training o faded

Strengtheningthe Training ofAdult Educators

Learning from an Inter-regional Exchange of Experience

Report on the Workshop Held at the CONFINTEA Mid-term Review Conference,

Bangkok, Thailand, September 2003

Edited byFrank Youngman and Madhu Singh

The UNESCO Institute for Education, Hamburg, is a legally independent entity.While the Institute’s programmes are established along the lines laid down by theGeneral Conference of UNESCO, the publications of the Institute are issued underits sole responsibility; UNESCO is not responsible for their contents.

The points of view, selection of facts, and opinions expressed are those of theauthors and do not necessarily coincide with official positions of the UNESCO In-stitute for Education, Hamburg.

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publicationdo not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the UNESCOSecretariat concerning the legal status of any country or territory, or its authorities, orconcerning the delimitations of the frontiers of any country or territory.

© UNESCO Institute for Education, 2005Feldbrunnenstraße 5820148 HamburgGermany

ISBN 92-820-1138-0

IntroductionFrank Youngman and Madhu Singh

The Professional and Personal Development of Adult and Youth Educators in Latin America and the CaribbeanMagaly Robalino Campos

The Training of Adult Educators in Latin AmericaGraciela Messina and Gabriela Enriquez

Training Adult and Youth Educators: The Experience of the Academy of Adult Education, National University of Education, MexicoCarmen Campero

Improving the Quality of Training of Adult Education Practitioners in the South Asian Region: Some ConsiderationsAnita Dighe

Issues in the Training of Adult Educators: An African Perspective Stanley Mpofu

The Professional and Personal Development of Adult Education Practitioners in Northern EuropeAntra Carlsen

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Contents

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The successful implementation of theadult learning policies and programmes

envisioned in the Fifth International Con-ference on Adult Education (CONFINTEAV) depends in large measure on the avail-ability of knowledgeable, skilful, sensitiveand socially committed adult educators.The quality of adult learning programmesis influenced by the availability of com-petent personnel to develop, organise,promote, teach and evaluate modes oflearning of adults. The initial and contin-uing training for adult educators is there-fore of considerable importance.

CONFINTEA V established that adultlearning is of vital importance to adults asthey seek to transform their life circum-stances and exercise greater control overtheir lives. Adult educators are key agentsin the implementation of adult learning,but their concerns and training needs areoften neglected. The issue of training there-fore deserves greater emphasis and atten-tion, and the voices of adult educatorsneed to be given greater prominence innational and international discourses onadult education and learning.

Adult educators work in a wide vari-ety of organisational and social contextsas they organise, teach and support adultsin their learning activities. While this di-versity of roles and situations reflects thereality of adult learning settings, it alsopresents those who educate adults withsignificant conceptual and practical prob-lems of training. One such problem is thatnot everybody who works with adults in

learning activities identifies him- or her-self as an adult educator. For instance,health promoters or trade union activistsmay not identify themselves as adult edu-cators. There is no standard nomenclaturethat includes all those engaged in facilitat-ing adult learning. Even the term “adulteducator” is not universally accepted.

It is nevertheless clear that those whoeducate adults require a particular range ofcompetencies to be effective. These com-petencies are based on a defined body ofknowledge, skills and values, which in-clude such elements as adult psychology,teaching strategies, programme planning,research methods, social and politicalanalysis, sensitivity, empathy and toler-ance. It also forms the basis for the trainingof adult educators. Training needs can bemet by offering instruction in these ele-ments in appropriate contexts.

It is necessary to ensure that trainingmeets a variety of needs, ranging fromuniversity-level academic preparation toworkshops that strengthen the skills of so-cial activists. The needs of those workingin the non-formal education sector withyouths and adults require particular atten-tion, and it is important that issues ofequality, for example of gender and eth-nicity, are addressed. Open and distancelearning approaches also have great prom-ise of reaching large numbers of practi-tioners. Regional and international co-op-eration can help to develop the diverserange of training opportunities requiredto meet the broad spectrum of needs.

Introduction

Frank Youngman and Madhu Singh

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Differences in local contexts relatingto culture, political economics, adult edu-cation policies and traditions, etc., requirethat training be relevant to the local situa-tion. Training activities developed in onecontext may not be relevant in other con-texts. Consequently, it is essential that ca-pacity for research, knowledge productionand materials development is enhancedin the training of adult educators. Region-al and international co-operation can helpto overcome local constraints in the provi-sion of local training, while also helpingto generate the broad perspectives neces-sitated by globalisation. There is a needfor stronger networks to connect those en-gaged in the training of adult educators.

These issues formed the subject of athematic workshop at the CONFINTEA VMid-term Review Meeting held in Bang-kok, Thailand in September 2003. Theworkshop was based on the contributionsincluded in this booklet and involved animportant exchange of experience be-tween different regions. It also providedan opportunity to appraise developmentsin the training of adult educators sinceCONFINTEA V in 1997 and to proposean agenda for action in the period leadingup to CONFINTEA VI in 2009.

Background on the CONFINTEA VMid-term Review Meeting

The CONFINTEA V conference was alandmark event that provided importantguidelines for the future development ofadult education. One of the documentsthat emerged from the conference wasAgenda for the Future. It is a comprehen-sive document that makes detailed pro-posals for implementing the commitmentto a more significant global role for adulteducation and learning made in The Ham-

burg Declaration on Adult Learning. Itcontains a short section entitled, “Improv-ing the Conditions for the ProfessionalDevelopment of Adult Educators and Fa-cilitators” (UNESCO 1997: 14), whichsome maintain (e.g., Youngman 2000) didnot provide adequate recognition of theimportance of adult educators for the real-isation of CONFINTEA’s expanded visionof adult education. Well-prepared adulteducators are essential for programme de-velopment, implementation and evalua-tion. Therefore, the quality of their initialand continuing training is essential forachieving the goals of CONFINTEA V. Yetthis was not sufficiently recognised by theconference, a circumstance reflected inthe record of follow-up activities under-taken in the subsequent two years. In 1999the CONFINTEA Follow-up Report (UIE1999) noted that the training of adult edu-cators had been discussed at an Africanregional seminar in Zimbabwe, and wasalso identified as a core issue in adult ed-ucation for political and social democrati-sation in the Latin American region. How-ever, the report concluded that the statusof adult educators and their training wasone of a number of “neglected key areas”that needed to be more fully addressed inthe CONFINTEA V follow-up process (UIE1999: 67).

A number of initiatives undertakenimmediately after 2000 suggested that this“neglected key area” was still not receiv-ing the attention it deserved. The sixthWorld Assembly of the International Coun-cil for Adult Education (ICAE), which washeld in Ocho Rios, Jamaica, in 2001, in-cluded a workshop on “Training the Post-CONFINTEA Adult Educator” (Con-vergence 2001: 62–64). In this workshopit was proposed that the ICAE should es-tablish a network to focus on the training

Strengthening the Training of Adult Educators

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of adult educators and should support theinitiatives of bodies that promote training,such as the UNESCO Institute for Educa-tion (UIE). Indeed, the UIE has taken a lead-ing role in this area. The following threeexamples illustrate the range of activities ithas developed with different partners.

First, in 2001 the UIE entered into apartnership with the Institute for Interna-tional Co-operation of the German AdultEducation Association and the Depart-ment of Adult Education of the Universityof Botswana to develop a series of text-books entitled African Perspectives onAdult Learning. This project was initiatedin response to a lack of appropriate and ac-cessible textbooks for use in the profes-sional training of adult educators in tertiaryeducation institutions in Africa. It seeks todevelop relevant and affordable textbooksthat reflect African social realities, theoret-ical and cultural perspectives, policies andmodes of practise. Second, in 2002, in col-laboration with the Institute for Adult BasicEducation and Training of the Universityof South Africa, the UIE also initiated afive-country study into the use of distanceand open learning as a vehicle for the pro-fessional development of adult educators.The resulting book (Singh and McKay2004) contains detailed case studies fromAfrica and Asia and comprehensive pro-posals for using distance and open learn-ing in the training of adult educators andfield workers involved in literacy and non-formal adult education. The third exampleof the UIE’s activities in adult educationtraining was a study of the training of adulteducators in Latin America, which it com-missioned in 2003 from the Regional Cen-tre for Co-operation for Adult Education inLatin America and the Caribbean (CRE-FAL). This led to a proposal for a regionaltraining project (CREFAL 2003).

In addition to the work of the UIE,there is increasing evidence that nationalpolicies and institutional programmes aregiving greater prominence to the issue oftraining adult educators. For instance,Brazil’s National Plan for Education (2002)and Namibia’s National Policy on AdultLearning (2003) both emphasise trainingfor adult educators. Examples of institu-tional programmes include the work of theInstitute for Adult Basic Education andTraining at the University of South Africa,which has trained large numbers of litera-cy workers through distance and openlearning (Singh and McKay 2004), and theLearning 4 Sharing project of the NordicFolk Academy, which has developed newtraining programmes in three Baltic coun-tries (see Antra Carlsen’s chapter below).

The CONFINTEA V Mid-term ReviewMeeting

The workshop on adult educator trainingprovided an opportunity to review the de-velopments that had taken place since1997 and to identify future strategies forfollow-up action. The workshop focusedon current policy and practise, the variousroles and competencies of adult educa-tors, social recognition and accreditation,personal and professional development,and international co-operation and net-working.

These themes are addressed in the fol-lowing chapters within different regionalcontexts. The presentation of different sit-uations in Latin America and the Carib-bean, South Asia, Africa and Northern Eu-rope provides an inter-regional overviewof the trends, achievements and problemsin this field since 1997. It also providesan initial agenda for future action.

Introduction

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Strengths and weaknesses of currenttraining programmes

The chapters that follow show that a widevariety of training activities are being un-dertaken. For example, the chapter byGraciela Messina and Gabriela Enriquezshows that, in response to increasing de-mands in the Latin America region, manynew programmes and modes of trainingare being developed. Attention is drawnto programmes that concentrate on spe-cific themes, such as citizenship, indige-nous and peasant populations, work, gen-der, local development and literacy. Fivedifferent kinds of organisation are identi-fied as active in providing programmesfor the training of adult educators: a) gov-ernment institutions (at central and locallevels); b) universities and other tertiaryeducation institutions; c) civil society or-ganisations, such as NGOs and churches;d) private organisations; and e) regionaland international bodies, such as CREFALand UNESCO. Three types of training areoffered, namely initial training for thosewith no experience, continuing training forthose already employed, and courses forthose responsible for training adult educa-tors. These different types of training arediscussed in detail in Carmen Campero’schapter on the programmes offered by theAcademy of Adult Education at the Na-tional University of Education in Mexico.

