hacer toda la traducción de

verdad. Este gastó la mayor parte del tiempo en hacer esta tesis. Empecé a traducir el 2 de marzo,

y terminé mi primera traducción el 19 de junio. Los primeros tres meses estaba en la universidad,

entonces casi la mitad de la traducción se hizo después del semestre de primavera. El acto de

traducir se aceleró durante el proceso por razones de mejor entender La Constitución y el

lenguaje que se usa en el documento. Después de tenerlo todo traducido, hice mi “segunda

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traducción” que era releer todo, bien traducir las partes en amarillo, y hacer que las frase en

inglés sonara normal y comunicara lo que el documento original quería decir. Con los

comentarios y las palabras en la tercera columna de la primera traducción, puse todos en un

glosario/diccionario que está en esta tesis.

Yo diría que esta traducción es una que pone importancia en comunicar la intención del

documento pero en una manera que los hablantes nativos del inglés pueden entender. Por

ejemplo, hay muchos casos donde se repite un mandato en La Constitución en dos formas

verbales: “ni se pueda hacer, ni haga merced alguna”, que podría ser traducido como “that they

cannot give nor give any favor”. Pero esta frase suena raro en inglés, y es mejor decir “that they

cannot give any favor” porque la repetición de un verbo en dos formas no funciona bien en

inglés. Esta frase tiene el mismo sentido en inglés pero no es tan extraño para leerlo. De acuerdo

con esta idea, tenía en mente de traducir por comunicar la intención de los comuneros.

También, hay algunas partes en La Constitución que no tienen ningún sentido en español.

Con estas partes, intenté traducirlos según lo que yo pensaba que la frase quería decir. Por

ejemplo:

Capítulo que se dé orden en los trajes y vestidos.

xc. Ítem que se dé forma y orden en los desordenados trajes y vestidos, y en el traer de las

sedas y brocados porque en esto recibe mucho daño la cosa pública de estos reinos y

vecinos de ellos.

En el título, dice que hay que dar orden en trajes y vestidos similares, pero luego dice que deben

dar orden en trajes desordenados. Este no tiene ningún sentido, y yo he supuesto que quieren que

den orden en trajes ordenados con sedas y brocados porque la cosa pública ha rebidio mucho

daño por tener trajes desordenados en dar orden en el reino.

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Conclusiones

Hay algunas cosas que debería haber hecho para hacer que fuera más fácil de traducir. El

ensayo que compara el español antiguo y el español moderno, yo lo hice antes de traducir mucho

de este documento. Esto hizo que entendiera mejor el lenguaje en algunas partes del documento,

y fue mejor hacer este ensayo a los principios de traducir. Pero escribí el ensayo acerca de la

historia después de traducir todo. Había muchas partes de La Constitución que requieren que

sepas algo de la historia, y no podía traducirlas bien la primera vez, y después de escribir el

ensayo tenía que regresar a estas partes y cambiarlas. Sería mejor si hubiera hecho este ensayo

antes o durante el proceso de traducir. Además, al hacer el glosario durante el proceso de traducir

me hubiera ayudado porque a veces tenía que buscar algunas veces diferentes por el significado

de una palabra que había traducido hace meses. Aunque hay muchas cosas que en retrospectiva

veo que yo debería haber hecho de manera diferente, esto no implica que he hecho la traducción

incorrecta sino que he hecho de una manera más difícil que la mejor manera posible. También, sé

que no hay una traducción perfecta, y que la mía no es perfecta tampoco. Pero, si la intención de

los comuneros de Castilla está comunicado en mi traducción, yo considero mi traducción como

un éxito.

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Complete copy of the Instructions given by the Commoners of Valladolid to their procuradores1 in the Holy Assembly of Ávila,

considered the Political Constitution of the Communities of Castile

The Instructions of this noble village for the representatives who went to the Holy Assembly of

these Kingdoms

Prologue

Because the loyal vassals and subjects of the Royal Crown of the Kingdom have been in an

unrest thinking of the things that are good for their king and natural lord, and how to be able to

ensure such things, along with other things that are contrary to their king’s health and the good of

his soul, such as when he was ill, and how they should hinder these things in any manner

possible, and all the subjects that did not do as such came to understand that they did not love

their natural King and Queen as they should, and for this would be traitors and deserve such a

penalty that is determined by the laws of these Kingdoms.

Consequently, the Council of Justice and governing knights, the honored community and

representatives of the very loyal village of Valladolid, as loyal subjects of the Queen and her son,

the King, our lords, we have been thinking about what our representatives whom are going to the

Assembly of cities, which is being held in the noble city of Ávila, should and will ensure, as

such, we agree to give them the following chapters as instruction so, in said Assembly, they

propose and talk with the representatives in other cities and ensure that these chapters are

fulfilled and to the public good of these Kingdoms, and that the aforementioned cities would be

in agreement with these chapters. If some other things are requested by these cities, they should

1 Representative of the towns in the Castilian Cortes, see Glosario – will be written as “representatives” in the rest of the document.

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communicate with said village and community of Valladolid, that they would communicate that

our intention is for the public good of the kingdom, and that the past offenses and exorbitances

are remedied, since this is what the service to God and to the Queen and the King, her son, our

lords, consists of.

Chapter so that the illness of our Lady Queen is known and cured

i. First, that with much diligence, it would be known if the illness of our Lady Queen is curable

and if it is as such, that it is cured quickly. Because if our Lord wishes to give her complete

health, if she would return to govern these Kingdoms, because it appears to us that there has been

much negligence and we do not know what more we can say in not having had known the cure

for Her Royal Majesty. And that while it is being cured, that she would be guarded, protected,

and defended by the communities of these Kingdoms and that they would have the guard of her

Royal self.

Chapter on the manner in which our King should ordain his Royal House

ii. Item that His Majesty the King, our Lord, would comply to ordain his house and that, being in

these Kingdoms, would want to live and make use of it throughout, just like the Catholic Lords,

King Don Fernando and Queen Doña Isabel2 and their grandparents did, along with the other

kings of unforgettable memory. And that all the officials in their house are native Castilians of

these Kingdoms, because living in such a manner will stop the vast and excessive spending, that

they have done and currently do in the table of His Highness to no avail. And that the excessive

spending would be stopped for the plates which are made for their officials and officials of their

house in their unorganized banquets which are held in the Royal table, which spend 50,000

2 Don/Doña are the Spanish words for Sir/Lady. I will leave them in their Spanish form, as this is how they would be called in English since they are Spanish royalty.

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maravedís3 every day, spending rather like the Catholic Lords, King and Queen, and their

grandparents, the prince, Infantes4, and with a multitude of dames, who spent 12,000 or 15,000

maravedís every day on their dinners. And that the salaries and money given to the wives and

children of some courtiers who don’t serve and have no purpose to His Highness would be taken

away.

Chapter that His Highness would do away with his current ministers, and that his new ones

are from these Kingdoms.

iii. Item that by his own doing, His Highness submits to remove his current ministers that he has

had up until now, because of the bad advice they have given, damaging to him and to the Royal

Crown. And that these ministers would never be able to secretly advise him, nor be in the justice

system. And that the King would choose new ministers who are native of these loyal Kingdoms

and who will watch over the public good, who will advise for the common good and what is

good for His Majesty, deferring their own particular benefits and interests.

Chapter that His Highness would do away with the officials of his house.

iv. Furthermore and likewise, that the King does away with and releases the officials of his

house, such as the secretaries, accountants, treasurers, and their aides, and whichever others,

because they have misused their positions so that in a very short period, having previously had

very little riches and estates, when they were put in their positions, not deserving more than what

they had, but now they have impossibly large estates and amounts of income, apart from their

bad livestock, and also because of their bad advice and because of the detriment they are to the

public good of these Kingdoms, and are still in the service of His Majesty.

3 Old Spanish coin, see Glosario 4 Younger royal children, who will be princes and princesses, see Glosario

19

Chapter that the officials that have had positions in the house of the King would have an

assessment.

v. Furthermore, that all of these aforementioned officials and whoever else that may have had a

position in the house of His Majesty would have an assessment, and that they are held

accountable for their positions, for what they have done, and for the Royal estate and assets that

have come into their hands, and that this would also apply to the treasurers and officials of the

past crusades and of the current one, in addition to those who were in charge of paying past tax

grants.

Chapter that the Major and Minor officials from America would have an assessment.

vi. Item that this would also apply to the Major and Minor officials who were in charge of

preparations and supplies in America and Tierra Firme5, especially those who have gained power

from the fortunes of gold, precious gems, and pearls, all of which have come to our Kingdom

from America and Tierra Firme.

Chapter that the contract in America, which is located in Seville, is not removed.

vii. Item since it has been said that His Majesty wished to remove the contract in America and

Tierra Firme, which was made in Seville, and move the contract to Flanders, that the removal

would be stopped and not able to be done in any way, since it would diminish, dishonor, and

greatly damage these Kingdoms.

Chapter about the favors of Indians that have been given and the manner that they should

be done henceforth.

viii. Furthermore, for the amount of favors that have been given, some residents of these

Kingdoms now have a large number of Indians from aforementioned America and Tierra Firme

5 A province of Spain at this time, located in current-day South America

20

who work as slaves, digging and extracting gold, and much harm has followed and continues to

follow from this practice, so in the conscience of Your Highness and your Royal Estate, that

Your Highness would submit to remove these favors of Indians that have been made as such, and

that, being that they are Christians they would be treated as such and not as slaves, and the gold

that they dig and extract would be for Your Majesty, but giving them a certain part of what they

extract. And so that the gold extraction does not cease, that while they dig and extract this gold

they would be urged by the governors who reside there with them, and therefrom great profit and

benefits will follow and continue to affect these Kingdoms. Let the same be done for the Indians

who are given to those who reside there as well.

Chapter about guests.

ix. Furthermore, since the amount guests in these Kingdoms has been and continues to be very

excessive, which is not as such in any Christian or pagan Kingdom, much harm and many

problems, of which are not necessary to specify here, have followed and continue to follow

because of them. And there is no reason that the natives and subjects of these Kingdoms are to be

slaves, nor that they should stop enjoying the freedoms of which a native or subject of other

Kingdoms or Lordships of His Catholic Majesty enjoys, that this abominable slavery for guests

would be removed perpetually, and that the natives and subjects are not obligated to welcome

them, and also that the lodging would be paid by guests, as is done in the Kingdoms of Aragon,

Valencia, Catalonia and the Country of Flanders.

Chapter that the Royal Family, Prince and Infantes are given guest houses, and the manner

in which they should be in them.

x. Furthermore, that convenient guest houses have to be given and are given to those of the

Royal Family, the Princes, Infantes and Queen, and not to any other person, except with enough

21

money so that if His Majesty is stopped in some city or village of the Kingdom for more than

thirty days, that the lodging is moved, because those who had had the guests for 30 days did not

receive any penalty and did not repay the lodgings the Lord King Don Juan the 2nd decreed and

commanded, making laws under the petition of the representatives of the Courts.

Chapter so that none other than the Royal Family is lodged.

xi. Furthermore that this regarding the lodging in the Royal House of His Highness is announced,

which does not include those of the Council, local magistrates of his house and Court, court

clerk, nor any other judges or officials, neither accountants, lieutenants or officials, because all of

these people should be under a common rule as all others are.

Chapter that a document is not made in opposition to the lodging.

xii. Item that requests that it will be provided that no document is made in opposition to this

lodging, and that the residents of such cities, villages or places would not have receive any guests

against their will.

Chapter that no positions that His Majesty agrees to provide are sold or given away for

money.

xiii. Furthermore, that the positions in the Royal House of the tribunal of the council, the local

magistrates of the house and court, assistant court clerks in the townships, town councilors,

councilors of local governments, and clerkship, and whichever other positions in the cities,

villages and other places in these Kingdoms that His Majesty agrees to and is responsible in

providing and doing well with them, that in no way would these positions be sold or given away

for money. Neither that favors are given for those whom have sold positions and do not use the

positions, since the selling of the said offices is detestable and prohibited by the laws of these

Kingdoms, and even by laws of common rights. The Catholic Majesties, said Lords, King, and

22

Queen, grandparents of His Majesty, and the other Kings, Lords and their ancestors, without

price or interest, freely provided the aforementioned positions and did well with them, and since

then, the opposite has been done and we have seen much harm and many problems from that.

Chapter that the positions of Justice and other public office are not given away for money.

xiv. Furthermore that this is also observed by the judges, officials and related positions, also by

the scribes, magistrates, court clerks, and whichever other officials of the hearings and High

Courts of His Highness.

Chapter that says that those in the Council, judges of the local magistrate, and other

justices must have an assessment.

xv. Item that all those in the Council, judges of hearings and their presidents, local magistrates of

the court and of said hearings, must and will have an assessment with their positions and the

justice they have provided, because those who have done well will be paid and receive favor, and

those who have not will forever be taken from their positions, as well as pay for the damages

they have done, and during the time when they have to have said assessment, they cannot use

their positions, since it is better if the truth is known, and the witnesses and complainants can

freely say their words, complaints, and that their parts are supplied during the assessment.

Chapter that the said assessment is done by three in three years or by four in four years.

xvi. Furthermore, this assessment must be done by three people in three years, or by four in four

years at the latest.