However, while many programmesexist, they clearly do not provide opportu-nities for all those who need them andthere is often a lack of co-ordination be-tween them. In particular, most of thetraining offered is in-service training, thatis, for those already employed. By con-trast, initial training is relatively neglected.Furthermore, there are weaknesses withregard to the quality of training. Most in-service training is narrowly conceived and

basic, focussed, for example, on the im-plementation of a particular curriculum.Such training is often hurried and con-structed as a series of “events” (see thechapter by Magaly Robalino Campos) oras a “ritual” (see the chapter by AnitaDighe), rather than as an integrated pro-gramme of personal and professional de-velopment. Perhaps the greatest weaknessis that initial training, particularly in uni-versities, takes place separately from thein-service training by institutions imple-menting adult learning programmes.

A common approach to training adulteducators on a large scale is the cascadeapproach used in literacy campaigns inIndia and Bangladesh (see Dighe below).This involves providing initial training forselected resource persons who then be-come responsible for training others. Inthis way, training is provided all the waydown to grassroots level. The problemwith this approach is that it relies entirelyon a top-down process in which consider-able information is lost in transmission.

The chapters in this booklet also iden-tify the accepted basic concept of adultlearning as a problem in the training ofadult educators. Graciela Messina and Ga-briela Enriquez ask whether adult educa-tion should not combine different areas ofwork-related training and continuing edu-cation in a single field. With this idea inmind, they call for a more systematic col-lation of information on adult educators.

Based on identified weaknesses, thechapters conclude that there is a need formore innovative training programmesthat integrate theory and practise, enablecollaborative and participatory learning,encourage critical reflection, address thepersonal values of the adult educator,and show greater concern for adult edu-cation’s social and political role. The pro-


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grammes run by the Mexican Academyof Adult Education emphasise the neces-sity of reflecting socio-cultural realities andthe experiences of adult educators with-in educational practise (see the chapter byCarmen Campero). The Learning 4 Shar-ing project in Northern Europe, discussedin the chapter by Antra Carlsen, providesan example of new training programmesthat are innovative and learn from inter-national best practise. A key point of thisproject is that training should reflect andsupport the roles adult educators play.This involves building competencies ed-ucators require in order to work withlearners at different levels (see Campos).

Training programmes and the multipleroles of the adult educator

Although there is a popular perceptionthat equates adult education with literacyand basic education, the chapters in thisbooklet make clear that there are manydifferent types of adult educators, whoplay many different roles. For example, inhis chapter Stanley Mpofu provides a listof adult educators in the African contextthat ranges from training officers in thebusiness sector to extension workers in thepublic sector. However, not everybodywho works with adults in learning activi-ties identifies him- or herself as an adulteducator. In fact, Mpofu shows that thereis reluctance among many such workersto identify themselves with the field ofadult education. In Latin America, adulteducation is generally situated within thebroader field of popular education (seeMessina and Enriquez below). The term“adult educator” therefore encompassesfull-time professionals, part-timers work-ers and volunteers at the grassroots level,as well as community leaders and socialactivists. Their educational background

varies from degree-level university edu-cation to basic primary schooling.

Adult educators play extremely variedroles. Their tasks include teaching, organ-ising, counselling, evaluating, facilitating,coaching and mobilising students, as wellas researching and developing materials.But, as Dighe points out, those who workin areas such as health and agriculture usu-ally receive training only in their area ofspecialisation, training which seldomtakes account of the fact that their work in-volves facilitating adult learning. Indeed,there is a common misconception that “It’seasy to teach adults” and that hence thereis no need to be trained in this area. How-ever, the various contributions to thisbooklet reflect an increasing recognitionthat adult education is a complex and de-manding task that requires exposure toadult education as a field of study (seeMpofu below). The chapters provide aguide to the range of personal and profes-sional skills required by those workingwith adult learners. They also show thattraining programmes are finally becomingmore flexible and able to accommodate agreater range of target groups in terms ofcurricula and modes of delivery. This trendis illustrated by the Learning 4 Sharingproject described by Carlsen, a project thathas mapped the various roles of adult ed-ucators, identified the required skills, andthen developed curricula with relevantcontents and methods. It has provided dif-ferent curricula for the three countries inthe project, curricula which reflects the dif-ferent priorities of each country.

Recognition and professionalisation of adult educators

A number of chapters make the point thatadult educators often have low self-esteemas a result of low salaries, job insecurity,

Introduction

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limited training opportunities and lack ofprofessionalism. Campos and Carlsentherefore insist that professional and per-sonal development are inextricably inter-linked. In surveying Latin America andthe Caribbean, Campos suggests that lowesteem impacts not only on the effective-ness of educators’ work but also on theirphysical and mental health. In Latin Amer-ica the issue of training is situated in thewider context of social recognition for thework of adult educators. It is also linked tobroader issues of educators’ working con-ditions and shaping projects and curricu-lar reforms that affect their work. Withinthis context, the accreditation of trainingis important, because it provides a basisfor professional recognition and improvedremuneration. Accredited training in-cludes initial training in universities, in-service training and continuing educationconducted by autonomous agencies setup in the context of national programmes(see Campero; Messina and Enriquez).

An important development in theLatin American context is the trend to-wards integrating training programmes foradult and youth educators into profession-al development systems that apply both toschool teachers and out-of-school teach-ers of youths and adults. From this alteredperspective all the members of the teach-ing community are viewed as educatorswhose role is not only in the classroomand the education sector, but also in thecommunity and in political and socialcontexts (see Campos).

The long debate in the USA over pro-fessionalising the field of adult educationis also worth considering (Imel et al. 2000).This debate has centred on whether pro-fessionalisation is actually desirable, or isin fact a process that is elitist, exclusion-ary and likely to separate adult education

from communities and social movements.For those who see professionalisation asinevitable, the key issue is why and howto professionalise. The question of the na-ture of professionalisation is dealt with indetail in several of the chapters in thisbooklet. Messina and Enriquez suggestthat there may be different conceptions ofprofessionalism in the Latin Americancontext, and Mpofu refers to “narrow pro-fessionalisation” and the dangers it entailsfor the concept of adult education as avector of social justice, as advocated byCONFINTEA V. While there is no doubtthat the working conditions of adult edu-cators need to be improved, it may wellbe that trade unionism is a more appro-priate approach than conventional “pro-fessionalisation”. It is clear is that there hasbeen a trend since CONFINTEA V to-wards establishing a stronger link betweentraining and the wider issue of the statusand working conditions of adult educators.

National and institutional policies

The evidence of this booklet indicates alack of progress in national policies on thetraining of adult educators. Dighe refers toa shortage of national-level educationalpolices in South Asia that provide direc-tion for training content, methods and im-plementation. Messina and Enriquezpaint a bleak picture of Latin America,noting “the non-existence of a public po-litical recommendation on the training ofthe educators of adults. . . . Consequentlythere is no political support by the state forthe training of adult educators.” One ex-ception to this overall trend is the Nation-al Policy on Adult Learning in Namibia,mentioned by Mpofu. Adopted in 2003,this policy was a direct outcome of CON-FINTEA V. It contains an explicit commit-


ment by the government to initiate “acomprehensive review of professionaltraining needs and the adequacy of exist-ing training programmes in order to pro-duce a human resources developmentstrategy for adult learning personnel” (Re-public of Namibia 2002: 36).

It is difficult to provide a completeoverview of trends at the institutionallevel because the data is simply not avail-able. Nevertheless, two case studies in-cluded here do illustrate positive institu-tional environments: Campero shows thatthe programme development undertakenby the Academy for Adult Education hashad the support of the leadership of theNational University of Education in Mexi-co, while Carlsen reveals that the Learn-ing 4 Sharing project had the full supportof the Nordic Folk Academy. Withoutconsiderable further research it is not pos-sible to say whether developments at theinstitutional level are primarily the resultof initiatives by groups of committed adulteducators, as Messina and Enriquez sug-gest, or a reflection of policies formed atthe institutional level.

International co-operation and networking

This booklet cannot provide a completeoverview of international co-operationand networking in the area of adult edu-cator training; rather, it aims to give asense of the whole by focusing on a sev-eral regions. It is clear that Latin Americaand the Caribbean have a well-developedexchange mechanism for adult education,which is promoted by organisations suchas the Regional Office for UNESCO, theRegional Centre for Co-operation forAdult Education in Latin America and theCaribbean, and the Latin America Councilfor Adult Education. These organisations

convened preparatory meetings for CON-FINTEA V and have promoted follow-upmeetings on issues of training. Althoughthere is no network of institutions dedicat-ed exclusively to the training of adult ed-ucators, Messina and Enriquez point outin their chapter that the training of adulteducators is a cross-cutting theme that isgiven importance within existing regionalnetworks. The INNOVEMOS regionalnetwork, for example, deals with the pro-fessional development and training ofteachers in schools as well as educators ofadults. Similarly, Carlsen’s chapter de-scribes the regional training project Learn-ing 4 Sharing, which has been made pos-sible by the growing trend in Europe ofsupporting partnerships, international co-operation and sharing experience as partof a wider project of European integration.Her description of the project reveals les-sons to be learned for successful interna-tional co-operation and provides a sharpcontrast to large-scale educational reformprogrammes that have focused primarilyon infrastructure, textbooks and equip-ment (see Campos). All in all, it would ap-pear that international co-operation andnetworking with respect to the training ofadult educators—unevenly developed be-tween regions of the world—will dependto a large extent on the opportunities forcreating spaces for professional trainingexchanges within existing regional and in-ternational networks.

Future measures

This booklet describes the policies, pro-grammes and projects devoted to adulteducation training that have been put inplace in various parts of the world, andmentions several regional and internation-al meetings that have been held on thistopic in recent years. However, it also sug-

Introduction

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gests that not enough attention is beinggiven to the training of adult educators inmany national and regional agendas andthat where policies do exist they are notalways implemented. There is a clear de-ficiency of available training opportuni-ties. Of equal concern is that there are se-rious problems related to the conceptionand quality of many of the programmesthat are being offered. The nature of train-ing is often conceived in narrow, instru-mental terms for a limited clientele. Abroader concept of the adult educator isrequired, accompanied by an approach totraining that is concerned not only withthe skills but also with the personal char-acteristics and socio-political role of theadult educator. In this context, the Frenchword formation is perhaps more fittingthan the English word “training”. The the-matic workshop on training of adult edu-cators at the CONFINTEA V Mid-term Re-view Meeting proposed a number of fu-ture measures that should be undertakenprior to CONFINTEA VI in 2009. This willinvolve a process of monitoring and eval-uation in the period up to 2009 based onindicators of performance in each of theseaction areas. The main emphasis is onboth enhancing the quality of training foradult educators and strengthening theinter-regional exchange of experience.