Chapter saying that the positions of the council and the hearings are not given to those who

request them.

xvii. Furthermore, that these positions of the council, of the hearings, and local magistrates of the

Court and said hearings, are not given as work to those who would request or plea. Before when

23

a person would ask for the position as such, it would be obtained, that now this would not be

approved and that people are sought, satisfactory in words and consciousness, who are God-

fearing people, of good habit, and land-owners with estates and fortune, which is advisable in

having positions, and that these people are sought with diligence in all the Kingdom, so that they

can fill such positions and that they are given salaries and support that is advisable to them,

because not doing it in this manner has proven to cause large damages and issues in the past.

Chapter that no positions are provided to those who have recently finished college.

xviii. Furthermore, for those who have just come from their studies and college, that they would

not be provided nor can be provided the aforementioned positions, expect for those who had first

been targeting and training for a long time for the positions of representatives or in the Courts, in

the manner that they have experience, since in having done the contrary have many issues have

followed and unjust sentences have been given.

xix. Furthermore, that because of the issues that followed and still follow the sentences given by

the council and by the judges of said hearings, they must comply to a review by the same judges

that viewed them, because they are so enthusiastic and passionate about defending the first

sentences that they gave and in confirming them under a degree of review, as if they were the

representatives for those who first gave the sentences they should have provided, and that those

who had given the first sentence would not see the lawsuit or vote in the degree of review.

Except for what happens by the order of the judges of another room as is done with lawsuits, that

is passed from one room to another because of discord so they can better make the sentences and

processes of the revoking judges, and that the sentences of the others do not go to the judges who

revoked such sentences so that they don’t revoke the statements of the others for hatred and

enmity.

24

Chapter that the judge and local magistrate positions are not lifetime positions.

xx. Furthermore, that the judge and local magistrates of the hearings are not lifetime positions,

and that, for the good of the Kingdom, this is maintained and obeyed without the possibility to

do the contrary, and that the judges and local magistrates are not made perpetual Lords of the

aforementioned positions.

Chapter that these positions are only given to natives of the Kingdom.

xxi. Furthermore, that these aforementioned positions of the council, house and court, such as of

hearings and of cities and villages of these Kingdoms cannot be given and are not given to

anyone other than a native and those from neighboring Kingdoms, and that naturalization papers

cannot and will not be given to a foreigner who is not native to these Kingdoms, and that this is

also done and maintained in providing sinecures of the council of the church, and whichever

other clerical or simple benefits, loans, or other ecclesiastical revenue, and that if anything of the

contrary has been provided, that they would think, talk, and discuss in a way so that such

sinecures and ecclesiastical revenue are returned to the natives of these Kingdoms, who are

worthy to be provided these things.

Chapter on the manner in which the Archbishop of Toledo is to be had.

xxii. Furthermore, that since providing the Archbishop of Toledo, who became the nephew of

Xebres6, was and is very damaging to these Kingdoms because said Xebres is an enemy of the

public affairs of these Kingdoms, and in being his nephew at such a young age, he did not have

much sinecure, and in not having said sinecure, much of the revenue has been taken from the

Kingdom, and many noble knights and their children who were born in and lived in the house of

6 The meaning of Xebres is unknown – further research has shown that this may relate to Monsieur de Xebres, which has something to do with Toledo, but more information is not known.

25

past Archbishops have not been cared for and supported. And that a just way to solve this

problem would be talked about and discussed, by means that they would solve the problem, and

in finding such a means with justice, it can be done that no god though would be lacking in the

solution, and that our representatives would be involved in it.

Chapter to divide the Archbishop of Toledo into three bishoprics.

xxiii. Furthermore, since with such a large sinecure and such large revenues from it, that it would

be talked about and discussed if it would be good and advisable to the Republic of these

Kingdoms to create and make three or four new bishoprics, since there are cities which would be

convenient and beneficial for the Archbishop, and that 12 accounts of revenues would be kept for

the Archbishop and that those others accounts are divided between said bishoprics, which seems

like it would be a grand honor of the Kingdom and the common, spiritual, and temporary good.

And even His Catholic Majesty had to do us a favor in providing us these bishoprics, and it

should be brought about in concordance with our attorneys.

Chapter that talks about the assessment of the officials and judges of the court, the

Crusade, and the Inquisition.

xxiv. Furthermore that all of the officials and judges of the court, and those who have been in

their positions, whoever that is a magistrate or official of the Crusade as well as the Inquisition,

and from any other related positions would have to have an assessment, in which they would

have to give an account and reasoning of their positions and the money and wealth that they have

had because of the positions, and of the confiscation of goods, the benefits received from said

confiscated goods, and who received them, because the said assessment will discover large

crimes and huge quantities of maravedís, which will be used and collected for His Majesty,

26

undoing the grievances and theft which will be discovered and paid by those who did the crime

and are guilty of said act.

Chapter saying that the confiscated goods or any other confiscated item cannot be given as

a gift to the judges who will judge the cases on them.

xxv. Furthermore that the confiscated goods or those which have been confiscated for whatever

crime of whatever seriousness that may be, that they cannot ever be given as a gift in whole or in

part to the judge or judges who have judged or will judge in said lawsuit, and that the judges

cannot receive of such gifts by any intermediary, nor can their wives, children, servants, or kin

receive them, so they can better and more justly sentence, free from any greed or personal

interest.

Chapter that no gifts of these goods are given to those who were imprisoned.

xxvi. Item that they cannot and will not give any gifts of these goods to those who were

imprisoned, and to those whom claims were made against without first being condemned and the

past sentences made against that remain a judged thing.

Chapter that says that His Highness would not give favors, money, pearls, or jewels

without them first going through his Chamber.

xxvii. Furthermore, by experience we have seen and still see that those who give favors and

money issues of things that do not go to nor have not been brought to His Power, do these said

payments and favors very frivolously, having such power that they can give favors and money,

with this His Sacred Majesty has given favors of large numbers of ducats7, precious gems, jewels

and pearls that would be sufficient to sustain the Royal House without the rejection of requests

and tax grants for His subjects, that it would please His Highness that from here forward, no

7 Another old type of money – 375 maravedís = 1 ducat (Kamen) , see Glosario

27

favors or money is given without such money and quantity of maravedís first going through his

Royal Chamber and it is seen and known what is given and what will be lost.

Chapter about the revocation of the favors mentioned in the chapter before this.

xxviii. Furthermore, that the done favors up until now of any quantity of maravedís forbidden by

the manner in the aforementioned chapter and damaging to the Royal House and Estate which

are of infinite number of ducats, that the manner in which they are revoked is talked about and

that all of the aforementioned can be collected by the Chamber of His Highness and that the

manner in which this is discussed be in the said Assembly and is agreed upon by our

representatives.

Chapter saying that there will not be confiscations of goods expect in crimes of treason or

heresy.

xxix. Furthermore that there cannot and will not be any confiscation of goods expect in crimes of

treason and of heresy, and that in all other cases which would have involved confiscation of

goods, such goods would be inherited by the children, grandchildren, and descendants of the

condemned, since they were and are under the provisions of common rights and by the laws of

the parties of these Kingdoms.

Chapter saying that favors are not given in the name of the Royal Crown for goods that

have pending legal action.

xxx. Furthermore, that they cannot and will not give favors that are requested on behalf of the

Royal Crown of these Kingdoms for any type of goods that have and had pending legal action

without them first being given a sentence against the owners of the goods, and that the sentences

would remain as a judged matter, and that the favors that have been given up until now for such

28

goods which had pending legal action would be revoked which are a cause of not freely

administering justice to them.

Chapter on how, on what, and for what they should spend and distribute the money from

the Crusades.

xxxi. Furthermore that the moneys of the Crusades which were granted for the war of the Moors

and the expenses and costs of the armies that His Catholic Majesty had to make and makes

against the enemies of our Holy Catholic Faith and to sustain the kingdoms and cities that he has

in Africa, that in no way is the money spent or can be spend in any other thing, except for the

Crusades which they were granted and are granted for, nor can they give any favors of what was

won and obtained in the said Crusades, not even part of it to a single person, because in addition

to being damaging to the public affairs, which one with good conscience would not do. Nor can

those who receive papal bulls of the Crusade enjoy the indulgences from said Crusade, not

spending what was received from the bulls on what our Most Holy Father commands, but rather

spending it on what is from the Crusades be left free for the income of the Kingdom His Majesty.

Chapter that the favors of maravedís from the Crusades be revoked.

xxii. Item that the favors of maravedís, which were given to particular individuals during said

Crusades, that the favors would be revoked and the quantity of the favors from the Crusades

would be collected from said individuals. For certain people, that the quantity of maravedís is

revoked and collected which were to be earned and gathered during said Crusades.

Chapter on the way which papal bulls should be taken.

xxiii. Item since in the preaching of these Crusades the papal bulls have become and still are

huge extravagances, the compelling and urging of the varying manners in which the bulls are

received, such that those who are to receive the bulls do this by forcibly giving the sermons, once

29

and again detaining them in the churches where they preach and not allowing them to go to their

work until they take the bulls, and by these forces and oppressions, many people who don’t want

the bulls since they already have some or other indulgences which they think are sufficient for

them, are forced to take them. And at the time to pay, they sell them and auction off their own

property. They dispute the bulls and even the Pope who granted them, and in place of gaining

indulgences and remission of sins for the bulls granted to them, they win condemnation for their

soul and commit many sins. That from here on forward, it is ordered the taking of bulls will not

be done in this manner or any similar manner, nor make people be forced to buy in the sermon

against their will, except for the bulls taken voluntarily, because this would stop the other sins

which were committed in making people take them against their will.

Chapter in the manner in which the Kings of our Kingdom should reign.

xxxiv. Item since, by experience, we have seen and known the harm that these Kingdoms has

endured because of the foreigners who have come to reign in our kingdom, who are strange in

speech and their way of living, that if in said Assembly they discuss seeking a solution to this, so

that from here forward this would be remedied and solved forever, that our representatives would

be involved in it and that our representatives would be involved in the bringing about of this just

and virtuous solution in said Assembly.

Chapter saying that His Highness should marry the Infanta of Portugal.

xxxv. Item that as some remedy to the harm that we now have had occur because of a foreigner

in reign in these Kingdoms, that with much petition it is requested and supplied that our Lord and

King, His Highness, would be made to want to marry the Lady Infanta of Portugal, because we

have been informed that she is a very excellent person, very beautiful, a good friend of our

nation and all the Castilians who speak our Castilian as we do, and that she is very prudent and

30

composed. And that she would follow in the footsteps of the Catholic Queen, Lady Doña Isabel,

her grandmother, and that she would be given a very large dowry of lots of money, much more

than any other place could give her, of which she could supply for her needs. And in marrying

them this way, we have more trust in His Highness, which shifts his love to these Kingdoms and

to its subjects, since they are the most important in the world, and so that said Lady Infanta,

being Queen of these Kingdoms, would fit well with our natives, and that the children of the

great knights and other knights of these Kingdoms would be raised in the Royal House, just as if

they were in the House of said Lady Queen and her grandmother, and if His Highness were to

marry some other Queen, foreign from these Kingdoms in speech and dress, the harm done by

this would be doubled.

Chapter that His Highness would not bring Flemings or the French to these Kingdoms.

xxxvi. Furthermore that since His Highness is returning to these Kingdoms in good time, that he

would not bring with him Flemings or French people, or any other men from other nations to

have positions in his Royal House, and that only natives of these Kingdoms would serve in these

positions, since there is an infinite number of able and adequate people to serve him who will

serve him with more love and loyalty

Chapter that there would be no unnecessary jobs in the Royal House.

xxxvii. Item since in the Royal House, especially after Lady Queen Doña Isabel’s soul suffered

from the sickness from which she passed away, the amount of unnecessary positions greatly

increased, with too many inspectors and paymasters with salaries greater than a million

maravedís, that all of these positions would be revoked and do not exist, and that in the General

Assembly, there are people who give a report about these positions, including the damage that

the Royal House and Estate have received and continue to receive.

31

Chapter that nobody can have more that one position, and that they serve such position,

not a representative.

xxxviii. Item that in the House and Court of His Majesty, a person cannot have more than one

position, and that those with more than one position would quit, and that every position is served

by the person who has taken the office, of any quality and conditions that may be, and that they

cannot put a representative in such positions because they still keep their salaries of the said

positions, but their representatives carry other salaries of which is followed by a high cost,

without any advantage to the Royal Crown.

Chapter that all the Royal positions outside of the Court are served by those themselves

who have them.

xxxix. Item that the same is done in all the other Royal offices that serve and are served outside

of the Court and in the positions of lieutenant of the castles and fortresses of the Kingdom.

Chapter saying that the refrendarios8 of His Highness are not from the Council of Justice.

xl. Item that the refrendarios that His Highness had to issue bills and note for the Chamber, that

they are not nor can be from the Council of Justice since as they are sent by the Chamber, many

exorbitances are granted and many grievances are done, and although the injured parties of these

make a plea and the Council of Justice remits these pleas, finding that the refrendarios

themselves are defending what they issued and noted, being as they are people accepted by the

King and with His Royal person they are intelligent, the others on the Council do what the

refrendarios want.

Chapter that the refrendarios take no more except the salary given to them.

8 A person who authenticates or signs after their superior, see Glosario

32

xli. Item that this refrendarios that note for the Chamber cannot receive any other thing except

the salary that His Highness pleases to give them, that this salary would be just and moderate

because by experience it has been seen that they have asked and been given many unfair things,

and by impositions on the Kingdom and that for all of this they have brought and bring warnings

of what they lack and of the impositions that they can put, and since all of the warnings go to

their hands, they ask what they want and have been granted it, and therefore cannot properly

advise, and if these said refrendarios or whichever of them whom have asked themselves or

through some intermediary for something for themselves of for their children or relatives, that

they would be very gravely punished and penalized and that they lose their positions and can

never return to said position or any other.