First, it is clear that adult educatortraining (or formation) should be diversein nature in order to address the varietyof training needs that exists. But it shouldalso be systematic, providing opportuni-ties for qualification and certification, ac-cess to continuing training, and initialtraining. Given the typical background ofmany adult educators, it is important thatprior experience and learning should berecognised for qualification purposes.

In each national context there is a

need to define clearly the respective re-sponsibilities of the government, NGOs,training institutions and other stakehold-ers. Higher-education institutions have aspecial responsibility to develop adult ed-ucation as a field of study and practise atall levels, through teaching, research, con-sultancy and community service. To pro-vide the necessary direction and concen-tration of effort, a national statement onthe training of adult educators should beproduced by all the stakeholders. This is atask that might be undertaken under theauspices of a body such as the NationalCommission for UNESCO. The existenceof national statements will constitute oneindicator of progress in this area of action.Moreover, training of adult educatorsneeds to be embedded in national educa-tion reforms in which formal, non-formaland informal learning are linked. Thiswould involve embracing a broader rangeof educators and training modalities, andlinking the training of teachers in the for-mal system with the training of other adulteducators. This point emerges most clear-ly in the Latin American context, where infact the majority of those who teach youthsand adults are school teachers who re-ceive only rushed and poor-quality addi-tional training to prepare them for work-ing with adults (see Campos).

Secondly, evidence indicates thatthere is a need to transform training pro-grammes for adult educators so that theyare participatory and holistic and pro-mote critically reflective practise and acommon identity. They should also pre-pare adult educators to work with adultlearners who have special needs. Thistransformation would be aided if organi-sations responsible for adult educatortraining programmes shared their experi-ences of good practise and their expert-


ise in the development of new and re-vised training programmes. In particular,the potential of open and distance learn-ing, as well as of information and com-munication technologies, should be de-veloped. The relevant indicator here willbe evidence of new and revised curricu-la in training programmes.

Thirdly, in many contexts the statusof adult educators is a problem, as theylack recognition for the complex and de-manding work they undertake. For theachievement of the CONFINTEA goals,adult educators should have the same sta-tus as other educators, including appro-priate salaries, working and living condi-tions, and opportunities for continuingtraining. While it is important that gov-ernments and institutions adopt appropri-ate policies, adult educators themselvesshould be proactive in shaping nationaland institutional policies and in promot-ing their interests. This requires involve-ment with trade unions and the develop-ment of strong national associations ofadult educators. The promotion of nation-al associations is a task that can be appro-priately undertaken by the seven regionalmember organisations of the Internation-al Council for Adult Education. Relevantindicators here will be the existence andlevel of activity of national associations,as well as the existence of governmentand institutional policies that adequatelyrecognise adult educators.

Fourthly, there is a lack of compre-hensive information on the situation ofadult educators in most countries. Infor-mation is needed on the different types ofadult educators, their identity and pro-files, their numbers, their working and liv-ing conditions, their training needs, thekinds of training available, and other basicdata. A major inter-regional research proj-

ect is needed to provide a situationalanalysis for each region.

Fifthly, the central assumption behindthe push for improved training for adulteducators is that it will lead to better per-formance on their part, which will lead inturn to improvements in the quality ofadult learning programmes. Is there em-pirical evidence to support this assump-tion? Yes, but to strengthen the case forgreater investment in the training of adulteducators, research and evaluation stud-ies are still needed that a) define criticalindicators measuring the effectiveness oftraining programmes in improving theperformance of adult educators, and b)examine the role of adult educators in en-hancing the quality of adult learning pro-grammes. Clear indicators would con-tribute to the “Call for Action and Ac-countability” made at the CONFINTEA VMid-term Review Meeting (UIE 2003).

Finally, the proposed measures listedabove provide a rationale for increasedinter-regional co-operation and network-ing. Various forms of regional and inter-national co-operation make up importantactivities of the regional offices of UN-ESCO and of the UIE. In addition, manyother organisations, such as the Interna-tional Institute for Co-operation of theGerman Adult Education Association andthe International Council of Adult Educa-tion, are active within this field regional-ly and internationally.

Conclusion

The chapters in this booklet show that thehitherto neglected domain of adult edu-cator training has achieved greater visibil-ity worldwide as a result of CONFINTEAV and the follow-up process. But it alsopoints to the challenges involved in turn-

Introduction

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ing that new recognition into concretepolicies and programmes of action at re-gional, national and institutional levels.This booklet proposes an agenda of futureaction to be undertaken prior to CONFIN-TEA VI, and suggests how to monitor andevaluate progress. What is now requiredis decisive action by all concerned tomove this agenda forward.

References

Centro de Cooperación Regional para la Educa-ción de Adultos en América Latina y el Caribe(CREFAL). 2003. Teacher Training in Latin Ameri-ca and the Caribbean. In: Towards a State of theArt of Adult and Youth Education in Latin Ameri-ca and the Caribbean: Regional Latin AmericanReport for the CONFINTEA Mid-term ReviewConference, Bangkok, 35–50. Santiago: OficinaRegional de Educación para América Latina y elCaribe (OREALC), and Hamburg: UNESCO Insti-tute for Education.

Convergence. 2001. Training the Post-CONFIN-TEA Adult Educator. Convergence: Journal of theInternational Council for Adult Education 34(2–3): 62–64.

Imel, Susan, Ralph Grover Brockett, and W. B.James. 2000. Defining the Profession: A CriticalAppraisal. In: Handbook of Adult and ContinuingEducation, ed. by Arthur L. Wilson and ElisabethR. Hayes, 628–642. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Republic of Namibia. 2003. National Policy onAdult Learning. Windhoek: Ministry of Basic Ed-ucation, Sport and Culture.

Singh, Madhu, and Veronica McKay (eds.). 2004.Enhancing Adult Basic Learning: Training Educa-tors and Unlocking the Potential of Distance andOpen Learning. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute forEducation; Pretoria: University of South Africa.

UNESCO Institute for Education (UIE). 1997. TheHamburg Declaration and the Agenda for the Fu-ture. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education.

——. 1999. CONFINTEA Follow-up Report.Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education.

——. 2003. Recommitting to Adult Education andLearning. Synthesis Report of the CONFINTEA VMidterm Review Meeting. Hamburg: UNESCO In-stitute for Education.

Youngman, Frank. 2000. Training the Post-CON-FINTEA Adult Educator. Adult Education and De-velopment 54: 285–299.


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Teacher training is one of the most ur-gent and pressing issues facing the

Latin American and Caribbean region.Teachers are of vital importance in edu-cation reform efforts, yet their role con-tinues to be defined traditionally. For thisreason, in this chapter we shall highlightthe strengths and areas of progress inteacher training, the tensions in profes-sional and personal development, thetraining processes, and the pending chal-lenges in teacher training in the region.

Strengths and areas of progress inteacher training

In this section we consider the role teach-ers play in educational reform and em-phasise the importance of professional de-velopment in reform efforts. The acknowl-edgement that teachers play a vital role insuch efforts is one of the key advances inrecent educational history. There has longbeen a tendency for curricular and educa-tional reforms in Latin America and theCaribbean to focus primarily on providinginfrastructure, textbooks, equipment andlaboratories. While these and other inputsare fundamental, they are incapable ofimpacting on student learning without thedirect involvement of teachers.

This fact is recognised in the interna-tional declarations made at Jomtiem (1990)and Dakar (2000). In Latin America it was

also recognised in the calls for actionadopted in Santo Domingo (2003) throughthe Regional Education Project for LatinAmerica and the Caribbean (PRELAC, Ha-vana, 2002), as well as in the many na-tional and international forums that haveidentified teachers as a vital component oflarge-scale community and social educa-tional reform efforts.

PRELAC, which was established aspart of a commitment by various LatinAmerican and Caribbean governments toreaching the Millennium Goals of Educa-tion for All, has identified the need toplace teachers and their role at the fore-front of educational reform (Education forAll in the Americas 2000). It also recog-nises, without explicitly addressing theissue of teacher training, that it will be im-possible to create educational reforms ca-pable of generating substantive improve-ments in the quality of life of individuals,families and communities.

The majority of reform programmesundertaken so far have included initial andcontinuing teacher training as vital compo-nents. Although the content and processof professional development is still in de-liberation, its inclusion in reform pro-grammes is significant of itself, given thatthe role of teachers and teacher traininghad been largely ignored up to now. Cur-rent literature on teacher training shows in-teresting, although incipient, progress.

Professional and Personal Developmentof Adult and Youth Educators in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean

Magaly Robalino Campo

Although initial and continuing train-ing are essential elements, research indi-cates that there are several other factorsthat play just as important a role (HavanaDeclaration 2002). Among these are tech-nical and professional support, fairsalaries, administrative support, environ-ments that encourage continuous learn-ing, teachers’ self-esteem, interaction withstudents’ families and communities, au-tonomy and freedom to create, incentives,professional collaboration, attention to per-sonal needs and health, and participationin decision-making bodies in schools.Many of these factors are currently part ofthe discussion surrounding the teachingprofession. In fact, regional projects, suchas those implemented in Asia by UNESCOtogether with the International LabourOrganisation (ILO), recognise that, as awhole, teachers have little involvementin the definition of projects and curricularreforms that affect their work.

Challenges for the training of youthand adult educators

The difficulties involved in the profession-al development of teachers of youth andadults differ little from those involved inprofessional development in the formaleducational system. The following sectionpresents some of the main challenges inthe professional and personal develop-ment of teachers of youth and adults.

Lack of national education policies

A challenge common to both the formaland non-formal education sectors is thelack of national education policies thatprioritise lifelong teacher training as a keyfactor in national and community devel-opment. In general, reform efforts are re-active in nature and easily are influenced

by political trends. The lack of long-termperspective conflicts with the recent recog-nition of the primary role that teachersplay in educational change. On one hand,it is held that teachers are essential to suc-cessful education reform, yet on the otherhand their active participation in policiesand reform efforts is still pending.