Chapter so that they moderate the salaries that are given to any judge.

xlii. Item that the excessive salaries and money aids which have been made and given to any

judge of these Kingdoms and their officials, from the greatest to the lowest, would be moderated

and are moderated because with so much salary and many money aids the Royal House is very

oppressed and much of their income is spent.

Chapter that no judge can receive favors form the penalties they sentence.

xliii. Item that no judge in these Kingdoms, from the greatest to the lowest, can receive any favor

from the penalties nor any part of them which they judge has sentenced and sentences, and that

the goods that are confiscated from the said penalties are not paid to their salaries, and if they

take it or ask for it, that they would be very gravely reprimanded and penalized and that they lose

their positions forever and cannot be provided with another.

Chapter that the local magistrates and notaries of the Court and High Court don’t take

from the rebellions and extras more than with the ordinary take.

33

xliv. Item that the local magistrates and notaries of the Court and High Court cannot take, nor

take from the rebellions, nor from any other extras nor higher rights that what the ordinary local

magistrates of the cities, villages and other places in these Kingdoms have, and if they take more

then they would be punished for it.

Chapter saying that there are appeals in criminal sentences.

xlv. Item that, in the sentences in which the criminal lawsuit is death, mutilation of limbs, or

whipping, the magistrates of the Court and of the High Court make that there is a way to appeal

in the Court for those in the Council and for those in the High Court, and that there are judges to

hear, because huge issues have been seen in executing one single sentence or mandate of death

or cutting of limbs or whipping that such magistrates have given, and many injustices from these

orders have come from this, without knowledge of the case, knowing that they had no superiors

who would have amended it, and that such a quantity of civil cases there are, there are be appeals

and a place to appeal, and that in the criminal cases of death or cutting of limbs or whipping ,

many more appeals should be done, because whichever of these is much greater and of greater

harm that the civil cases.

Chapter that of the favors the Catholic King made and the things of which he transferred

their authority, that those to who they were given would show the deeds of them within a

certain period of time.

xlvi. Item since for how much the Lady Queen Doña Isabel suffered because of the Lord King

Don Fernando, as many things and much income of the Royal House were given and transferred

as a means of thanks, as a reason for tax grants and as a means of a pretend or feigned

agreement, that those to whom such favors were made have to bring and present the deeds,

contracts, and gifts which they were given within a short time because those which are found to

34

be good and justly made for true and worthy causes, not against the prohibition and banning that

the Lady Queen Doña Isabel made in her testament, which banned said Lord King from

transferring anything of the Royal Crown, would stay as they are and those which are not found

as such would be annulled and revoked because the Royal Crown is very cheated by them, and

when these are known about, that there would be people that give serious notices.

Chapter that if those who have provisions or deeds of favors and do not present them

within the term, that they would be revoked.

xlvi. Item that those who were to bring said deeds and benefits within the assigned time and do

not bring them, that hereinafter they would be considered revoked and whatever what granted

and given would remain in use for the Royal Crown.

Chapter that the confirmation officials of provisions would change their reasoning that

they have for the confirmations.

xlix. Item since the confirmation officials of the privileges and provisions have charged a large

quantity of maravedís for confirming them. And this has been robbery because, to remove

bought property rights, a confirmation is not necessary, nor should confirmation rights be

obligatory, and that such officials are urged to change what currently unjust in the said

confirmations because we have been told that more that forty thousand ducats have been taken.

Chapter that those who have provisions of nobility would bring them to be seen and

examined and the bought provisions would be revoked.

l. Item because after the passing of said Lady Queen Doña Isabel, many letters of privileges of

nobility and tax exemptions have been given, because they were given to who tried to get them,

and this has been a great harm to the towns, that it is ordered that all of these to whom the said

privileges were granted, within a short time would bring the provisions which were bought for

35

money, so that they can be seen and examined, and for those which were not given with just

cause, all of these will be annulled and revoked since they are damaging to the Royal Crown as

well as the public good of these Kingdoms, and those who do not bring them and present them

within the said time would remain as revoked unusable, and that the money given for them

would be returned to their owners.

Chapter that the magistrates of the noblemen do not have doblas9.

li. Item since, as cause of the doblas which the magistrates of the noblemen and notaries give to

those who declare themselves as sons of a nobleman, sometimes some people declare themselves

as noblemen when they aren’t. That from here forward they cannot have rights with doblas nor

any others from the statements given.

Chapter that all the officials of the Court and their lieutenants have assessments.

lii. Item that all the judges and officials of the Court and whichever other related positions and

their lieutenants have to have an assessment, and that they would give a report and reason to

what they have unjustly done and of the bad notices which they have given every year about the

public affairs of the Kingdom and because this would be known much better if, by way of

albaquías10 they could rent out what they have poorly done in these and of the bad notices they

have given and of the shares they have had from it that they would have shown this since the tax

farmers had the ability to take them from their positions and discover that the Royal Crown and

Estate are very damaged because of this, in very large sums and quantities of maravedís, and it is

reasonable that those who have badly used their positions should pay.

Chapter that the gifts of maravedís that have been given to foreigners would be seized.

9 Type of money, eventually replaced by the maravedí, see Glosario 10Residual or the rest of some bill or rent that is still left to be paid, balances due or remainders, see Glosario

36

liii. Item that since there is such a large quantity of favors of large sums of maravedís which

were given to foreigners which haven’t been collected or taken back, that they would send

people who are in or should be in such power that don’t agree with this to those people who were

given said gifts, but to none other, and that they would be sequestered in order to get such money

which was from tax grants of our Lords the Queen and her son the King and for the public good

of these Kingdoms.

Chapter that there would be two presidents in the Council, one a gentleman and the other a

prelate.

liv. Item since during the life of the Catholic Lady Queen Doña Isabel there were always two

presidents in her Royal Council, one a gentleman and the other a prelate, as requested by Her

Highness, that from here on forward there would be these two presidents and that they would be

natives of these Kingdoms.

Chapter that the increasing positions would be revoked.

lv. Item that since the passing of the Lady Queen Doña Isabel there has been much increase in

positions of all kind, those of which are much beyond the old number, which was and is against

what the laws of these Kingdoms decree and which has been and is harmful to the public affairs

of these Kingdoms that these increased positions would be revoked.

Chapter that they would not provide corregidores11 unless the towns request them.

lvi. Item that they would not provide corregidores to the cities and villages of these Kingdoms,

except for with these cities, villages, and communities within them request it, since it is decreed

as such in the laws of the Kingdom, and also that these cities and villages put their usual mayors

of science and conscience, that these mayors would have good intentions, and are the most

11 Crown-appointed civil governor in main Castilian towns, see Glosario

37

adequate in these cities and villages, and then that they would decline the salaries that the

corregidores so cripplingly take without any benefits to the cities and villages where they live.

Chapter that the towns would give their usual mayors moderate salaries.

lvii. Item that the usual mayors that were placed by the cities and villages would be given a

moderate and proper salary from such cities and villages during the time that they have said

positions.

Chapter that they would not provide investigators and that they refer the lawsuits to the

towns.

lvii. Chapter since by experience we have seen that the investigators, which were named and sent

from the Council up until now, have been very extravagant and costly, in which injustices and

thefts have manifested which have never been remedied by the Council nor punished. That from

here on forward they cannot send investigators from the Council, and that the cases which were

to be sent would be tasked to the places where they occurred to the corregidores or usual mayors

of the cities and villages where they have occurred, and where those whom the cases are against

and against whom investigations need to be done, that they would send their goods and fortunes

to such corregidores and mayors who very diligently understand what was said, and in punishing

what was sent to them with warning that if they do not do as such, that at their own expense they

would send and supply an investigator to do so.

Chapter that if investigators are supplied, that the Chamber will pay them.

lix. Item since the same inconveniences have been seen continuously, which are the supplied

judges and investigators who collect their salaries from the guilty, giving them power to they

declare that the guilty are those from whom collect their salaries, even though there may not be a

guilty party, they still declare them, and from them they collect their salaries in a very

38

disorganized manner with pressure of the selling and auctioning of their goods, of which has

never been resolved by the Council if it has been done properly or improperly. That from here

forward they can never supply judges or investigators so that their salary can be paid by who

they accuse as guilty, rather that the salary needed for the days occupied in making such

investigations would be paid by the Chamber and after when the lawsuits were determined they

could justly charge from those who should be charged.

Chapter that no town councilors, local councilors nor other officials live with Lords.

lx. Item since for how much that has been done against what the laws of these Kingdoms declare,

which have been made by the Lords King Don Fernando and Queen Doña Isabel, and by the

Lords King Don Felipe and King Don Carlos, our Lord, by the giving of permits to some local

councilors, other town councilors and jurors, and other officials of the Councils of the cities and

villages of these Kingdoms so that they could live with Lords and receive stipends, which has

been very damaging to the cities and villages where the said local councilors, town councilors,

jurors and officials of the Council stay, that the permits would be revoked and never again given.

That from here on forward none of them nor their children can live with a Lord unless it were

with His Highness, nor can another receive a stipend, but rather that they would receive large

penalties and lose their positions and that they would perpetually be disqualified from their

position and others.

Chapter that the Bishops would reside in their bishoprics.

lxi. Item providing that the Bishops reside in the bishoprics and that they don’t go to the Court

nor are outside of the bishoprics, especially all those of the Kingdom of Granada since there is

such need that they are in them.

39

Chapter that the fortresses and encomiendas12 are given to natives of the Kingdom.

lxii. Item that the possession of the fortresses and Mayor’s office of the King and the

encomiendas of the Military Orders are not given nor can be given to anyone other that natives

and neighbors of these Kingdoms.

Chapter that the comendadores13 would have an assessment.

lxiii. Item that the accountants and officials of the aforementioned commands and those with

mastership of the Military Orders should have an assessment because it is known that they have

spent the income of said command, income belonging to those with said mastership of the

Military Orders and to those who have been given gifts from them and that which remains from

them would be for the Royal Crown.

Chapter that the possessions that have been given to foreigners would be removed.

lxiv. Item that the possessions of the fortresses that have been given to foreigners would be

removed from those who already have them and from those who have bought them.

Chapter that they would remove the property from Fonseca14 and given them to natives of

the Kingdom.

lxv. Item that they would remove the property that Antonio de Fonseca had in these Kingdoms

and that the property is provided to natives, friends and servants of the public affairs of these

Kingdoms.

Chapter that the alcabala15 would be reduced to the quantity that it was in the

encabezamiento16 when the Queen Doña Isabel passed away.

12 In mediaeval Spain, a grant of land by the king, usually on condition that the holder assist in defense, see Glosario 13 One who has military power over the knights, see Glosario 14 Antonio de Fonseca was a Spanish Roman Catholic bishop15 Castilian sales tax, about 10 percent, see Glosario

40

lxvi. Item that the alcabalas of all these Kingdoms would be reduced and are reduced to the

quantity that it was in the encabezamiento in the time when the lady Queen Doña Isabel passed

away, and that it would stay as such perpetually and that it cannot be raised since this was the

intention and wish of the said lady Queen Doña Isabel as her testament and it appears that this

was meant for good by Her Highness, as such that the communities of these Kingdoms that did

not want to place such tax, that they would look and examine if they were justly taxed by the

aforementioned alcabala as the said lady Queen ordered in her testament.

Chapter that the towns have encabezamientos and pay the salaries with them.

lxvii. Item that the towns have to take and would take the said alcabalas from said

encabezamiento and would be obligated to pay the salaries of said alcabalas by putting together

sums from such encabezamientos, and the excess would be given to His Highness or to his

treasury and to pay for what was due to them up unto the amount of the excess of the salary of

such alcabalas, and with this they will cease the malice and cunningness of the landlords and tax

farmers, and they and the towns would not be exhausted with them like it has been up until now,

and that they would stop the promises and other infinite briberies which have happened because

of this and even stop the position of the major accountants and save the large salaries that they

carry.

Chapter that the encabezamientos would be enjoyed by the towns and more than what was

registered would be leased.

lxviii. Item that the said encabezamientos are generally enjoyed by all the neighbors of the places

which were registered to be taxed and that between them the alcabalas cannot be leased for

larger price nor for more than what the aforementioned encabezamientos had, nor can it be

16 System of tax-collection by which a regions would agree on the total of taxes to be paid, but exercise full local control over assessment and collection, see Glosario

41

divided up more between the neighbors of the said places to pay the said encabezamientos of

which was contained in them, except only for the costs that were done under the understating of

the aforementioned and in collecting the said encabezamientos.

Chapter that Their Highnesses are content with the income and other things taken from

the Kingdom without asking other tax grants.

lxix. Item that the Queen and the King her son, our Lords, would be content with the said

alcabalas that are in the Kingdom which were given and decreed for the support of the Royal

Estates, in agreement with the chapter before this, and with the other usual incomes that in are

carried in their Kingdom and with the penalties from the Chamber and confiscation of goods

associated with this and with the income from those with mastership of the Military Orders and

from the salt mines had in these Kingdoms which are property of the Royal Crown, and with the

tax grant and tributes brought from the earnings of the Kingdom and with the almojarifazgos17

and dry ports, since in these there is a large count of maravedís, and that they would not ask for

other special tax grants from their Kingdom and subjects of said Kingdom, nor that they would

make the subjects collect and pay taxes, since this would be damaging to their consciences and

very harmful to the public affairs of these Kingdoms, nor that they would banish the subjects nor

impose others to do so, and that the tax grants that some representatives of the Courts were

awarded in the city of La Corunna that would not pay, nor any other similar thing would be

banished or paid in any time.