Absence of adult education in nationalcurricular and education reform

The majority of proposals for educationalreform are almost exclusively focused onthe formal education sector. The educa-tion of youth and adults has yet to be con-sidered a priority. A large part of the ef-forts in this field are undertaken by non-governmental organisations or are de-signed as compensatory policies. Oftenthese efforts are unilateral and lack a co-hesive approach. In some countries, suchefforts are actually completely outside of-ficial Ministry of Education agendas or areonly tangentially incorporated (Campero2003).

Regardless of the ensuing results,when a country adopts a certain reforminitiative, it makes clear its intention toimprove an area it believes is not func-tioning or not functioning as well as isnecessary. Additionally, reform initia-tives reflect the government and educa-tion ministry’s priorities. Although theeducation of youth and adults has itsown specificities, it should be includedunder the auspices of national educationreforms to improve opportunities for thepopulation in general. As long as the ed-ucation of youth and adults remains onthe fringes of education policy, it willcontinue to be considered as “secondclass” education, or as a “poor educa-tion for the poor”, and will be given sec-ondary priority.


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Professional development in the formalvs. non-formal education sectors

Professional development efforts and re-forms in a majority of countries are fo-cused almost exclusively on the formalsystem. Moreover, when the issue of pro-viding teachers with professional develop-ment opportunities is broached, it is gener-ally assumed that the teachers in questionwork in traditional schools and colleges.

Only a few countries in the LatinAmerica and Caribbean region—amongthem Mexico, Colombia, Brazil and Ar-gentina—offer degrees in youth and adulteducation. The majority of those whoteach youth and adults are schoolteachersor people from other backgrounds whoreceive hurried compensatory training towork in this field. Their training is admin-istered directly by those in charge of theprogrammes in education ministries,NGOs, churches or relevant organisa-tions. National education agendas in mostof these countries do not address initial orcontinuing training for teachers of youthand adults (UNESCO 2000).

Although each education sector hasparticularities that should guide the pro-fessional development of its teachers, thegeneral needs of students and the de-mands of families and communities aresimilar to those that teachers at any levelencounter. All teachers should possess aknowledge of the curriculum, use method-ologies for constructivist learning, demon-strate creativity and an ability to adapt cur-riculum to students needs, should have anability to discern useful information and apositive attitude towards teamwork, havea sense of social responsibility, show own-ership over educational results and be ablecreate stimulating learning environments.A basic analysis quickly leads to the con-clusion that there are basic common skills

that any teacher needs in working withstudents at any level.

Creating programmes that respect theparticularities of each group of teachersdoes not require a fragmentation withinthe profession, but rather should involve amore holistic view of teachers’ profession-al development—as an integral componentin generating substantive improvementsin educational quality and equity.

Continuing professional developmentas a substitute for initial training

The education of youth and adults hasnot been a priority for policy makers.Similarly, the training of teachers in thisfield has not received significant consid-eration. The majority of these teachers, asmentioned earlier, lack specialised initialtraining and have varying degrees of aca-demic preparation. They range from thosewho moved from other areas of educationto those who received only basic school-ing and are willing to work for minimalsalaries in remote locations.

Studies show that the impact of initialtraining far outweighs that of continuingtraining (Tedesco and Fanfani 2002). Ateacher’s practise and pedagogical ap-proach is greatly influenced by the traininghe or she receives at a training institution.Continuing professional development, ac-companied by supervision and support isuseful only as long as there are basic skillspresent that allow teachers to continuelearning and revising their knowledgebase (LLECE 2002). If there are major gapsin their initial training, as is common in thetraining of teachers of youth and adults,continuing development must be of a veryhigh standard if it is to successfully helpteachers improve their performance.

Continuing training programmes havehad to suffice where initial training pro-

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Development of Adult and Youth Educators in Latin America and the Caribbean

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grammes are lacking. However, the qual-ity of these programmes varies greatly de-pending on the source. Overall, these ef-forts tend to be rather hurried, basic, attimes overstretched, and lack follow-upand technical assistance. Often there is noprocess to evaluate their impact and thereare no efforts to continue the process afterthe initial phase of completion. With theexception of a few programmes devel-oped by organisations explicitly commit-ted to improving the education of youthand adults, most teacher training systemsshow grave deficiencies.

Training as a succession of events

Training has been interpreted as a succes-sion of events whose focus varies with theexisting pedagogical or political current.Topics are often unrelated and do not di-rectly address the specific needs of teach-ers. There is a lack of pedagogical andtechnical support to help teachers contex-tualise what they are learning and makepermanent changes to their practise. Theselimitations are compounded by the weakuse of alternative and efficient teachingpractises such as study groups, teachernetworks, and exchanges between train-ing centres and teacher trainers.

Training individuals vs. training groups

The use of groups, group planning, jointdecision-making and protocols for team-work is not common practise in most train-ing institutions. Consequently, training ini-tiatives have limited impact on studentlearning because they are only directed atindividuals, who are often isolated by cir-cumstances at their workplace and lackthe support to incorporate new elementsinto their practise.

Poor working and living conditions ofteachers of youth and adults

The working conditions for many teachersare difficult. Even in the formal system,teachers have low salaries, lack profes-sional recognition, have limited opportu-nities for professional development, andcan advance in the wage scale onlythrough seniority. There is no systematicstructure governing wages, promotion,performance and evaluation.

The situation is even more difficult forteachers of youth and adults. In manycountries, they are not considered part ofthe formal education sector. Despite thefact that these teachers are actually in a po-sition of great social responsibility, theyusually hold short-term contracts with in-adequate stipends taking the place of asubstantive salary. These conditions havea negative impact on the entire education-al process. Youth and adult educators areplaced in the position of balancing person-al, family and professional needs, as wellas often having to shoulder the burden ofoften being the only link between theircommunities and the education system.These conditions generate insecurities, in-stability and constant mobility within theteaching profession, with significant nega-tive effects on student achievement.

Training processes for teachers of youth and adults

While there has been some progress in re-defining the role of teachers and their pro-fessional development, it is important tolook further and ensure that the changingimage of the work of teachers is ground-ed in concrete research findings.

Studies by UNESCO (IIPE 2002), theGerman Agency for International Co-op-eration (Cuenca and Portocarrero 2001)


and education ministries (Rivero 2003) oneducation systems in Latin America allcall for a more comprehensive definitionof the role of teachers. According to thesestudies, teachers should be considered asmore than curriculum enforcers. Further,it has to be acknowledged that teachers’needs go beyond training, materials andinfrastructure, and that these needs mustbe met if they are to be more effective.

Until recently Latin American coun-tries have undertaken many educationalreform initiatives that rely on domestic re-sources, as well as on loans from interna-tional organisations such as the WorldBank and the Inter-American Develop-ment Bank (IADB). Reforms, however,have traditionally focused on providingmore infrastructure, textbooks, equip-ment, laboratories and training, and theresults have not been commensurate withthe resources utilised. Furthermore, re-search indicates that there are no signifi-cant differences between schools that par-ticipated in the said reforms and those thatdid not. These findings illustrate the needto conduct further research and prioritisethose factors that have direct influence onteacher performance.

There are several factors that influ-ence student achievement, among themfamily, community, economics and cul-ture. Likewise, there are several factorsthat influence teacher performance. Poli-cies for teachers require integrated, holis-tic efforts with long-term goals involvingongoing development and recognising theimportance of factors such as personaldevelopment, self-esteem, the way teach-ers value their own work, the recognitionof their work by families and communi-ties, physical and mental health, standardof living, cultural capital, and the ability tounderstand and utilise information andcommunication technologies.

Professional health is an area thatbeginning to be researched only now.The few studies that have been conduct-ed in countries such as Argentina, Mex-ico, Ecuador and Chile show an alarm-ing incidence of stress, depression, psy-chosomatic diseases and other mentalailments among teachers. Chile is evenconsidering a proposal to treat these as“professional illnesses”. This highlightsthe importance of engaging in further re-search on this topic and considering theteaching profession in its entirety. Weare faced with the need to modify ourtraditional understanding, which equatesteachers with training, and instead de-velop a perspective that recognises theimportance of professional and personaldevelopment. This is particularly impor-tant in the area of adult and youth edu-cation, where these themes are only be-ginning to be discussed.

Challenges for the professional develop-ment of teachers of youths and adults

The challenges facing youth and adulteducation are complex and require a va-riety of responses. The following are therecommended responses that emergedfrom this workshop.

1. Recognise adult and youth educationas a factor in promoting social equality

Students must be given the necessarytools to participate effectively in society,in the labour market, in the decision-making process and in creating solutionsto the challenges facing their communities.Adult education cannot be defined solelyas literacy education, given that the stu-dents in question are often either youthswho have been forced to abandon theirstudies before completion or adults whorequire learning that combines basic skillswith work skills. A re-evaluation of the

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role of adult and youth education wouldrequire a commitment of government re-sources as a signal that education of youthand adults is an education priority.

2. Recognise the value of teachers’ work

There needs to be a change in the way so-ciety assesses the value of teachers’ work.There must be both recognition of the fun-damental role they play in providing quali-ty education and a general call for substan-tive policies regarding their professionaland personal development. This valida-tion must be reflected in teachers’ salaries,professional career opportunities, qualitytraining and policies that address theneeds of teachers at all professional levels.

3. Integrate systems for professional and personal development

Systems must be set up to co-ordinate theefforts of the various organisations andpublic and private institutions that pro-vide continuing professional training forteachers. These should also incorporatedistance and face-to-face teaching modal-ities. It might seem that the use of technol-ogy in a sector endowed with such limitedresources is unattainable. However, thegreater the need, the greater is the urgencyin overcoming barriers and generatingknowledge.

4. Design new methodologies for active learning

There is much to be learned from educa-tional experiences in the area of populareducation and adult literacy. The progressmade in these areas needs to be studiedand systematically recorded in order togenerate new modules for youth andadult teacher training. However, this willrequire a break with traditional modes oftransmitting knowledge in teacher train-ing institutions. These approaches must be

replaced with co-operative learning strate-gies. The definitions and methodologiesinvolved in training teachers must be re-vised and reflect the same level of respon-sibility found in other areas of education.

5. Incorporate training of adult and youtheducators into formal training systems

Training of teachers of youths and adultsmust be considered part of the larger dis-cussion on teacher training initiatives. It isimportant to recognise and address theparticular needs of this sector of the teach-ing profession when designing policiesand to incorporate their needs into thelarger model of personal and professionaldevelopment.