Chapter that the cities and villages of the Kingdom that have a vote in the Court would

name their representatives and freely give them power.

17 Rents and taxes from the Muslims in Spain, see Glosario

42

lxx. Item that from here on forward, when they make the Courts and the representatives are

named from the cities and villages that have a vote in the Courts, that the Council of Justice,

Town Councilors, those in charge of sesmos18, or representatives of the communities if there are

any, and if not, that they would request for them, that they would freely and by their will give the

powers for said representatives, without Their Highnesses having to send instructions or orders

on their part, in such a manner that they give the powers and that the representatives who were

thus named would go with said powers to the Courts where they were called. That, as good a

loyal representatives of their cities, villages, or towns, they completely understand in all which is

service of Their Highnesses, not being damaging to their towns and to the public good of these

Kingdoms, and that if they do not do as such, that they would be under the penalties that said

towns normally give for this.

Chapter that the representatives of the Courts in the Courts would join and talk amongst

themselves, and that they would not be given a president.

lxxi. Item that in such Courts, the representatives can join together, confer, and talk with one

another freely, and that they are not given a president to be with them, since a president would be

given to impede them so that they would do not understand the best of what Their Highnesses

ask of them.

Chapter that the representatives of the Courts cannot ask for favors, or be under certain

penalty.

lxxij. Item that such representatives that were sent to said Courts not before nor after in the time

in which they were in those Courts that until they return to their houses cannot receive any gift of

any quality for themselves or for their wives, children, nor relatives because of having been

18 Group of associated towns or peoples, see Glosario

43

representatives and being it in said Courts, whether the gifts be for themselves, for any cause of

another person, or color, they cannot receive any gift of any quality, or else it would be under

penalty of death or loss of goods, since such representatives, being free from greed, by not

receiving anything they will better understand that they are under the service of God and the

King and the public good of these Kingdoms, and also in the cities, villages and communities

which they were commissioned to.

Chapter that they would revoke the gifts given to the representatives in the Courts of A

Coruña19.

lxxii Item that all the gifts of any quality which were made to the representatives of the Courts

who now are in the Kingdom of Galicia would be revoked and not be given to anyone else, and

that they do not and cannot use them, or be under large penalties. That these favors given by the

King Don Fernando of whichever villages and places and other things of the Royal Crown would

be revoked.

lxxiii. Item that the favors to whichever villages of forgiveness of rent for country homes or debt

forgiveness that were given by the Lord and King Don Fernando as governor of these Kingdoms

would be revoked since that was against what was ordered in the laws of these Kingdoms and

was against the prohibition that the Queen Doña Isabel made in her testament, which she made in

that time to provide that governor of these Kingdoms would revoke such favors from whichever

persons they were given to, just as if the Queen Our Lady revoked them and the aforementioned

Lord King Don Fernando had revoked the favors that the Lord King Don Felipe, who in blessed

glory had and did revoke them, from when he started to reign until he passed, as that in the same

way they would revoke and not given to anyone the favors that the King Don Carlos, our Lord,

19 A city in Spain, the northern coast of Galicia

44

made again of villages and country homes in these Kingdoms, and the confirmation of the favors

and donations that he gave which the said Lord King Don Fernando, being governor, made and

gave, as many were against what is arranged and ordered in the laws of these Kingdoms and

against the royal privileges given and known by the said villages and country homes, so that they

could never separate from the Royal Crown of these Kingdoms, and as all of those favors were

done and made in a time of bad governing and by the Council and particular interests of bad

representatives and enemies of the Royal Crown and of the public good of these Kingdoms.

Chapter that they would revoke the pardons that were made for the sacar pan20.

lxxv. Item that they would revoked the pardons or deposits that were made and deposited in the

time of bad governing of these Kingdoms to bring certain rights to give a license to export grains

out from these kingdoms, and to export the hides and leathers from the city of Seville, because

on the other side of a bad deposit, more damage is caused and is followed by much harm when

the grains and hides were taken outside of these Kingdoms and out of said city of Seville, and

that from here on forward they cannot take nor will take grains out of these Kingdoms nor the

hides of said city of Seville.

Chapter that they cannot take the livestock out of these Kingdoms.

lxxvi. Item that they cannot nor will take out any livestock from these Kingdoms for any other

kingdoms, even if they belong to His Catholic , since by experience we have known the huge

damages to the Kingdom and republic which have followed because of the taking and selling of

said livestock outside of these Kingdoms and in the increased price of meats, leathers, shoes, and

candles, which are more than twice as much of what they used to cost, and not taking said

20 There was a shortage of farmland in the nation, so grains were not allowed to be exported. Literally translated, this means “to take bread”, but is thought of as taking grains out of the country, see Glosario

45

livestock would return all the prices to what they were, which would be a great benefit to these

Kingdoms.

Chapter that a tax would be placed on the livestock pastures.

lxxvii. Item since the price of meats, wool, and shoes have reasonable prices, which likewise has

increased because the price charged by the landlords of the pastures and the herbage for them has

increased greatly, that a reasonable and just tax would be placed on said pastures in order that the

great increasing of the rent and herbage prices would not be in the hands of the owners of the

pastures to do so whenever they wanted, since this is a universal damage to the Kingdom and its

public good, and that the same would be done in the pastures of those with mastership of the

Military Orders and all of their encomiendas.

Chapter that they would not take money or gold from the Kingdom.

lxxviii. Item that they cannot by any means take money of gold, silver, minted or engraved

money from the Kingdom since this is prohibited by the laws of these Kingdoms, and because of

when the King, our Lord, did the contrary when he came to these Kingdoms, the Kingdom is

now poor and lost, and in order that this be remedied, that all manners that can be found to

accomplish this would be sought, and that it cannot be done otherwise in any time.

Chapter that the punishments made by the representatives in some cities and villages in the

Kingdom would be decreased.

lxxix. Item that Their Highnesses would consider the morality of the punishment that some of the

representatives and other people of some communities have done to people and their goods,

because they were against the public good of their towns and against the universal good of the

kingdom, in order that these punishments would be changed with zeal and good intention

46

towards the public good of the towns and these Kingdoms, of which lies in the service of the

Queen and King, her son, our Lords.

Chapter that this village can enjoy their festivals despite any adaptations that have been

given on the contrary.

lxxx. Item since because said King, our Lord, in the time of his bad council and governing, made

and gave certain provisions which were damaging and harming to the festival of this noble

village of Valladolid, and the village secretly claimed their rights of the festival because they

would have not dared to do it publicly because of the large penalties that were put on said

provisions and because they were not allowed to ask for a remedy against said provisions in said

time, that this noble village can and will freely have their festivals as is included in their rights,

and that the merchants and traders of the Kingdom can freely go to the festivals and can sell and

trade as they can do in the festivals of Medina del Campo and Medina de Rioseco21 despite said

provisions.

Chapter that the Monasteries of San Benito and San Bernardo22 in these Kingdoms would

not have country homes or vassals.

lxxxi. Item since for how much the exercising of the jurisdiction over the vassals in the

Monasteries of San Benito and San Bernardo and other orders in the Kingdom of Galicia and in

other parts of these Kingdoms is a danger to said monasteries because it can cause them to

separate from their contemplative life and be a distraction in their religion. That said monasteries

are provided money to cover such rent just like what the vassals and country homes rented for,

and such money could be provided by the alcabala from said vassals and country homes, and

that the homes and vassals of them with their civil and criminal jurisdiction would be used by the

21 Cities in Spain, in Galicia 22 Saint Benedict and Saint Bernard

47

Royal Crown of these Kingdoms because this would be a very profitable thing for the Royal

Crown of the Kingdom. The monasteries will be left with the same amount of rent as they have

now with more ability to spend time in the contemplation and seclusion of their religion and this

would subtly put the Pope under the petition of Their Highnesses.

Chapter that communities of the Royal Crown would have the fortresses that are in the

cities and villages of these Kingdoms.

lxxxii. Item since it has been seen and experienced that the local magistrates and owners of the

castles and fortresses of the cities and villages of the Royal Crown commonly are against and are

enemies of said cities, villages and towns and give them many grievances, especially via times of

riots and disorder, and because in the stipend of these buildings they spend and consume huge

quantities of maravedís from the Royal Income of these Kingdoms. That from here on forward is

to be provided that the buildings and guard of such castles and fortresses would be given to the

same cities and villages where they are located, and that said cities and villages keep and guard

in not exhausting the resources of His Majesty and for the Royal Crown of these Kingdoms, and

as such many problems and damages would stop as such, and that the said cities and villages

cannot put powerful gentlemen as mayors in said fortresses, except for modest and good people

from said cities and villages, as large quantities of maravedís that were formerly spent on said

buildings will be saved for High Highness and the Royal Crown of these Kingdoms.

Chapter that the representatives of the country of Biscay and the province of Guipúzcoa

and Asturias of Oviedo are called and are given notice of what was done in the General

Assembly.

lxxxiii. Item that everything which was agreed on and determined in the said General Assemgly

of the cities and villages of these Kingdoms for the public good of them, that before it is

48

published, the representatives of the country of Biscay and the provinces of Guipúzcoa and of

Álava and of the villages of Laredo and Antander, which are by the coast and sea, and the other

villages which are near to that district, would be called, and even if they were to call those from

the city of Oviedo and the principality of Asturias and the Kingdom of Granada, this would be

good so that all of them can communicate what is agreed on for the cities and villages of these

Kingdoms and their representatives, in order that they agree on it, since the country of Biscay

and provinces of Guipúzcoa and Álava and the mountains in the principality of Asturias are a

large part of these Kingdoms, and with compliance from them, we will be adament in our holy

intent and in the public good of these Kingdoms, which is of good intentions, without the

damages from Burgos, Leon, and Zamora and from the other places that have votes in Courts

that could be detrimental.

Chapter that the representatives of the Courts are chosen by the communities despite other

customs that they might have had.

lxxxiv. Item that from here on forward, the representatives of the Courts that used to be sent

would now be elected by the Justice Council, Town Councilors, and community of the cities and

villages to whom they used to be sent. That the representatives would be the most suitable and

sufficient that they can be and that they would do what they should for the public good of the

cities and villages that sent them. And in the Kingdom that there would be a custom to elect and

name the representatives from descendants of such cities and villages because as such is

advisable since it makes it so that they cannot be named by those who were in the Court.

Chapter that the representatives of this village would correspond with other

representatives of the Kingdom in what is for the universal public good of the kingdom.

49

lxxxv. Item that in all the other things that were talked about and communicated in said General

Assembly, that they would be for the universal public good of these Kingdoms, to put in order

what is disorganized, to find remedies and corrections of past grievances done in the time of poor

government of these Kingdoms, and to punish and penalize the guilty. In these, as well as the

chapters contained in these instructions, the representatives, or at least good part of them, from

said Assembly can correspond on, and to our said representatives, we charge them that whenever

they can, they would be in agreement with said Assembly, and for diversity of votes of the

representatives, that they would not block any just and virtuous idea or intention that is for the

public good of these Kingdoms and to remedy or satisfy any past grievances. But if something

appears more serious than the aforementioned to the representatives, then they must consult the

village and representatives of the community and write to us about what they are consulting on

because we will respond to them saying what they should do.

Chapter that what was done and ordered in the Assembly would be established by means

of an irrevocable agreement.

lxxxvi. Item that all of the things contained in these instructions and the others ordered in said

Assembly, that they would and are established by way of an irrevocable agreement by the King,

our Lord, as was strongly ordered and asked for in said Assembly.

Chapter that the cities and villages of the Kingdom that have a vote in the Courts would

make an alliance and join in union to maintain and sustain what was done in the Assembly.

lxxxvii. Item in order that all the aforementioned would be and is fulfilled, and that nothing else

can be done, that the cities and villages of the Kingdom that have votes in the Courts would

make an alliance and join in one union, and that their representatives, under large obligations and

conviction, would always be the one to defend and guard what was promised, and solemnly

50

swearing to die for one other by putting their lives and homes above it, and for the town

councilors of the cities and villages and other private citizens, and in this they understand what it

is to defend, guard, and complete the aforementioned, and the motives around this reaches all

cities, villages, and places of these Kingdoms, and representatives, town councilors, and other

private citizens of them, all the other cities and villages of them, would by themselves turn and

follow in the manner that all the Kingdom and community of it would be one body and one thing

in defending the aforementioned and that it will not be done for any nearby city that doesn’t

touch the entire communities of these Kingdoms, and that above all they would establish

writings and signatures with sufficient oaths for all of it.

Chapter that the Queen, our Lady would be given notice of all that was ordered in the

Assembly so that she can approve it.

lxxxviii. Item that the Queen, our Lady, would be given notice of all that was ordered and agreed

on in said Assembly, and that she is made to comprehend it all, because with her authority,

wishes, and consent it could be authorized, and it would be a perpetual signature of what was

ordered, and security for the towns and public good of these Kingdoms.