6. Restore hope among sectors on the fringes of society

Adult and youth education faces the enor-mous challenge of imparting new per-spectives to a sector of the population thatis at a disadvantage in the labour market,has limited political participation and lim-ited power to influence decisions that af-fect their lives. It also has the chance togive people an opportunity to find newmeaning in their lives and become activeparticipants, both in their communitiesand in society as a whole.

7. Transform the role of teachers of youth and adults

Until now, teachers of youths and adultshave been regarded essentially as knowl-edge distributors who utilise pre-designedcurricula handed down from above,rather than as actors with initiative, capa-ble of active participation. They must begiven the opportunity to take responsibili-ty and participate in the decision-makingprocess and be held partly responsible forthe educational process and its results.


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Conclusion

We live in an era of great contradictions,where astounding scientific and techno-logical advances have not translated intoimprovements in the quality of life of themajority of the world’s population. Sub-stantial inequalities persist. Education isundoubtedly a key element in generatingdevelopment that is just and equitable.

In this context, the role of teachers istwofold. Their work is not only in theclassroom and school, but also in the com-munity. It involves providing their stu-dents with the best learning opportunitieswhile also contributing to local and na-tional social movements that work tomake education a political priority. Like-wise, teacher training initiatives must ac-quire a second, social dimension. Theymust produce teachers who have the nec-essary technical skills and are also com-mitted to the results of their work and thelarger educational purpose. This challengeencompasses all of the other challengesmentioned here.

References

Campero, Carmen. 2003. La Formación de los ylas Educadores de Personas Jóvenes y Adultas.Revista Educativa Decisió 5: 12–19. Michoacán,Mexico: Centro de Cooperación Regional para laEducación de Adultos en América Latina y elCaribe (CREFAL).

Cuenca, Ricardo, and Carlos Portocarrero. 2001.Actitudes y Valoración de los Docentes en ServicioHacia su Profesión. Lima: Ministerio de Educacióndel Perú.

International Institute for Educational Planning(IIEP) and Ministry of Education of Peru. 2002.Encuesta de Opinión y Actitudes Docentes Peru-anos. Paris: IIEP, and Lima: Ministry of Educationof Peru.

Laboratorio Latinoamericano de Evaluación de laCalidad de la Educación (LLECE). 2002. EstudioCualitativo de Escuelas con Resultados Desta-cados en Siete Paises Latinoamericanos. Santia-go: UNESCO/OREALC.

Tedesco, Juan Carlos, and Emilio Tenti Fanfani.2002. Nuevos Tiempos y Nuevos Docentes. Do-cumento presentado en la Conferencia RegionalO Desempenho dos Professores na América Lati-na e Caribe: Novas Prioridades. Brasilia: BID/UN-ESCO/Ministério da Educaçao.

Rivero, José (ed.). 2003. Nueva Docencia en elPerú. Lima: Ministry of Education of Peru.

UNESCO. 1990. Declaration on Education forAll: Meeting Basic Learning Needs. Documentproduced by the International Conference on Ed-ucation for All, Jomtiem, Thailand, 9 March 1990.Paris: UNESCO.

——. 2000. Education for All in the Americas:Regional Framework of Action. Document pro-duced by the Regional Meeting on Education forAll in the Americas, Santo Domingo, DominicanRepublic, 12 February 2000.

——. 2002. Declaration on Education for All.Document produced by the International Con-ference on Education for All, Dakar, Senegal, 23January 2002.

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This chapter is based on the final reportof a study undertaken by the Centro

de Cooperación Regional para la Educa-ción de Adultos en América Latina y ElCaribe (CREFAL) between May and July2003 at the request of the UNESCO Insti-tute for Education (UIE). The team incharge of the research was composed ofGraciela Messina (coordinator), GabrielaEnriquez (researcher) and Héctor AarónRios (researcher). The team was jointly setup by the Office of Research and Evalua-tion (Ermilio Marroquin, Director) and theOffice of Teaching and Lifelong Learning(Tomás Carreón, Director). The study wasproduced within the framework of themid-term review of CONFINTEA V.

The chapter begins with a synthesisof the recommendations of CONFINTEAV related to the training of adult educa-tors. Next, the practise of adult educatortraining in Latin America is described,and its strengths and weaknesses identi-fied. Analysis is given of the role of adulteducators, the processes of accreditationand professionalisation, the training poli-cies, and the role of international co-op-eration and networking. Then the devel-opments in training that have occurred inthe region between 1997 and 2003 areconsidered in the light of the CONFIN-TEA V recommendations. And, finally,the changing trends and emergent priori-ties are described; they form the basis forrecommendations for the future.

CONFINTEA V recommendations onthe training of adult educators

At CONFINTEA V in 1997 specific recom-mendations were made about the trainingof adult educators. Adult education andthe training of adult educators had been amarginal issue in Latin America during theinternational educational reforms of the1990s because the reforms emphasisedbasic education for the school population.This marginalisation affected regional edu-cation projects undertaken by internation-al and non-governmental organisations,such as PPE (El Proyecto Principal de Edu-cación para América Latina y El Caribe),CEPAL, UNESCO and the World Educa-tion Forum. The issue of training adult ed-ucators was rarely broached during thistime.

At the CONFINTEA V preparatory re-gional meeting, held in Brasilia in January1997, the issue of quality in adult educa-tion was linked to the training of adult ed-ucators. It was assumed that it is neces-sary to design and implement permanent,diversified systems of educational trainingand research as a shared responsibility be-tween governmental and non-governmen-tal organisations. The Declaration ofBrasilia (Part B, Recommendations, Sub-ject II) highlights the need to involve differ-ent kind of educators (including graduates,sub-professionals, popular and voluntaryeducators, and administrative educationpersonnel) and to integrate initial and

The Training of Adult Educators in Latin America

Graciela Messina and Gabriela Enriquez

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continuing training. It also asserts that re-search is central to training, and calls formore frequent use of reflective workshopsto analyse practise.

The CONFINTEA V document, Agen-da for the Future, included the training ofadult educators in the strategy for improv-ing the conditions and quality of adult ed-ucation. It made general reference to theadoption of instruments to improve re-cruitment, working conditions, as well asinitial and in-service training. It also em-phasised the need to develop innovativetraining methods that would involve closeco-ordination between working experi-ence and training, and also the need topromote information and documentationservices. Additionally, it proposed that allformal education institutions should pro-vide systematic continuing education foradult educators. The central recommenda-tion of CONFINTEA V was that schools,colleges and universities should open theirdoors to the field of adult education.

The post-CONFINTEA V thematicworkshop on the role of the universitieswas more specific in its recommenda-tions. It has suggested that universities of-fer continuing education for adultsthrough the following strategies: a) flexi-bility in programme provision in order tosatisfy the specific needs of adults (time,norms of admission, etc.); b) complemen-tary college work; c) continuing profes-sional education; d) university-level dis-tance education through a wide variety ofaccess modes; e) instruction and certifica-tion of all adult educators (i.e., at under-graduate degree or masters degree level);f) research on adult education that coversall of its complex dimensions; and g) thecreation of new links between the educa-tion sector and civil society.

The theme of training adult educators

in Latin America was considered specifi-cally in three CONFINTEA V sub-regionalmeetings between November 1998 andMarch 1999. Attention was given to thedesign of training programmes on the fol-lowing subjects: literacy and assessment;education for citizenship; education forindigenous and peasant populations; edu-cation and work; gender; and local devel-opment and youth. Emphasis was alsogiven to the need for reflection on practise.A major outcome of these meetings wasthe proposal for a regional project on thetraining of adult educators, as a joint effortbetween the convening organisations—namely, UNESCO, CEAAL (Consejo deEducación de Adultos para América Lati-na), INEA Mexico (Instituto Nacional deEducación para los Adultos), and CREFAL.

The last regional meeting, held inSantiago, Chile, in 2000, reviewed theoutcomes of the sub-regional meetings.Its recommendations on the training ofadult educators are very specific. It reaf-firms the responsibility of the state andstresses the need for new modes of co-op-eration between different institutions,such as training centres, research centres,universities and NGOs. The importanceof creating training programmes in specif-ic areas of adult education (such as work-related adult education) is mentioned, asis the importance of bringing together dif-ferent kinds of adult educators. It also rec-ommends that initial training be based onspecialised common programmes of edu-cator training that unite adult educatorswith teachers in the formal educationalsystem. By the same logic, it is recom-mended that community educators andschoolteachers take part in the same in-service training programmes. In addition,it is proposed that general awareness ofthis issue be raised among other profes-


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sionals, and that training in adult educa-tion be provided to other professionalsworking in the field of adult develop-ment, such as vocational trainers andhealth promoters, who do not necessarilysee themselves as adult educators. Addi-tionally, it is stressed that the training ap-proach should include reflection on prac-tise and a systematic exchange of experi-ence. It emphasises that there is a need toinclude methodologies and contents thatconcur with the high-priority actionpoints of CONFINTEA V.

Finally, the meeting proposed con-ducting research to aid in the design ofstrategies that focus on the diversity andegalitarian distribution of education.Other high-priority subjects for researchare the ways in which youths and adultslearn and the changes in the practises ofeducation and work (UNESCO 2002).

One of the most important outcomesof CONFINTEA V and the Latin Ameri-can meetings has been to give greater so-cial visibility to the subject of adult edu-cator training. Particularly important arethe proposals to improve training andworking conditions and to link the train-ing of different types of adult educators,formal educators and other professionswithout sacrificing the specificity of train-ing. The recommendations of the CON-FINTEA V regional preparatory processand of the Latin American follow-upmeetings are much more specific thanthose that emerged from The HamburgDeclaration and Agenda for the Future.

The CONFINTEA V recommenda-tions treat the training of adult educatorsprimarily as a means of improving theconditions and the quality of adult edu-cation. Much less attention was paid toother significant issues, such as identify-ing the types and numbers of educators

needed, improving access for youths, andthe contribution of adult educator train-ing to the political and social democrati-sation of Latin America.

The strengths and weaknesses of adult educator training

Adult education in Latin America is gen-erally synonymous with education for themarginal social sectors. In most countriesin the region, adult education—both for-mal and non-formal programmes—is in-tended as an adjunct of basic education,middle school or vocational training, andcomes under the auspices of the ministriesof education. In practise, however, otherprogrammes for adults have arisen. An in-tense, and still unresolved, debate hasbeen underway about the importance ofintegrating the different areas of adult ed-ucation into a single field or of extendingits boundaries to include all programmesin which adults participate. These includeworkplace education programmes, con-tinuing education organised by universi-ties and popular education organised byNGOs on topics such as human rightsand gender. Should adult education em-brace these diverse fields or should it pre-serve its specificity and continue to workwith the most vulnerable social groups?