Chapter that an observer would be approved to be in the Audience to watch the hearings.

lxxxix. Chapter that it is approved and requested to His Highness that he orders to his Royal

hearings of this noble village of Valladolid, as they do in the city of Granada, where an observer

resides in every hearing, one who is a person of authority and of good intention, that such person

would also be provided in said Audiences in Valladolid, as during the life of the Lady Queen

Doña Isabel, when Don Juan of Aza was the observer, and afterwards the Bishop of Cordoba,

and after him the Knight Commander Aguilera, resident of the Village of Molina, in order that

said observer can appeal the lawsuits before the complainant, and so they can and do see the

51

ordered lawsuits, and so they are careful to guard the ordinances and what was mandated and

provided in past visitations, and so His Highness would know how his officials serve in their

offices of said hearings and how justice is administered in them.

Chapter that command would be given only in suits.

xc. Item that order and command would not be given in the disorganized suits, but rather while

wearing silk and brocades, because in these unorganized suits, much damage is received to the

public good of these Kingdoms and neighbors.

Chapter that they use the Royal income to pay the Royal house.

xci. Item ordering and commanding that they would pay the Royal house from the royal income

since the money that would be given and paid to the salaries and the retirement, which those who

are in said Royal house have, as such would be spent and used in these Kingdoms, and because

the accumulation of said Royal income and not spending it in these Kingdoms would bring much

damage to the public good.

Chapter that the Ecclesiastic judges and their scribes would keep the Kingdom’s tariff in

the bringing in of fees.

xcii. Item that is it supplied that the Ecclesiastic and Conservative judges and their scribes and

officials should and do keep the tariff that they have, and that the secular judges and scribes of

the hearings and Courts of Their Majesties would also keep said tariffs, as Their Highnesses had

provided for their tariffs, since said Ecclesiastic judges and scribes of their hearings have very

large tariff fees, and for those who do not want any taxes, much damage to the republic of these

Kingdoms would follow because of it. That the official accountants and Crusade officials would

not give any notice to anyone, except to Their Highnesses, of money that is delayed in the paying

of said tariffs.

52

xcii. Item that the officials of any Royal offices, such as the major accountants of bills and of the

Crusades and of America and of Tierra Firme, that they cannot give notice, nor notify anybody

of delayed monies, or of hidden monies, nor that they are obliged to go to the Chamber and

Treasury of Their Majesties, and they are obliged to make and give said notices to Their Catholic

Majesties, so that the ordered notices are paid and collected by their Chamber and they don’t

give any favors regarding the notices, as they have done up until now, and if they do not give

said notices to Their Highnesses, that they would lose their offices and they cannot be in any

other offices.

Chapter that if it is found that said officials have given notices as such, that they would pay

double what is owed to the Chamber.

xciv. Item since it has been found and will continually be found that these officials that have

given notices as such have split into parts the money with those to whom they gave said notices

that asked for favors from said delayed monies that they owed to His Highness and they have

them hidden because they were given a third of the said favors. That all that they received from

the splitting of said favors of their bad notices, since it was damaging and fraud of the Royal

Crown and of the Chamber of His Highness, that they would have to return double what they

owe to the Chamber of Their Highnesses.

Chapter that those who gave notices of things belonging to Their Highnesses, that such

things would be claimed for the Chamber.

xcv. Item since in addition to said inappropriate and unpleasant splitting of monies received by

those who gave said bad notices in order that said favors would be asked for, knowing very well

that is was so they could get paid from said favors, buying and leasing from the people who said

favors were given to. And to those who they gave notices to, they gave 5 thousand to 10

53

thousand ducats, and afterwards they paid said favors more that 50 to 80 thousand ducats, and

they divided it up between themselves and with this have come to have the estates that they have,

when at the time they entered said offices, their houses were not worth 200 thousand maravedís.

That all of this would be claimed for the Chamber of Their Majesties because from this they can

justly pay for large quantities of ducats.

Chapter that all the rest would be paid by albaquías from what was leased, and claimed for

the Chamber.

xcvi. Item since in the leasing of the albaquías that were leased, with said officials knowing what

they should and could charge of said albaquías, it was they themselves who leased them to other

people, giving them very large commissions from because of how they leased them, and in

addition to that, because they have carried out the leasing, they have charges 10 to 20 times of

said albaquías, because it was them who leased them, and as all of this has been done cunningly

and hidden from His Majesty, that is, what they could charge of said albaquías, and that all what

is left of said albaquías that was charged beyond the normal price would be collected for the

Chamber of His Highness from those who charged, took, and collected of said albaquías in such

a manner.

Chapter that they would not lease albaquías, nor collect from them, except from that which

was delayed for 10 years.

xcvii. Item since because of the leasing of the albaquías for many years, many damages have

followed here from the blackmailing and bribery from the tax farmers, that the guarantors and

their wives, children, and family, and the towns with their faithful granary workers had to pay for

the Royal rent. That after the past 10 to 20 years, that they would ask them for the sum of said

rents, and they ask them for the money orders that were made in them, and the payment cards of

54

said money orders which were not had nor shown after much time, having passed away the

people who received said money orders and paid them, exhausting and bankrupting their wives,

children, and family, and having to sell and auction all their goods to their guarantors. That much

damaged has followed from this to the public good of these Kingdoms, and that His Majesty

would supply that they cannot lease out the albaquías, nor sell them, except what was left from

10 or more years, and so that what happened before wouldn’t happen again, that they cannot rent

or sell albaquías because as such much money has remained unpaid or collected, all which was

the fault of the officials.

Chapter that the King’s doctors would not visit the pharmacies of the apothecaries.

xcviii. Item since because the doctors of His Majesty or their representatives visit the pharmacies

of the apothecaries who work with chemicals and spices, their compound medicines, and other

medicines, the doctors themselves not knowing about said medicines nor knowing which

medicines are which, nor if they are well or poorly made, and because of bribes made against the

rights of said apothecaries, causing them to approve what they should condemn and condemn

what they should approve. From this, widespread damages to the Republic of these Kingdoms

and neighbors of them has followed, that they would request to His Majesty and that he would

provide that from here on forward, said pharmacies and spice stores would not be visited by said

King’s doctors nor by their representatives, and that they are seen only by knowledgeable men

who are experts in the field of alchemy so they cannot receive any tricks or bribes.

Chapter that talks about the ability to defend of the cities in the Kingdom.

xcix. Item that because all other things in said Assembly, they would speak about and command

the manner in which the defending of the cities of these Kingdoms is to be done, and that this

manner would provide that the each person would pay so that all make an army for the defense

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of the liberty and public good of these Kingdoms, that of all that could happen at said Assembly,

as this is what is necessary before all other things.

Chapter that there are no merchants in the Kingdom.

c. Item because of the markets that buy and travel in these Kingdoms with large and small herds

to resell, and because of how many times damage has followed and follows to the Royal Crown

of these Kingdoms, and to the neighbors of the cities, villages, and places in the Kingdom

because of this, that it would be prohibited under large penalties that said merchants cannot

travel these Kingdoms to buy said herds to resell them.

Chapter that in said time the cities of the Kingdom would assemble.

ci. Item that either every two or three years, that the representatives of the cities and villages of

these Kingdoms that have vote in the Courts would assemble and learn about what is happening

in the government and for public good of these Kingdoms.

Chapter that some things would be established by His Highness in the Courts of this village

and of A Coruña they would accomplish and observe these things.

cii. Item since in the Courts of the King, our Lord, had in the village of Valladolid and in the city

of A Coruña, under petition of the representatives of the Courts, because of how many times they

conceded and established some things which were useful and beneficial to these Kingdoms, the

public good, and the administration of justice, that for how many times these things have not

been fulfilled nor accomplished, that they would now be accomplished and observed and there is

an effect of what was established under petition of the representatives of the Courts.

Chapter about the charges that the scribes of the Hearings can have for the viewing of the

evidences.

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ciii. Item since the scribes of the Hearings have had such large charges for things which they do

not need to work on, such as in the viewing of the trials, the amount of appeals that come before

them, and the viewing of the evidence and writings that are presented before them, and that they

charge 8 maravedís for each page written, which is four maravedís for each person, a very large

sum, that they would moderate and cannot charge more than two maravedís for each person for

each page.

Chapter that they cannot kill calves or lambs in the Kingdom.

civ. Item that it would supplied that they would not kill so many calves and lambs in these

Kingdoms as they have killed because using rams, heifers, cows, and oxen would provide much

more meat and would be much cheaper.

Chapter that certain taxes for things related to weaponry would be exempt.

cv. Item that the new tax that the Catholic Kings ordered concerning the makers of horses’

harnesses, bits, saddles, and the farriers, since all this is weaponry or related to it, and they

always were tax-free, which was even written in some old notebooks, that they would keep their

ancient freedom, since by the Catholic King and Queen they were taxed, which was not of the

consent of the subjects, and since all that has been earned is from 20 years more or less, not

much has been earned from this in this part or to His Majesty, and in good conscience he can

take this tax, especially since the interest is so little.

Chapter that the Lordships and Abbeys would benefit from the encabezamiento.

cvi. Item that from the diving out of the alcabalas from said encabezamientos that is done in the

cities and villages, the usefulness and benefits would be enjoyed by other villages and places in

these Kingdoms, such as the Lordships and Abbeys.

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Chapter that when Courts are called to order, that before they are concluded, Their

Highnesses would make amends with those harmed.

cvii. Item that His Highness would supply that every time He calls to the Courts the

representatives from the cities and villages that have vote in the Courts, that they would

understand which things are done at the service of Their Highness, and which things are to be

done by His Sacred Majesty, that above all they would amend those harmed and they cannot

conclude the Courts before this is done.

Chapter that those who bought their position after the Catholic King passed away would

not use such positions or be under certain penalties.

cviii. Item that all those who have bought their positions after the Catholic King passed away,

that they cannot and do not use said positions, or be under penalty of death and loss of goods,

and if they wanted to ask for something from the money that they gave for them, that they would

be sued in the presence of those who saw it.

That all of said chapters would be completed by the Lords of Justice, Town Councilors, Capitan

and legislators of said village would be agreed on, that they would be given to the representatives

that go to the Assembly of the cities and villages of these Kingdoms, which is to be held in the

city of Ávila, so that they talk and speak about the chapters and all that is advisable to be in the

service of God, our Lord, and of Their Majesties and common good of these Kingdoms and

Lords.

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Acerca de la historia de La Constitución Política de las Comunidades de Castilla

La historia relacionada con La Constitución Política de las Comunidades de Castilla es

muy importante para mejor entender la traducción. También las conexiones entre los libros de

historia y un documento escrito son interesantes. Desde el reino de los queridos Reyes Católicos,

Ferdinand y Isabel, a finales del siglo XV, hasta el reino del Rey flamenco Carlos I que empezó

la rebelión en la que se escribió La Constitución, y las consecuencias de una rebelión hecha por

la gente común en el reino de Castilla, todo estos eventos están relacionados con La

Constitución. Aún más es importante saber el significado de ciertas palabras en esta época

porque muchas veces el significado ha cambiado o ha sido perdido por razones de no usar la

palabra hoy en día. Empezamos en el siglo XV, algunos años antes de que se escribió este

documento.

El sitio que ahora llamamos España tenía dos reinos en este tiempo – un reino que era

Portugal y el otro era una combinación de Castilla y Aragón. Esta combinación era el resultado

de un matrimonio entre Isabel I de Castilla y Ferdinand II de Aragón en el año 1469 en la ciudad

de Valladolid (16th Century Spain). Aunque España estaba casi-unida por consecuencia de este

matrimonio, las dos regiones siguieron separadas. No había ningún intento para unificar estas

regiones autónomas. Aunque el transporte de bienes entres las regiones se convirtió en ser más

fácil en el año 1480 y también que en el año 1497 se declararon que todas las monedas diferentes

entre los reinos, que son los excelentes de Castilla y Valencia y el principat de Cataluña, tendrían

el mismo valor. Sin embargo, las adunas entre regiones se quedaron, y los gobiernos estaban

separados. (Kamen 10)

Esta separación no fue la culpa de un matrimonio infeliz. De hecho, la Reina Isabel ha

tenido muchas oportunidades de casarse antes del Ferdinand, pero no quiso casarse con los otros

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hombres. De hecho, ellos tenían que casarse en secreto. (Isabella I) La separación entre Castilla y

Aragón fue la culpa de grandes diferencias entre ellos. Castilla fue cuatro veces más grande que

Aragón, y tenía el 80 por ciento de la población de España en esta época. Castilla también

controló a mucho del comercio en la península. Durante este tiempo, se consideró Castilla como

unificado porque tenía un solo gobierno con una Corte, una sistema de impuestos, una lengua,

una moneda, y una administración. Aunque esta unidad fue un poco superficial, el resto de

España pensaba que Castilla tenía mucha influencia política en la península ibérica, más poder

que Aragón. (Kamen 13) Por estas razones, Castilla tenía más poder en general que Aragón. De

hecho, a Ferdinand le gustaba la manera en que se reinó Castilla, y no pasaba mucho tiempo en

su reino de Aragón por esta razón. Aun así, la época de Ferdinand y Isabel fue una de las mejores

en la historia de España.