From the national perspective in LatinAmerica, the training of educators hasgenerally been seen as a strategy for theimprovement of the quality of education,a mechanism for the professional devel-opment of educators, or a means of insti-tutional development. In the latter case,training has been subordinated to the re-quirements of the curriculum and the ad-ministration rather than being designed inkeeping with the express needs of educa-tors. Instead of being oriented towards the


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creation of a specific educational project,training has been seen as a way to prepareeducators to implement changes thatwere already conceived prior to the in-volvement of the educators. Thus, trainingis been regarded as a means for preparing,conforming, updating or re-centralising,rather than creating a space of autonomyfor educators and a means of consolidat-ing collective professionalism.

There is continues to be a lack ofspace for the training of adult educators atboth regional and local levels, despite thefact that a great diversity of institutionsexists, running different programmes in anindependent and relatively isolated waywithout central coordination. These pro-grammes differ depending on whetherthey provide initial training or continuingtraining, and on what institutions conductthem (universities, the state through theministries or secretaries of education, theprivate sector and NGOs). Finally, train-ing is differentiated according to the typeof educator that participates (e.g., teach-ers, volunteers or popular educators) andthe educational sector they represent(e.g., vocational training, literacy, basiceducation for adults or health promotion).

In the actual practise of training anumber of strengths can be observed:

a) Initial training programmes for adulteducators are consolidated in someuniversities, where integrated centresof training, research and extensionhave been created. In addition, someuniversities run various programmesof continuing training.

b) Some institutions that provide adulteducation have established agree-ments with universities with the aimof delegating the task of training theirpersonnel. Such courses last approxi-mately two years. This arrangement

shows that the gap between initialtraining programmes located in theuniversities and in-service trainingprogrammes run by adult educationinstitutions is being bridged.

c) At the end of the 1990s, new pro-grammes of initial training for adult ed-ucators were initiated in some univer-sities with more flexible modalitiescentred on the regulation of practiseand continued studies. Specialised ini-tial training programmes have also beenstarted which offer separate degree-level qualification in the education ofadults, and not just as a specialisationwithin a degree in education.

d) In several countries in the region,new modes of initial training for adulteducators are opening as a responseto the increasing demand from insti-tutions in charge of the training of ed-ucators. These are mostly located inspecialised teacher training institutesor in universities.

e) The institutions that have developedprogrammes of adult education havewell-developed training programmesfor their own personnel, and some uni-versities have begun to explore the con-tinuing training of educators in the field.

f) Both universities and other training in-stitutions have begun to regard adulteducator training as a participatoryand reflective process.

g) Many NGOs have been developingtraining programmes based on thestudy of educators’ practises.

h) New information and communicationtechnologies have been incorporatedin training programmes. These tech-nologies are applied at the method-ological and didactic levels (e.g.,through video and internet-based train-ing courses) as a way of promotingopen and distance learning.


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i) There is an organisation in the regionthat specialises in adult educator train-ing: Centro de Cooperación Regionalpara la Educación de Adultos en Améri-ca Latina y el Caribe (CREFAL). CREFALoperates with financial support fromthe Mexican Ministry of Education andhas been developing activities in thisfield since its founding in 1951. Priorto 1991, it also received financial sup-port from UNESCO. Its funding fromthe Organisation of American States hasbeen reduced. Nevertheless, CREFALoffers a great variety of courses, semi-nars and workshops, both on-campusand through distance education. Thesetraining programmes can be attendedat the main centre in Pátzcuaro, Méxi-co, in other cities in Mexico and evenin other countries. It has long experi-ence in training educators in the fieldof educational research.

j) New modalities of continuing trainingare being developed in order to movebeyond top-down strategies. Thesehave been developed through region-al meetings of adult educators as partof a participatory process that begins atthe local level, with groups that identi-fy their problems and co-ordinate theirpractises, and culminates in large na-tional encounters. These meetings pro-vide open forums in which adult edu-cators share their experiences, makepresentations, discuss speeches andparticipate in training workshops.

However, there are also weaknessesin the training of adult educators. Themain ones are:

a) There is a lack of consistent and system-atic information about training pro-grammes, the characteristics and livingconditions of educators, pedagogicalpractises and other issues. This informa-

tion is necessary for decision-makingand planning for the future.

b) Training for adult educators has notadopted all of the changes that haveoccurred in the training of educators inthe formal system. In addition, trainingprogrammes occupy a marginal placein the institutions providing adult edu-cation.

c) The initial training of adult educatorsin universities is separated from in-service training, which was generallydeveloped by other institutions run-ning adult education programmes.

d) The initial training of adult educators isconceived for people who have com-pleted formal education and can satis-fy administrative requirements of a cer-tain qualification (at least a high schooldiploma). On the other hand, volun-tary adult educators who do not haveeducational credentials do not have ac-cess to any kind of training programmesoffered by universities. They have theopportunity to receive only in-servicetraining developed by the organisa-tions where they work.

e) Most training is in-service; there arefew programmes of initial training.

f) In-service training is oriented towardspreparing educators to administer theauthorised curricula. It is mostly a short-term process with a narrow focus.

g) Within the in-service training pro-grammes, the modality of top-downtraining still predominates.

h) Educators of adults, except for thoseworking in formal school programmes,are in permanent rotation. The inter-mittent nature of many adult educationprogrammes makes training difficultand inefficient.

i) At government-run adult education in-stitutions, training is conceived mainly


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within the logic of the school, takingplace at a set time with set content. Inthese programmes, a research processdoes not accompany training.

j) Some initial training programmes foradult educators have been discontin-ued. There are two reasons for this.Firstly, there is a common view that it ispreferable to provide general training ineducation, accompanied by a speciali-sation in the education of adults (suchas a degree in education with a compo-nent of adult education), rather thanearly and specialised training in adulteducation (i.e., a separate degree in theeducation of adults). Secondly, the de-centralisation that has taken place insome countries has reduced adult edu-cation provision, and consequentlytraining programmes have suffered.

The role of the adult educator

In Latin America adult educators form aheterogeneous group. They may be dif-ferentiated according to their schooling,initial training, specialisation in the edu-cation of adults, or institutional and socialbase. They are differentiated in the fol-lowing ways according to their level ofschooling: a) people with educational de-grees; b) those with college education; c)professionals in non-education; and d)people with basic or middle schooling.From an institutional point of view, theyare differentiated as administrators, vol-unteers, students working in social servic-es, and popular educators. If vocationaltraining and health promotion are count-ed as adult education, other groups of ed-ucators are also involved, including com-munity instructors and health promoters.These are not always recognised as adulteducators, either by themselves or by the

institutions they work in. If the bound-aries of adult education are extended stillfurther to include continuing educationin universities, another group of educa-tors can be identified, namely the profes-sors in different disciplines.

In general, government-employedadult educators have education degrees,while voluntary educators mostly havebasic education or middle school qualifi-cations. In some countries (such as Ar-gentina and Chile) most of the educatorsfrom basic or middle education have nodegree. In other countries (such as Mexi-co) educators with a diploma work in for-mal basic education programmes, whilevoluntary educators work in open massprogrammes of basic education.

Teachers in the formal system have adegree in education, generally in basic ed-ucation without a specialisation in adulteducation. They are employed on a per-manent basis and receive a fixed salary.They also can participate in unions. Onlya minority of these teachers have spe-cialised initial training in adult education.Voluntary educators generally do not havea degree in education. In general, theyhave merely basic education or middleschool education (basic schooling is therequirement set by most institutions in thisfield). The volunteer personnel do not re-ceive a regular wage, but only small al-lowances or incentives. In some countriesthey are subject to payment by productiv-ity, according to the number of adults whograduate. In Mexico the principle of socialsolidarity has been established in lawsince 1975. This legitimises the volunteerand the role of the community in the taskof educating adults.

Popular educators have different lev-els of schooling. As a group, they definetheir activity as a deliberate political prac-


24

tise to raise awareness and organise themost marginal social groups. Popular ed-ucators work in community educationprogrammes that focus on issues such ascitizenship, human rights, health, gender,indigenous education, literacy, local de-velopment and education for work. Edu-cators in the area of social services areoften students who have to fulfil a collegerequirement; they work without pay andreceive recognition or scholarship sup-port to continue their studies. One of themain weaknesses of the voluntary educa-tors is their lack of pedagogical trainingand understanding of how to establish anatmosphere conducive to adult learning.Their strength, however, is their commit-ment to the community and their close-ness to the problems of the adults. Thevoluntary educators require permanentsupport in terms of training and condi-tions of work so that they can better applythe curricula and learning materials.

The “professional” educators have theadvantage of being familiar with pedagogyand didactics and of having a general train-ing in education. Nevertheless, they gen-erally do not have a specialisation or de-gree in the education of adults, and theschool tradition makes it difficult for themto adapt to open learning programmes andinteractive materials. Indeed, most educa-tors of adults, whatever their schoolinglevel and institutional base, lack spe-cialised initial training in adult education.Consequently, they train on the job anddepend on in-service training pro-grammes. The absence of specialised ini-tial training is a major weakness. On onehand, this omission leaves the educatorslacking in skill and responsible for theirown development. On the other hand, itcreates an atmosphere of dependence onin-service training, in which the educators

are considered an object of policies in-stead of subjects who autonomously ac-quire knowledge and actively participatein their own professional development.

Another important aspect to consideris how educators of adults manage learn-ing and teaching. Although the educatoris officially seen as a facilitator of learning,the predominant traditional practise placesthe educator at the centre of the learningprocess. It is noteworthy that this happensin both the open programmes and in theformal school programmes, both govern-mental and non-governmental. A furtherproblem in this process is that reflectivepractise is not a generalised activityamong adult educators. However, thereare differences according to the context.Reflective practise is much more frequentamong popular educators, while, amongother kinds of educators, it either does notexist at all or is reduced to an administra-tive routine. This undermines the conceptof reflection as a means of transformingpractise.

Social recognition, accreditation and theprofessionalisation of adult educators

Without doubt, the work of the adult edu-cator has less social recognition than thatof the teacher in the formal educationalsystem. In addition, from the world of ed-ucation a stereotype of the adult educatorhas arisen: he or she is thought to be a per-son who is not professional, is not commit-ted to his or her teaching and who teach-es in a way that reproduces the way he orshe learned. Most adult educators rejectthis stereotype and do not accept that theirdegree of professionalism is less thanthose who teach in the formal system.