En el año 1474, Isabel subió al trono en Castilla. Su hermano Henry IV, quien era su

antecesor, ha dejado el reino de Castilla en caos. Fue un desastre total – los castellanos dijeron

que no se castigaban los delitos como el asesinato, la violación, y el robo. A Henry IV también le

gustaba gastar dinero para lo que quisiera, que trajo muchos problemas fiscales al reino. Por

tantos problemas, la Reina Isabel puso la importancia de la justicia antes de la misericordia en su

manera de reinar, y se consideró como una dirigente estricta más que amable. (Isabella I)

“‘Todos temblaron al nombre de la Reina’ dijo un extranjero visitante en el año 1484.” (Kamen

17) El centro de poder en España no estuvo en una ciudad concreta sino en las personas de la

Reina Isabel y el Rey Ferdinand. Ellos estaban donde tenían que estar en el reino para que la

gente viera al Rey y la Reina y ponga su confianza en ellos, y para que ellos tengan la autoridad

para reinar bien y con control. Cada viernes, el Rey y la Reina se sentaron para escuchar a las

quejas de la gente común, otra forma personal en la manera en que reinaron. En todo lo que se

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hizo por los Reales, dijeron que eran hechos por “el Rey y la Reina” juntos. Aún tenían un ‘lema’

para describir este reino colectivo: “tanto monta, monta tanto, Isabel como Fernando.” (Isabella

I)

Pero la Reina (y el Rey) no reinaba en la manera de una dictadora. Es cierto que su poder

fue por medio de una autoridad personal y directa aunque no tenía un ejercicio grande ni

burocracia. Su concepto de soberanía venía de lo medieval – en su testamento usaba la frase “mi

poder real y absoluto”, una frase de origen medieval, pero una frase que no crea ningún poder

que no estaba en sus poderes tradicionales. Se creía que su autoridad venía de Dios, pero también

de su comunidad porque tenía que cuidar a sus sujetos. La Reina quiso hacer lo justo y hizo su

trabajo fielmente. Aun con el hecho de que era una mujer, tenía el respecto de la gente común

porque las mujeres españolas tenían los mismos derechos de propiedad que los hombres. Por

todo eso, la Reina Isabel podía tener esta autoridad directa para gobernar a los castellanos.

(Kamen 16-17)

Con todo este poder, ¿qué hizo la Reina Isabel? Pacificar su país del caos que hizo su

hermano Henry IV. Hay varias cosas que hizo Isabel en el reino para traer la paz al reino de

nuevo. Primero, Isabel creó las hermandades, o la Santa Hermandad, que eran fuerzas locales

para mantener la paz en esa región. (Isabella I) Empezando en 1476, estas hermandades se

extendieron por muchas regiones del reino. Cada año, tenían una Junta General para que

hablaran sobre las leyes y decidieran si querían cambiar algo sobre su manera de preservar la

paz. Esta Junta convirtió en ser muy útil para la Reina Isabel porque todas las ciudades de

Castilla eran juntas en la Junta, hablando sobre como reinar y creando una cooperación entre

estas ciudades. También un ejercicio Real tenía raíces en esta Junta y tenía algunos 10.000

soldados en el año 1490. Eventualmente, las hermandades no tenían el cargo de preservar la paz

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por consecuencia de que hubiera un ejercicio. Por otro lado, ellos empezaron a colectar las tasas

del reino, y se convirtieron en ser la Hacienda Real. (Kamen 18-19)

Además de controlar el crimen en el reino que dejó su hermano Henry IV, Isabel tenía

que restablecer las finanzas del reino. Como ya he comentado, el Rey Henry IV gastó mucho

dinero. La mayoridad de este dinero vino de la enajenación de tierras en el reino por precios muy

baratos. En las Cortes en 1480, se decidió que la única manera de traer esta riqueza y estas tierras

al reino de nuevo es comprarlas. Aunque estaba nerviosa con este plan tan grande, la Reina

Isabel lo hizo y decidió que el Cardenal de España tenía cargo de investigar las ventas pasadas de

la tierra castellana. Para las tierras que se recibieron por una merced del Rey, se las devolvieron

al reino sin compensación al dueño nuevo. Para las tierras que se compraron por precio barato, el

reino se las compraron por el mismo precio. Henry IV también produjo mucha moneda acuñada

en el reino. De haber producido tanto dinero, las monedas no tenían mucho valor y la gente

común no se confió en la Corona Real para cuidar de las finanzas y las monedas del reino. Isabel

cerró a muchos de estos sitios de acuñar dinero y creó un estándar sobre las monedas que

quedaban. (Isabella I) Por eso, vemos que hay muchos tipos de monedas diferentes en el texto

traducido, como el maravedí, el ducado, y la meaja.

Por todo esto y algunas otras razones, Isabel pacificó su reino de Castilla y con el Rey

Ferdinand, ellos consolidaron su poder y autoridad en el reino. Ahora, se enfocaron en la región

de Granada, el último estado musulmán en la península ibérica. Ya había algunos ataques de los

musulmanes, pero en el año 1482, el Rey y la Reina fueron a Granada para conquistar a este

último estado musulmán y terminar el Reconquista. (Isabella I) La Reconquista empezó en el año

711 en esta península para convertir a todos los musulmanes invasores al cristianismo. – “para

expulsar de todo de España los enemigos de la Fe Católica y dedicar que España sea en el

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servicio de Dios” (Kamen 34) Aunque las defensas y el liderato de los musulmanes eran débiles,

se gastaron muchos recursos y se quedó diez años en Granada para conquistarlo. En enero del

1492, los moros se rindieron. (Kamen 33) Sin embargo, esta rendición tenía términos de que los

moros tenían la libertad de religión en la península. Pero después de algunos años, estos Reyes

de la fe católica decidieron que todos los judíos tenían que bautizar o salir del país (los que se

bautizaron se llaman conversos). Esto se llama la Inquisición que se estableció en 1478. Había

algunos españoles católicos que pensaban que algunos de los conversos no fueran cristianos de

verdad. Un tribunal eclesiástico se formó de manera rápida en Castilla, pero el tribunal también

tenía poderes de la Corona Real que es secular. (Kamen 39) Con esta mezcla de la religión

católica y lo político, se sintió la importancia de la fe católica por todos los lados de Castilla.

(16th Century Spain) En 1501, los moros tenían que hacer lo mismo – convertir en ser cristianos

(y se llaman moriscos). Por hecho de que terminaron la Reconquista, y que hicieron la

Inquisición y hacer que España es una península católica, Alexander VI dio el nombre de “Los

Reyes Católicos” a Ferdinand y Isabel in el 1494, el nombre que les llamamos hoy en día y como

los comuneros en La Constitución se dirigen al Rey y la Reina. (Kamen 35) Una religión

compartida por todo España se mantenían unidos los españoles. (16th Century Spain)

Con el reino de Castilla en las manos de estos Reyes Católicos, Castilla empezó a

recuperarse de la crisis de Henry IV y ganar un poco de dinero. Con tasas (la acabala) y el

encabezamiento, se financió la Casa Real, el ejercicio, y otras cosas relacionadas con el reinar de

Castilla. En 1492, Cristóbal Colón descubrió a América, que se llamaron los Indias en este

tiempo. Con esta nueva tierra, España empezó a tener importaciones para ganar más dinero y

crecer el reino. (Kamen 54) También en esta época había algo de orgullo en Castilla y lo que

habían hecho los Reyes Católicos. Se han convertido a todos al cristianismo, la península era casi

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un solo reino, y se ha descubierto nueva tierra. Una identidad cultural se formó en Castilla.

(Kamen 57) En España, había más universidades nuevas, donde se animó a los estudiantes para

estudiar el latín – una lengua de la biblia y también una lengua de pensamiento. También había

orgullo por su lengua, el castellano, porque se hicieron un libro de gramática del castellano y un

diccionario entre el latín y el castellano. (16th Century Spain) Este orgullo queda hoy en día,

porque mucha gente cerca del centro de lo que había el reino de Castilla aún llaman a la lengua

española “el castellano”. Se miraban bien a todo lo que hicieron los Reyes Católicos, y

actualmente los españoles siguen teniendo buena opinión de ellos. (Kamen 60) Al final de siglo

XV, Castilla se había convertido en el centro de gravedad demográfico y político en la península

ibérica.

Durante su tiempo de reinar, Ferdinand y Isabella tenían unos bebés, y una de las cuales

se llamaba Juana. Ella se casó con Maximiliano I, el hijo del emperador de Habsburgo. Se

casaron por razones políticas – con la subida del reino de Castilla y el poder de Habsburgo, la

combinación estaría muy poderosa. Algunos dicen que este matrimonio era lo más significativo

para el futuro de Castilla en toda la historia de España. (16th Century Spain) Pero la parte

significativa no viene de este matrimonio específico de Maximiliano y Juana, sino que viene de

su hijo, Carlos I, que se llamaba como su bisabuelo. Él vivió toda su infancia en Holanda con

tres de sus hermanas – los otros dos se quedaron en Castilla. (Kamen 62)

En el día 26 de Noviembre del año 1504, Isabel falleció. Su muerte no era por razones de

enfermedad, sino por razones de estrés de problemas de salud con sus hijos y vejez. Después de

esto, Ferdinand se reinó hasta su muerte en 1516. La nueva Reina era Juana, la tercera hija de

Ferdinand y Isabel. Sus hijos mayores se murieron antes, y Juana era la próxima en línea para

reinar. El nuevo Rey era su hijo, Carlos I compartió su reinado con su madre en Castilla y de

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Bruselas. (Kamen 62) Pero Juana no podía reinar porque tenía una enfermedad de la mente y era

loca, y tenía que vivir en aislamiento en Tordesillas. Carlos I tenía casi todos los derechos del

trono, aunque todo lo que dijo el trono era de la Reina Juana y su hijo, el Rey Carlos. Por eso, los

castellanos no confiaron en su nuevo Rey – pensaban que él no cuidaba bien de su madre, la

Reina (o, Juana la loca, como le llamamos hoy en día). En La Constitución, el primer capítulo

habla de la enfermedad de Juana, y urge que se busca un remedio porque el Rey Carlos no estaba

haciendo mucho para cuidarla. (Seaver 143, 173)

Pero la falta de confianza en Carlos no se detiene aquí con solo la presunta negligencia de

su madre, Juana. Carlos solo tenía 17 años cuando subió al trono en el año 1517. No pasó mucho

tiempo en el reino de Castilla. Tampoco hablaba el español, solo el flamenco y el francés y sus

consejeros eran flamencos. Cuando un arzobispo se murió, Carlos puso un flamenco en la

posición que tenía 20 años que se llamaba Adriano. Todos estos rasgos de Carlos eran el opuesto

de los grandes Reyes Católicos que acaban de mejorar el reino de Castilla. (Kamen 74) Carlos

quiso que los súbditos se llaman a él “su Majestad” en vez de “su Alteza”, el nombre que usaban

los Reyes Católicos. Vemos en La Constitución que hay mucho uso de “su Alteza” y de “su

Majestad”. Quizás los comuneros no estaban acostumbrados a este nuevo título o quizás

quisieron hacer una declaración de sus opiniones sobre el uso de “su Alteza”. También, los

castellanos quisieron que el hijo Ferdinand fuera su nuevo Rey, quien vivió en Castilla. Con tan

buena época con los Reyes Católicos y el orgullo para su reino de Castilla, todo lo que era

extraño no les gustaba a los castellanos. Por todo eso, los castellanos no tenían ninguna fe en

Carlos. (Kamen 63) Una de las primeras protestas públicas sobre el Rey Carlos dijo “Tú, tierra

de Castilla, muy desgraciada y maldita eres al sufrir que un tan noble reino como eres, sea

gobernado por quienes no te tienen amor.” (Luis Díez 7), lo que refiere a su Rey indiferente.

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El abuelo de Carlos, Maximiliano, falleció en el 1519 y se nombró el Rey Carlos como

Sacro Emperador Romano el 27 de Junio. Con esto, su nombre se cambió a Carlos V porque era

el quinto de los Sacros Emperadores Romanos. Su posición como Sacro Emperador Romano

hizo que tenía que viajar por todos lados del Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico y no pasaría

mucho tiempo en su reino de Castilla. Pero este título no venía limpiamente, sino que se

sobornaron a los electores en la elección, usando mucho dinero de la Hacienda castellana. Este

dinero y el gran coste de la Corte flamenca de Carlos puso mucho estrés en los fondos de la

Hacienda Real. En 1520, antes de salir de España por su posición de Sacro Emperador Romano,

Carlos convocó las Cortes en Santiago. Puso nuevas tasas, que se llama “el servicio”, y

corregidores en las Cortes a quienes Carlos podía sobornar. (Haliczer 159) Carlos fue de España

en mayo de 1520, dejando los castellanos enojados con su Rey y buscando una solución para su

querida Castilla. El propósito de estos castellanos tenía tres goles: “Se debía rechazar cualquier

nuevo servicio, convenía el rechazo al Imperio en favor de Castilla y en el caso de que el Rey no

tuviera en cuenta a sus súbditos, las Comunidades deberían defender los intereses del reino.”

(Pérez 39-40) Aquí empezó el uso de la palabra “comunidad” en la lucha contra el Rey Carlos y

de donde viene una parte del título de La Constitución.