A system of accreditation for adulteducators that recognises prior learning


25

does not exist in the region as a whole.Nevertheless, in some countries thereare organisations, such as the Consejo deNormalización y Certificación de Com-petencia Laboral (CONOCER) in Mexi-co, which certifies the knowledge andcompetencies of adults in relation towork.

In governmental adult education pro-grammes, professionalisation is understoodas a process of training and accreditation,from initial training to in-service training.The policies here are oriented towards thedevelopment of in-service training thatwill satisfy the institutional requirementsfor the administration of curricula. In mostcases, professionalisation is not seen as anintegrated process that, beyond training,includes working conditions, wages andcontinued learning. This concept of pro-fessionalisation does not include learningthat emerges from communities, theunions or social organisations.

Among NGOs new methods ofknowledge recognition for adult educa-tors are being developed through learn-ing groups and networks. In this field, pro-fessionalisation is conceived as “profes-sionalism”, a process that begins with theeducators and facilitates reflective prac-tise and group learning in social and po-litical terms.

If professionalisation is seen as equiv-alent to accredited training, different op-portunities exist. Initial training is providedat the universities, which educators enterby their own choice. In-service training isusually provided by the institution inwhich the educator works. The universi-ties and CREFAL offer programmes thatsupport continuing professional develop-ment, including graduate programmes andcourses of continuing training, which theadult educator joins on an individual basis

by means of agreements between institu-tions (in both cases, it is possible to obtaina scholarship). CREFAL’s academic pro-grammes are certified by the MexicanMinistry of Education. The ministries ofeducation of other countries in the regionrecognise its certificates.

Policies on training adult educators

The first point to emphasise in relation tothe training of adult educators is the non-existence of a public political recommen-dation. Hence there are no policies on thetraining of adult educators specified inthe national plans or programmes of edu-cation in the different countries of the re-gion. Consequently, there is also little po-litical support by the state for the trainingof adult educators. The state has not guar-anteed training opportunities, nor pro-moted opportunities for the professionaldevelopment of adult educators. Thus ingovernmental organisations, training oc-cupies a marginal place in terms of imple-mentation and financing.

Another important point is that uni-versity initiatives in continuing and initialtraining have been developed in mostcases by groups of adult educators and re-searchers rather than as a result of institu-tional policies. It is important to differenti-ate in-service training from the continuingtraining offered by the universities or CRE-FAL. Continuing training implies greateropportunities for the acquisition of knowl-edge, while in-service training is associatedwith the implementation of a specific pro-gramme. Among NGOs there is generallygreater clarity about the strategic nature ofadult educator training. It is consideredessential for the development of commu-nity leaders and autonomous communitygroups. Thus the organisational policies of


26

most NGOs operating in the field of adulteducation actively promote training.

The last point to consider is that train-ing programmes for adult educators havebeen developed independently of teachertraining for the formal system. In teachertraining, major efforts have been made topromote innovations in initial training andto improve quality by different means,such as institutional accreditation and sup-port for projects. More precise ways havealso been found to evaluate the perform-ance of teachers. Similar processes havenot taken place in the training of adult ed-ucators. Nevertheless, government pro-grammes for the training of adult educa-tors have been based on a logic similar tothat of traditional methods of teacher train-ing, such as short, large-scale in-servicetraining for all types of educators, usuallybased on specific curricular changes. Inseveral countries, new media technologieshave been adopted, but the common ten-dency has been to apply the traditionallearning model of teacher training withoutsubstantial changes. In summary, the in-novations that have taken place in teachertraining have not been transferred to thetraining of adult educators.

International networks and co-operation

In Latin America there exists a set of re-gional networks related to adult educationwhich have developed out of the field ofpopular education. This includes the net-work of the Latin American Council forAdult Education (CEAAL), which providesa focus for NGOs and includes its ownthematic networks, such as REPEM, a net-work of women’s NGOs, and ALER, thenetwork associated with the Faith and Joyradio schools. It is important to emphasisethat these networks operate in the field of

adult education but not specifically in thearea of adult educator training.

Since 2000 a regional multi-thematicnetwork called INNOVEMOS has existed.It was organised by UNESCO/OREALC topromote educational innovation in areassuch as education and work, institutionaldevelopment and professional develop-ment. Within the INNOVEMOS network,the education of adults is not a thematicarea in itself but a crosscutting theme re-lated to many other domains. The area ofprofessional development and training in-volves teachers from the formal system, aswell as educators of adults. In this way,the possibility of a space for the training ofadult educators at the regional level hasbeen opened up. The INNOVEMOS net-work has been working to systematiseand spread innovations, and it organisesdissemination workshops. It is expectedthat, in the medium term, INNOVEMOSwill provide a training space for educatorsfrom different modalities and levels.

CREFAL, on the other hand, developsco-operative activities with other adult ed-ucation and training institutions as an es-sential part of its institutional objectives.Although a network has not been createdformally, CREFAL provides opportunitiesfor exchange at several levels (local, na-tional and regional). This could be consol-idated and developed as a network.

For the preparatory meetings for CON-FINTEA V in 1997, a partnership betweenkey institutions (i.e., CEAAL, CREFAL,INEA and UNESCO) was established.These institutions promoted a debateabout adult education in Latin America,elaborated a regional plan of action andcirculated all of the agreements. Emanat-ing from this group which promoted theoutcomes of CONFINTEA V, a meetingon adult educator training was held at


27

CREFAL in April 2003. The meeting reaf-firmed the links between the participantinstitutions and initiated a debate about aregional project for Latin America and theCaribbean.

While a specific network of institu-tions dedicated to the training of adulteducators does not exist, it would bepossible to create one from existing in-stitutional exchanges and linkages. Thereduction in international and regionalfunding for CREFAL means that the de-velopment of a special regional projectis now urgently needed.

Advances after CONFINTEA V

Based on the commitments and recom-mendations of CONFINTEA V, a num-ber of changes have been made in thedevelopment of adult educator training.These include the following:

a) Universities have initiated some pro-grammes of initial training.

b) New, interactive pedagogies have beenincorporated into the training process.These approaches include reflectivepractise, the use of new technologies,the combination of on-campus and dis-tance education modalities, and the de-velopment of written and audio-visualtraining materials.

c) Programmes have been developedwhich integrate training, research andexperimentation in the community.

d) Some institutions have developed infor-mation systems about their own work,thus contributing to the knowledge-base about training.

Despite these improvements, someaspects of training remain unchanged,namely:

a) There is relatively little participation bythe universities in initial training.

b) Training is not adequately related toresearch.

c) Reflective practise is only at an incipi-ent stage, especially in governmentaltraining programmes.

d) Low priority is given to adult educa-tion, thus making it difficult to train asufficient number of adult educators.

e) Working conditions and wages re-main unattractive.

f) There is no system of accreditation forthe prior learning and experience ofadult educators.

There is sharp disparity between therecommendations of CONFINTEA V andthe current reality. Three key issues emergefrom this contrast. First, it is necessary toguarantee the initial training of all educa-tors of adults, irrespective of their level ofschooling and institutional base. Secondlyit is necessary to promote the continuousand reflective training of all voluntary per-sonnel, as well as the creation of institu-tional space for dialogue between the dif-ferent kinds of adult educators. Finally, itis essential to make significant improve-ments in the wages and working condi-tions of all adult educators.

Recommendations

On the basis of our research, we recom-mend the following:1. Training should be seen as an inde-

pendent space in which it is possible totransform the formal and adult educa-tional systems rather than as a strategysubordinated to the implementation ofprogrammes. Conceiving training inthese terms implies giving the educa-tors a key role in the process of educa-tional change rather than regarding in-novation purely in terms of curriculumor management. Training could make a


number of contributions to a new wayof thinking about and organising formaland non-formal educational systems—for example, by extending the bound-aries of adult education to embracemore educators and training modali-ties; by transferring lessons learned intraining programmes for adult educa-tors to the training of teachers in theformal system; and by aiding the polit-ical and pedagogical development ofeducators, thus helping them to con-tribute to social and political democra-tisation.

2. The state should guarantee the initialtraining of all adult educators andshould promote shared learning amongeducators, regardless of differences interms of levels of schooling and insti-tutional base.

3. Regional Training Projects should beset up as a first step towards a perma-nent regional training system.

4. National and regional mechanisms for

the accreditation of prior learning andexperience should be established.

5. The state should formulate precisepolicies on training adult educator andshould harmonise them with policieson formal teacher training.

6. The state should create positions fortrained adult educators.

7. The state should generate collectivecontracts that benefit both trainers andeducators of adults.

8. The state should adopt and promote anew style of training which is led by theeducators themselves and allows an in-crease in educators’ capacity to reflectand to transform educational practise,and it should establish learning groupsand networks.

Reference

UNESCO. 2002. Regional Framework of Actionof the EPJA for Latin America and the Caribbean.Santiago, Chile: UNESCO.


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The training of youth and adult educa-tors is a fundamental part of the

progress towards lifelong learning aimedat building societies based on principlesof social justice. During the past decade,this issue has received much attention inMexico. Both the Programme for Educa-tional Development (1995–2000) and theNational Education Programme (2001–2006) make mention of the importanceof such training. Training programmes, re-search projects and public forums havebeen initiated as a result of this interestand of the work of several institutions andgroups in this field (Pieck 2002). Neverthe-less, Mexico lacks a policy that convertsthese intentions into concrete courses ofaction articulated in a comprehensiveprogramme with clear institutional com-mitments and an adequate budget andthat also considers the employment con-ditions of adult educators.

This chapter discusses the trainingprogrammes for adult educators devel-oped by the Academy of Adult Educationat the National University of Education(UPN–Ajusco) in Mexico City, particular-ly the work carried out since 1997. It willaddress the focus, strategies, results andchallenges of those programmes and willprovide some reflections on this experi-ence in the hope that they will be of use

to other institutions and groups interestedand active in this field.

The Academy of Adult Education and its training mission

The National University of Education(UPN) is a public higher education institu-tion that has 76 campuses throughoutMexico. It was established at the Ajuscocampus in 1982 in order to address issuesof youth and adult education. The Ajuscocampus is located in Mexico City andhouses the national deanship of the UPN.

From the time of its establishment,the Academy has focused on improvingthe visibility and social value of youthand adult education in Mexico, achievinggreater recognition for its educators, andimproving their employment conditions.It has developed extension, research andteaching activities, all of which are close-ly interconnected. Teaching activities arethe main priority, given the small size ofthe faculty (ten full-time professors).