Empezó una rebeldía en Toledo. Ellos no quisieron que Carlos fuera el Sacro Imperio

Romano, y han estado enojado con el Rey por muchos años antes. Se quitaron los regidores que

fueren a la Corte en Santiago y formó un nuevo gobierno, elegido por los comuneros. Se llamó a

si mismo una comunidad en contra del poder flamenco del Rey Carlos. (Pérez 39-40) En otras

ciudades de España, los procuradores en la Corte de Santiago que han votado a favor del servicio

nuevo eran matados por los comuneros. Todo de España había en desorden total, el opuesto de

cómo Isabel dejó su reino cuando falleció. (Kamen 76)

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Las comunidades y ciudades en Castilla empezaron a reunirse en su lucha contra el Rey y

el mejoramiento de España. Toledo convocó una Junta General en Ávila que se llamaba la Santa

Junta de Comunidad de Ávila, de la cual se habla mucho en La Constitución. La primera sesión

no fue un gran éxito, pero más regiones y comunidades de España empezaron a asistir la Santa

Junta. En septiembre de 1520, algunos 14 de las 18 ciudades que tenían voto en las Cortes fueron

a la Junta y también algunas regiones sin voto pero que querían mejorar Castilla. “Todos están

juntos por el bien de todo de España.” (Kamen 77) La mayoridad de los procuradores eran

elegidos por la gente común – no eran los procuradores flamencos del pasado que habían

elegidos por el Rey Carlos. La idea de “comunidad” que ha empezado exclusivamente en Toledo

ahora representaba el soporte entre los castellanos y su unidad. Se refleja este nuevo significado

de la palabra en el título del documento traducido La Constitución de las Comunidades de

Castilla. Este título muestra la unidad que tenían los comuneros de Castilla en este tiempo y su

voz unificada. “Sin duda, bajo las superficie de la rebelión comunera … hervía (había) el

propósito, no de conservar libertades amenazadas, … sino de innovar fundamentalmente la

constitución de España.” (Maravall 91)

Aunque parece que el reino de Castilla estuviera unificado contra el Rey Carlos, solo los

campesinos estaban juntos. Ellos necesitaban el soporte de los ricos, de los aristócratas, para

tener una voz en las Cortes y una voz que podía oír el Rey. A los aristócratas no les gustaban los

flamencos de las Cortes ni que el Rey Carlos nunca estaba presente en el reino. A pesar de su

apoyo por la causa de los comuneros, los aristócratas nunca hicieron nada por miedo al gobierno

y los comuneros rebeldes. La Reina Juana, aún así con su enfermedad y la negligencia de su hijo,

el Rey, animó a los comuneros pero nunca quiso firmar nada. (Kamen 77)

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Pese a que no tenían ningún apoyo de los ricos, los comuneros demandaron muchas cosas

de su nuevo Rey Carlos I. La Constitución es el documento que se escribió la comunidad de

Valladolid para sus procuradores que fueron a la Junta General en Ávila. En esta Santa Junta y

en Tordesillas en noviembre de 1520, los súbditos del reino de Castilla hicieron estas peticiones

al Rey y muchas de ellas están en La Constitución. Escribieron muchos capítulos de sus

demandas, y podemos ver estos capítulos en La Constitución. (Seaver 137) La idea general era

que quierían que los flamencos en las Cortes y la Casa Real se fueran del reino. Que los grandes

gastos de la Casa Real y del Rey se acabaran. Que se revocaran las mercedes que hizo el Rey.

Que se redujeran las alcabalas, conforme con lo que estuvieron durante el tiempo de los Reyes

Católicos. Que el Rey Carlos se casara con la Señora Infanta de Portugal, en quien los

castellanos tenían confianza. Que las Cortes tuvieran poder en el gobierno, no solo el Rey. Que

los procuradores estuvieran elegidos por los comuneros. Que hubiera una Junta cada tres años.

Que los que tienen puestos en el gobierno hicieran una residencia (una evaluación). (Seaver 138)

Con estas demandas y algunas más que están relacionadas con ellas, los comuneros hicieron una

petición unificada a su Rey. La mayoridad de estas demandas reflejan cosas que se hicieron en el

tiempo de los Reyes Católicos porque este tipo de reinar se consideró como lo ideal tipo de

reinar en Castilla. (Kamen 78) “Que les cumple los cuales dichos capítulos y …. en todo aquello

que conviniere a servicio de Dios, nuestro Señor, y de sus Majestades y bien común de estos sus

Reinos y Señorios.” (La Constitución, párrafo final)

Al principio, Carlos no se dio cuenta lo gran tamaño que estuvo la rebelión. Pero

Adriano, el arzobispo flamenco que Carlos eligió dijo al Rey que debe escuchar a esta demandas

porque la rebelión era real y era grande. Primero, Carlos quitó el servicio y puso nuevos

gobernadores que eran castellanos. Se echaron los contables malos de la Hacienda. Pero la

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radicalización de la rebelión y de los comuneros hizo que los nobles que tenían ejércitos dijeron

que lucharían para el Rey y contra la gente común. (Haliczer 185) Con estos ejércitos, una

pequeña guerra contra los comuneros empezó – la Guerra de los Comunidades de Castilla. En el

5 de diciembre de 1520, los nobles y sus ejércitos tomaron por la fuerza a Tordesillas y alguna

gente de la Junta General. (Seaver 203) La disputa continuó en abril de 1521 hacia Villalar,

cuando los ejércitos de la aristocracia venció al ejército de los comuneros y ejecutó algunos de

sus lideres. También había una batalla en Toledo, donde empezó la rebelión, pero en febrero de

1522 los comuneros rindieron al ejercito de la nobleza. (Kamen 79)

Sorprendentemente, cuando Carlos regresó a España en 1522, las batallas se acabaron y

la rebelión se calló. Carlos firmó un perdón general a los comuneros rebeldes, aunque ya había

ejecutados algunos 22 de la rebelión. Este fin tranquilo de la rebelión y la merced del Rey hizo

que los comuneros pusieran su confianza en el nuevo Rey. También, más de las demandas de la

Junta se hicieron, como una Junta General de las comunidades cada tres años. Pero la victoria en

la guerra se estableció que el Rey Carlos tenía poder en el reino de Castilla y él puso muchas

restricciones en los poderes de las comunidades en las Cortes, probablemente por miedo de los

comuneros. Pero no había otra rebelión contra el Rey porque Carlos empezó a comunicar con

todo el reino y colaborar con ellos. (Kamen 81)

Carlos se quedó siete años en Castilla desde el año 1522. Se casó con la Infanta Isabel de

Portugal, como los comuneros le pidieron en La Constitución. Viajó por todo España al gusto de

los castellanos, porque los Reyes Católicos solían viajar por España así. Con estas cosas y los

reformes que Carlos hizo, el Rey ganó la confianza de los comuneros. (Kamen 65) Por ser

flamenco, Carlos reinó mucho de Holanda, y esta parte de Europa perteneció al reino de España.

También, el título y el poder de que Carlos era el Sacro Emperador Romano hizo que España

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tuviera mucha influencia. Con esta posición, Carlos se relacionó con los españoles, porque todos

estaban unidos bajo el defender de la fe católica. (16th Century Spain) Parece que la lucha y el

odio entre los comuneros y su Rey Carlos se ha desaparecido y la paz regresó al reino de

Castilla.

El impacto de La Constitución Política de las Comunidades de Castilla se puede ver en

la historia de la península ibérica. Antes de esta rebelión, España prosperó bajo el reino de los

Reyes Católicos – el Rey Ferdinand y la Reina Isabel. La fe católico unificó la península y los

súbditos tenían mucha confianza en sus Reyes. Cuando ellos fallecieron, empezó a reinar el

nuevo Rey Carlos y también venían los problemas de tener un Rey flamenco. Sin poder

comunicar con y poner confianza en su nuevo Rey, una rebelión de los comuneros empezó y se

escribió La Constitución para expresar las demandas de la gente común. Aunque los comuneros

se perdió la guerra contra los ejércitos del Rey, había una reforma en el reino y la confianza en el

trono se regresó en Castilla. El poder que tenía La Constitución es evidente, y ha tenido una gran

huella en la historia de España.

“Que nuestra intención es que se mire el bien público de estos Reinos y se remedien los agravios

y exorbitancias pasadas, pues que en ésto consiste el servicio de Dios y de la Reina y Rey, su

hijo, nuestros señores.” (Prólogo, La Constiticuíon)

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Una comparación entre el castellano antiguo y el español moderno usando La Constitución Política de las Comunidades de Castilla como ejemplo

Los idiomas son vivos. Hemos visto una y otra vez que ellos crecen, se transforman, y

adaptan al mundo cambiante, igual a los seres vivos. Se puede ver los cambios de un ser vivo en

unas fotografías, pero para los idiomas tenemos documentos que marcan cambios. Por cierto, los

idiomas no crecen tan rápidamente como seres vivos, pero con tan larga esperanza de vida,

pueden tomar más tiempo en crecer. En este ensayo, vamos a estudiar un texto antiguo del

castellano para examinar este fenómeno de las lenguas transformándose. La Constitución política

de las Comunidades de Castilla es un texto del principio del siglo XVI, que ha sido traducido del

castellano de esta época al español que se habla hoy en día. Con estos dos documentos, lo

antiguo y lo moderno, podemos ver cambios en la ortografía, fonética, y vocabulario en los

últimos 500 años y la influencia del reino de Castilla y su dialecto en el español moderno.

También veremos el desarrollo del español y su crecimiento como un ser vivo.

Historia del documento

Para mejor entender nuestro ejemplo de castellano antiguo, hay que explicar de que se

trata. La Constitución política de las Comunidades de Castilla es sobre lo que dice el título – es

una constitución escrito por la gente común de Castilla. ¿Por qué una constitución escrito por la

gente y no el gobierno? Este documente se escribió alrededor de los años 1520s por

consecuencia de Carlos I, el rey nuevo y flamenco. Antes de Carlos vino a Castilla, la

Reconquista se terminó en el 1492 y el último estado islámico se desapareció. También, la Reina

Isabel reinó en Castilla. Isabel y su marido, Ferdinand II, unificaron a España en estos días,

cambiaron el gobierno, bajaron la cantidad de crímenes, y eliminaron las deudas en el reino.

(Isabella I) Todo estaba casi perfecto para los castellanos. Cuando Isabel se murió, Carlos vino a

reinar en Castilla en el 1517. Él solo tenía relación a la corona española por conexiones de su

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madre. Carlos no sabía como hablar el castellano ni tampoco tenía mucha interés en ayudar a la

gente común de Castilla. A petición de los castellanos, Carlos y sus súbditos llegaban a un

acuerdo para que los castellanos reciban bien a su nuevo rey. Carlos tenía que aprender el

castellano, no dar oficios a los extranjeros sino a los nativos del reino, y no sacar pierda preciosa

de Castilla. Por cierto, al ser un rey de otro país y no tener ningún interés en Castilla, Carlos

rompió estos acuerdos con los castellanos. (Kamen 74)

Con una gran diferencia entre la Reina Isabel y el nuevo Rey, y sus promesas rotas –

como muchos extranjeros (flamencos) trabajando en la Casa Real y mucho impuesto – había una

rebelión en el reino de Castilla desde el 1520 hasta 1522. Hoy en día, esta rebelión antiseñorial

se llama la Guerra de las Comunidades de Castilla, o la revuelta. (Conflictos Exteriores De

Carlos I. ) La gente común odiaba a Carlos y su apatía en el reino de Castilla. Por eso, los

comuneros escribieron esta constitución, para que el rey y los que trabajaban en la Casa Real y el

gobierno supieran sobre lo que la gente realmente quería. Esta constitución se escribió en

Valladolid, una ciudad al centro de la revuelta. Es un texto muy interesante porque hay muchas

peticiones dirigidas al rey Carlos que son muy innovadores aún hoy en día. Pero para nuestra

meta de analizar, lo que nos interesa más es la huella del lenguaje antiguo en esta constitución.

Al ser un documento político, una constitución dirigida a un rey, este texto es muy formal

y tiene mucho vocabulario específico a la política. Esta formalidad nos ayudará en ver las

diferencias en el castellano y el español moderno, porque no hay mucha jerga en un documento

formal. A pesar de eso, no había una Real Academia del Español (RAE) en el siglo XVI, y se

van a ver faltas y cambios en la ortografía (por ejemplo, “hacer” había escrito “fazer” y “hazer”

en el documento). Estas diferencias ortográficas nos muestran una fuente entre el origen de la

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palabra (normalmente el latín) y el español moderno. Como ya hemos comentado, las lenguas

son vivas, y este documento es un solo fragmento de la vida del español.

Una pequeña historia del castellano

Este texto estaba escrito en los reinos de Castilla, entonces los rasgos fonéticos y

ortográficos van a tener rasgos castellanos. Estos rasgos aún podemos ver en el dialecto

castellano actual. Antes de la Reconquista, el sur de España tenía una parte islámica. Cuando los

musulmanes fueran expulsados de España en el año 1492 en la Reconquista por gente del reino

de Castilla, el dialecto castellano empezó a afectar a todos los otros dialectos del español. Por su

poder político y mucha literatura de la región, los rasgos castellanos se extendieron hasta todo

España. (Penny 19) Es cierto que ahora hay un dialecto andaluz, pero que mucho de los rasgos

del español moderno que hablamos hoy en día vienen del castellano antiguo. De hecho, la parte

antigua de este texto es muy fácil leer si se sabe el español porque las diferencias ortográficas

son pequeñas. Y aunque son pequeños en la magnitud de cambios, este documento y el español

escrito en esta época nos muestra cómo el español ha cambiado desde el latín y por qué. Ahora,

vamos a ver ejemplos concretos de estos cambios.

Las conjunciones “e”, “y”

“…su rrey e Señor natural…”

“…natural e aquellas…”

“…procurarlas y allegarlas …”

“…cibdades y procuren…”

“…su rey y señor natural…”

“…natural, y aquellas…”

“…procurarlas y reunirlas…”

“…ciudades y procuren…”

El texto antiguo está al lado izquierdo y lo moderno, a la derecha. Vemos que se usaba la

“e” y la “y” en lo antiguo como una conjunción. En el fragmento antiguo, se ve que los dos tipos

de conjunciones se usan cualquier contexto – antes de una vocal o consonante. No hay ningún

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patrón con la “y” y la “e” como hoy en día hay. Las dos vienen del latín, de et, que es la

conjunción “y” (“and”) en latín. Al principio, se usaba la “e” más que la “y” por su raíz latina.

Pero, en casos donde había una vocal después de la conjunción “e”, la cambiaron a una “y”. Por

ejemplo “e ella” se convirtió a “y ella” porque la “y” tiene un sonido como “i”, lo cual es casi

igual que la “e”. (Penny 245) Este cambio hace que no hay dos vocales similares juntas y que no

se pierde el sonido de la conjunción o combinarlo con la “e” que sigue en la próxima palabra.

Con tiempo, la “y” se volvió a la conjunción más usada. En nuestro texto antiguo, los escritores

no tenían una regla en concreta de cuando usar la “e” o la “y”. Es probable que estuvieran en un

tiempo de cambio – entre lo antiguo de usar la “e” casi todo el tiempo, y lo nuevo cuando era

más normal usar la “y”. De hecho, el uso de las dos es casi igual. Según Voyant, un programa en

línea que hace análisis de las palabras y frecuencias en un texto, hay 551 apariencias de la “e” y

algunos 405 de la “y” en el texto antiguo. (Voyant)

En términos fonéticos, las reglas de hoy sobre esta conjunción tienen mucho sentido.

Usamos siempre la “y”, aparte de cuando hay una “i” al principio de la palabra que sigue, y aquí

es donde usamos la “e” que viene del español antiguo. Eso es porque la “y”, al ser una sola letra

como conjunción tiene el mismo sonido de una “i”, y para eliminar esta misma dificultad al tener

dos vocales iguales juntas, hacen lo que hicieron también en el español antiguo de nuestro texto

y cambian la “y” a una “e”. Por ejemplo, la frase “Iker y ella” [ikeɾ i eʝa] al revés no se puede

escribir “ella y Iker”* [eʝa i ikeɾ] porque las dos “i” sonidos se juntarían. Esta frase tiene que ser

“ella e Iker” [eʝa e ikeɾ] para conservar la conjunción. Por cierto, si hubiéramos a seguir usando

la “e” del español antiguo, tendríamos que cambiarlo a otra conjunción al aparecer antes de otra

“e”. Nuestra regla de hoy funcionaría también con la conjunción antigua, pero por razones un

aumento de usar la “y”, hemos quedado con esta conjunción.

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La cedilla “ç” y su relación con la “z” y la “c”

“…que tenia doze o quinze mill…”

“…es en perjuizio de la cosa…”

“…del arçobispado de toledo …”

“…tenía doce o quince mil…”

“…es en perjuicio de la cosa…”

“…del Arzobispado de Toledo…”

En el español antiguo, vemos que se usaba la “z” antes de una “e” o una “i” donde hoy en

día hay una “c”. También, había una letra que no se usa ahora, la “ç” con cedilla, donde hoy en

día hay una “z”. Si pensamos en el dialecto actual de castellano, estos “z” y “ç” en lo antiguo

reflejan donde hoy en día hay una “ce”, “ci”, o “z” en la ortografía y el fonema [θ] interdental

fricativa sorda. En el texto antiguo, la combinación “ze” 83 veces, “zi” 41 veces, y la “ç” 28

veces. El moderno tiene “ze” algunas pocas 4 veces, la “ce” 226 veces, y no hay nada de la “zi”

ni la cedilla “ç”. (Voyant)

En el español antiguo, la “z” representaba un sonido como “dz” y la “ç” el sonido “ts”. Se

usaba la “ç” donde había una “c” antes de “i” o “e” para indicar que representaba este sonido

“ts”, y las “c” antes de “a”, “o”, o “u” tenía el sonido de una [k]. Esta pronunciación de la “ç”

con cedilla (ts) era tan similar a lo de la “z” (dz) que en los años 1400 hasta 1600, se juntaron en

un solo fonema en Castilla – los sonidos se neutralizaron. (American Heritage Dictionaries 59)

El dialecto castellano desarrolló a contener este sonido [θ] cuando en el sur de España, la “ç” se

convirtió en una “s”. De estos cambios viene el ceceo del castellano y el seseo del andaluz.

(Penny 66)

El verbo “hacer” y “fazer”

“…devian e devan fazer…”

“…ha de hazer y haze contra…”

“…lo deve de hacer en las…”

“…debían y deben hacer…”

“…ha de hacer y hace contra…”

“…lo debe de hacer en las…”

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En estos ejemplos, vemos que el verbo “hacer” en español moderno había escrito en tres

maneras diferentes en el español antiguo de este texto– “fazer”, “hazer”, y “hacer”. “Hacer”

viene de la palabra latina facere. (Penny 90) Estas diferencias ortográficas nos indican que en el

tiempo de este texto, el verbo “hacer” estaba cambiado de su raíz latina hasta el verbo que

tenemos hoy en día. En Voyant, vemos que en este texto hay la forma de “fazer” 7 veces,

“hazer” algunas 103 veces, y “hacer” 3 veces. (Voyant) Ya hemos hablado sobre los cambios

relacionados con la “c” y la “z” en el español antiguo. Pero, ¿de dónde viene este cambio de “f”

a “h”?

Hay muchas palabras similares a “hacer” (de facere) que tienen una “h” hoy donde había

una “f” en la palabra latina. En la historia del español, había un cambio en la ortografía en

palabras con la letra “f”. Aunque la razón exacta no es conocida (hay muchas teorías), la “f”

cambió a una “h” en el español antiguo. (Penny 93) Luego, esta fonema /h/ tenía dos alófonos –

antes de una [w] o /ɾ/ se pronunció como el sonido [f], y en cualquier otro caso era una [h].

(Penny 93) Por eso, la palabra “fazer” se convirtió en “hazer” por el cambio de la “f” a una “h”

en la ortografía y se pronunciaba como [h] porque no está antes de una [w] o /ɾ/.

La “h” en general (especialmente en los verbos hacer y haber)

“…que ha avido …”

“…por hodio y henemistad…”

“…e sus thenientes e otros…”

“…que ha habido…”

“…por odio y enemistad…”

“…y sus tenientes y otros…”

Actualmente, la “h” no se pronuncia nunca. Pero en el texto antiguo, a veces hay una “h”

donde no debe estar y a veces la “h” no está cuando sí debe estar aquí (según las reglas del

español moderno). Estas diferencias ortográficas se relacionan con este cambio de la “f” al

fonema /h/ con dos alófonos, la [f] y la [h]. Luego, empezaron a no decir la “h” por razones

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dialectales. En estos tiempos en el norte de España (en Castilla) no se decía la “h”, aunque en

algunos otros lugares (como Toledo) aún se la pronunciaba. Después de la Reconquista, una gran

cantidad de gente del norte de España se movieron hasta Madrid (la nueva capital española en

1561) y el centro de España, y ellos trajeron esta tendencia de no pronunciar la “h”. Luego, los

madrileños empezaron a no decirla y sigue así hoy en día. Lo que es interesante es que nuestro

texto estaba escrita antes de Madrid era la capital, pero en una zona donde no se decían la “h”.

Por eso, nuestro texto contiene la raíz de esta tendencia antes de que se convirtió en lo normal en

España. (Penny 45-46)

La “b” y la “v”

“…y de los escrivanos…”

“…en la forma como se Reboquen…”

“…porque bibiendo asi como…”

“…y de los escribanos …”

“…n la forma como se revoquen…”

“…porque viviendo así como…”

En estos fragmentos de texto la “b” está donde ahora hay una “v”, y a veces al revés

también. Ahora, la “v” y la “b” representan el mismo fonema /b/ (que luego tiene dos alófonos,

la [b] y la [β]). Pero en el español antiguo, la “v” y la “b” no tenían un sonido igual, eran

fonemas distintos. La “b” era bilabial oclusiva sonora con el fonema /b/ y la “v” era bilabial

fricativa sonora con el fonema /β/. Por eso, “escribanos” en el antiguo y ahora serían iguales

fonéticamente, [eskɾiβanos]. Pero, “viviendo” serían diferentes - [bibjen̪d̪o] en el antiguo y

[biβjen̪d̪o] en lo moderno. ¿Por qué las dos letras representan el mismo fonema hoy en día?

La diferencia fonética entre las letras se perdió (aunque aún siguen los alófonos) porque

había una neutralización entre la letra “b” y “v”. Se lo ve en la poesía del siglo XVI, cuando los

poetas usaban palabras como “cabe” y “suave” en una rima. Después del año 1550, no había

diferencia entre las dos letras. Los alófonos [b] y [β] aún tienen estas diferencias, pero ahora la

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regla de cuando usar uno alófono u otro depende en dónde está la letra “b” o “v”. (Penny 97) De

repente, hoy en día puede ser errores con la ortografía de palabras con “b” o “v”, porque en la

traducción al español moderno aún hay palabras como “revoquen” donde el traductor puso

“roboquen” como estaba escrito en la ortografía del español antiguo. Actualmente, puede ser

difícil saber cual consonante usar entre las dos, porque realmente no hay una regla para cuando

usar uno u otro si no conoces la ortografía de la palabra.

Doble “rr”

“…e subditos de la Corona rreal…”

“…de la rreyna e rrey…”

“…que halla rresiden por quel …”

“…y súbditos de la Corona Real…”

“…de la reina y de su rey …”

“…que allá residen porque el…”

El fonema/r/ hoy en día se hace vibrante cuando una “r” está al principio de una palabra o

cuando hay “rr” entre vocales en una palabra. Con esto en mente, tiene sentido que la “rr” estaba

escrito al principio de una palabra por representa el mismo fonema actual de /r/. De hecho, este

doble “rr” viene de una doble “rr” en el latín. Por ejemplo, la palabra “torre” viene de la palabra

latina turres. Pero, en el latín, el silabeo de esta palabra sería tur.res con una “r” al final de sílaba

y una “r” para empezar la siguiente y un fonema /ɾɾ/. Para conservar esta doble “rr”, en el

español este sonido se convirtió a ser otro fonema, la /r/ vibrante múltiple mientras una sola /ɾ/ es

vibrante simple (aunque no hay vibración en decir una /ɾ/). Hacemos el sonido /r/ cuando hay

una “r” al principio de una palabra y en el español antiguo había una doble “rr” cuando había una

“r” al principio de una palabra. Ahora, no escribimos las dos “rr” si hay un sonido vibrante

múltiple al principio de una palabra, pero aún lo decimos como /r/, el fonema de una doble “rr”.

Podemos ver la raíz de esta tendencia en estos fragmentos del texto.

La “x” y la “j” y el ladino

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“…sus dichos y quexas e que se…”

“…ni que dexen de gozar…”

“…no hazen ni trabaxan…”

“…sus dichos y quejas y que se…”

“…ni que dejen de gozar…”

“…no hacen ni trabajan…”

En estos fragmentos del texto, hay unas “x” donde hoy en día se usan la “j” para

representar el fonema [x]. Además, si este documento hubiera sido escrito en Toledo y no en

Castilla, un verbo como “xugar” en Castilla sería “jugar” en Toledo. En Castilla, la “x”

representaba un fonema /∫/ que es palatal fricativa sorda y la “j” representaba una /ʒ/, palatal

fricativa sonora. Al tener un sonido tan similar, esta diferencia también se perdió en el castellano

(similar al caso de los sonidos /ʎ/ y /ʝ/). Los dos sonidos se neutralizaron y hoy en día se usa la

“j” para representar el sonido [x], y la “x” representa un sonido /ks/. (Penny 99) Pero si

pensamos en la palabra “México”, no se dice [meksiko] en español, sino [mexiko] como si

hubiera sido escrito “Méjico”. Esta pronunciación refleja al español antiguo.

Hay algo interesante sobre estos sonidos de /∫/ y /ʒ/ del español antiguo. Antes de escribir

este texto, se expulsaron todos los judíos. Por eso, los que hablan el español-judío, el ladino,

siguen haciendo los sonidos del español antiguo de la “x”. “Jugar” se pronuncia [∫uɣaɾ] y no

[xuɣaɾ]. También en el ladino las pronunciaciones de “ç” y de “v” y b”, sobre las cuales hemos

investigado antes, siguen iguales como en el español antiguo. (Penny 182) El ladino es una

preservación del español antiguo por razones de la expulsión de judíos. Vemos aquí también la

idea de la vivacidad de lenguas y que eventos históricos pueden afectar a la “vida” de una lengua

concreta.

Conclusiones

Esta constitución de los reinos de Castilla del años 1500 es un buen modelo que muestra

como el español ha cambiado en los últimos 500 años y de donde vienen estas palabras

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españolas. Hemos visto algunos siete ejemplos específicos de cambios en el español de este texto

(aunque hay muchos más en el texto), sus raíces latinas, los cambios en el español hablado, cómo

estos cambios están reflejados en la ortografía, y porqué las reglas fonológicas del español

moderno son como son a causa de estos cambios. Los cambios vienen de variaciones dialectales

de palabras, de neutralización de fonemas, y de influencias de otras culturas que estaban

conectadas con España. En muchos casos, el español moderno tiene una ortografía mejor, o por

lo menos más consistente. Es cierto que el español continuará a cambiar y crecer en el futuro,

hasta que un día podría ser una lengua muerta. Pero para ahora, el español está vivo, creciendo,

adaptándose, y vamos a poner nuestro huella escrita en español para que en 500 años la gente

pueda ver los cambios de esta lengua viva.

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