The training activities for youth andadult educators follow a humanist ap-proach with a focus on professional devel-opment, self-evaluation of one’s practiseand popular education. The activities alsotake into account the criteria of relevance,comprehensiveness and flexibility. To-

Training Adult and Youth Educators: The Experience of the Academy ofAdult Education, National University of Education, Mexico

Carmen Campero

30

gether these elements determine the char-acteristics of the youth and adult educatortraining programmes. Educational practiseis both the starting point and the finalgoal. The programmes encourage the dis-covery and integration of knowledge andpractises, as well as reflection on one’sown knowledge and practise in the lightof theoretical-methodological approaches.

The programmes promote the devel-opment of socio-educational approachesfor improving the practises of educatorsbased on their own knowledge and expe-rience. With an expanded vision of thefield of youth and adult education, theycombine responses to concrete needs.They seek to foster a culture of collabora-tion by encouraging group work, dia-logue, the exchange of experiences, andtolerance and respect for diversity. Thetraining programmes promote the inter-nalisation of the training process as partof an educator’s personal development,as well as the construction of the educa-tors’ identity and professional status asyouth and adult educators, emphasisingthe role of social commitment in boththeir identity and status. The teachingteams facilitating the programmes helpeducators to analyse their employmentconditions with a view to change throughcollective action, and the teams followsup on the group learning process bymeans of collective activities.

The Academy has launched two ini-tiatives for training youth and adult edu-cators. The first involves initial and con-tinuing training of educators from public,private and non-profit institutions at theAjusco campus. Most of the participantsare already active educators, though afew are recent high school-level gradu-ates. With the growth in the Academy’sexperience and opportunities over time,the programmes have been enriched and

expanded and have featured different ed-ucational approaches.

Over the years, a specialised coursein Adult Educator Training has been of-fered on ten different occasions to a totalof 210 students. A master’s programme inadult education has been offered twice toa total of 34 students (Campero 1994: 37;Academia de Educación de Adultos 1999:2). In addition, 337 educators have beentrained through five different thematicdiplomados,* each with a duration of 210hours (see Table 1). At the same time,other in-service training activities wereoffered.

From 1999 to the present, the Acad-emy has offered the second version of apartially classroom-based university un-dergraduate degree in adult educationwith a flexible curriculum. The first six se-mesters are equivalent to diplomadosand are open to educators who are inter-ested in a particular subject. The optionalcoursework is open to the public as in-service training modules. A total of 83students have participated to date, 45%of whom are men and 55% women. Inaddition, an average of 36 students peryear take the courses as diplomados and50 as in-service training. A total of 90%of the students are active educators.

The newest programme at the Acad-emy, which is offered at 32 UPN cam-puses in 21 of Mexico’s 32 states, is theundergraduate degree in educational in-tervention (LIE), a polyvalent programmethat began in September 2002, followingthe professional competencies approach.

——————* A diplomado is a university-level course on

a specialised topic, normally offered by or in con-junction with an institution of higher education,often within the context of an extension pro-gramme. Usually a person’s previous experience inthe particular field, rather than a high-school diplo-ma or university degree, is the prerequisite for entry.


This programme is currently a classroom-based model, but it is expected that with-in two years the UPN will be able to pro-vide this programme as a partially class-room-based model, designing and offer-ing specific subjects and correspondingmaterials. Youth and adult education isone of the specialisations within the de-gree (LIE-EPJA). Most of the students tak-ing this degree are high school gradu-ates. They are involved directly in educa-tional practise from their fifth semesterthrough professional fieldwork or theirsocial service requirement.

The second initiative for trainingyouth and adult educators involves theformation of teaching teams at several dif-ferent UPN campuses. The Academy hasfollowed two strategies in promoting thisinitiative. The first involves the creationof teaching teams whose members worktogether to analyse the programme devel-opment of UPN diplomados and othereducational programmes. The Academyprovides follow-up support for these teamsthrough meetings and site visits, helpingthem to incorporate their recommenda-tions and adapt the programmes to theparticular conditions in each of their loca-tions. The Academy has worked with eightUPN campuses in this way. The secondstrategy began in 2002 when the Academydecided to launch a broader training pro-gramme targeting—particularly during itsinitial stages—UPN professors who teachin the LIE–EPJA degree programme. Thespecialised diplomado in “youth and adulteducation dynamics and areas of interven-tion” has been offered as a distance-learn-ing opportunity since October 2002. Par-ticipants receive special ICT supportthrough e-mail and telephone contact, aswell as a weekly television programme toenrich the educational process.

Students in this programme formlearning groups at their campuses andhold weekly meetings to carry out thegroup activities scheduled in their syl-labus for each of the seminars making upeach diplomado. By the end of 2004,once it has been evaluated, this pro-gramme will also be available to individ-uals working in adult and youth educa-tion who have only a high school diplo-ma or its equivalent.

A further initiative is the Academy ofAdult Education is the Youth and AdultEducation Network, which was foundedin 2001. This is a network of people inter-ested in youth and adult education whodevelop and implement programmes andinitiatives for courses, research projectsand extension opportunities. Their aim isto strengthen and enhance the social recog-nition of this field of education throughdifferent modalities. These include class-room tuition, and written, audiovisual andelectronic media. Thus far, UPN educa-tors from different campuses have beenthe participants in the network. In the fu-ture, this forum will be open to all educa-tors interested in this field.

Results and impact in the field ofyouth and adult education

Among the results obtained through theeducational interventions at the Academyof Adult Education, the following may behighlighted:

a) The formation of teaching teams onUPN campuses to promote the trainingof youth and adult educators. Theseprofessors have begun a trainingprocess that is linked to the realities ineach locality or state. This allows forthe training of a large number of indi-viduals who operate educational pro-

31

Training Adult and Youth Educators: The Academy of Adult Education

32

grammes and projects in different areasand on different topics targeting youthand adults.

b) An increase in the number of educatorswith specialised training in this field ofeducation and have developed socio-educational, research or teaching proj-ects with a more comprehensive focuson improving their educational practise.

c) The improvement of both students’ self-esteem and the value of their learninggroups. The relations they forge witheducators from their own and other in-stitutions augment these benefits.

d) The development of flexible trainingprogrammes that are offered througha variety of modalities, particularly acommunications media/ICT strategythat has allowed the Academy tobroaden the scope of its programmes.

e) The formation of the Youth and AdultEducation Network (RED–EPJA), whichhas supported training opportunitiesand the exchange of experience be-tween UPN professors in this field. Ithas also helped youth and adult edu-cators to build a professional identity.This effort has been reinforced by aweb site (www.redepja.upn.mx) thathelps in the exchange of documents,views and information.

f) The initiation of projects carried outwith other institutions that support col-lective work and mutual development,and promote a greater understandingof the field as a whole and the Acade-my’s impact within it.

The main challenges for the Academy

The Academy faces a number of chal-lenges, including:

a) The traditional concepts and practisesof training prevailing in various institu-

tions dedicated to youth and adult ed-ucation.

b) The need to increase the flexibility of itstraining programmes with regard to cur-riculum development, work method-ologies and timeframes, without affect-ing the fulfilment of training objectives.

c) The development of more comprehen-sive training processes that include,among other components, the develop-ment of a professional culture amongadult educators.

d) The need to broaden the scope of edu-cational research projects and interven-tions in collaboration with other highereducation institutions and other actorsinterested in this field.

e) The formation of new teaching teamson UPN campuses and the consolida-tion of existing teams so that they adoptyouth and adult education as their fieldof work and develop projects that ad-dress the needs and special characteris-tics of their areas of influence.

f) Raising awareness among educationalauthorities of the importance of youthand adult education so that UPN pro-fessors who participate in programmesin this field can allocate additionaltime to study and practise.

g) The development and implementationof monitoring processes on UPN cam-puses.

h) The dissemination of the academic con-tributions of the Academy’s faculty andstudents through university extensionprogrammes in order to give greatervisibility and social recognition to thefield of youth and adult education.

Final considerations

The programmes developed by the UPNAcademy of Adult Education are the work


33

of a group of academics who share an in-terest in promoting youth and adult edu-cation in Mexico so as to contribute tothe creation of a more just and equitablesociety.

Over the past five years, the Acade-my’s work has grown, helping to give vis-ibility and greater social value to the roleof youth and adult educators and theirtraining needs, both in our university andin other regions in Mexico. This progresshas been possible thanks to the supportof the UPN’s current leadership, whichhas recognised the Academy’s work andthe importance of promoting this field ofeducation.

The advances made by the UPNAcademy of Adult Education have alsobeen aided by the recognition that thisfield of education has gained both nation-ally and internationally. This has been theresult of the work of many public institu-tions and civil society organisations fromdifferent countries, as well as internation-al bodies such as UNESCO. Their workhas contributed to further educationalpolicies for strengthening youth and adulteducation, though there is still much todo in order to develop and sustain clearinstitutional commitments and budgets inthis field.

The experience of the UPN Academyshows how important it is that higher edu-

cation institutions include youth and adulteducator training in their agendas. As theconclusions from the Latin American Con-ference on Training Youth and Adult Edu-cators (April 2003) state: “Governmentalinstitutions, non-governmental organiza-tions, universities and international entitiesare the key and are at the core of the prob-lems and dynamics for furthering educatortraining in Latin America.”

The members of the Academy ofAdult Education at the UPN will continuetheir work to achieve the dream of equali-ty, democracy, justice, liberty and peace—an ideal that unites them with many otheradult educators throughout the world.

References

Encuentro Latinoamericana Sobre la Formaciónde Educadores y Educadoras de las PersonasJóvenes y Adultas. 2003. Conclusiones del En-cuentro. Michoacán, Mexico: CREFAL.

Pieck, Enrique. 2002. Educación de Jóvenes y Adul-tos. In: Educación, Equidad y Derechos Sociales,ed. by Maria Bertely, 583–801. Mexico City: Con-sejo Mexicano de Investigación Educativa.

Podor Ejecutivo Federal. 1996. Programma deDesarrollo Educativo 1995–2000. Mexico City:Gobierno Federal.

——. 2001. Programma Nacional de Educación2001–2006. Chapter 4: Educación Para la Vida yel Trabajo, 219–235. Mexico City: GobiernoFederal.

Training Adult and Youth Educators: The Academy of Adult Education

Table 1. Diplomados developed by the Academy of Adult Education

Source: Academy of Adult Education Archives.

No. Diplomado Students enrolled Graduates

1 Educational Practise with Adults (5 cohorts) 130 101

2 Adult Learning (3 cohorts) 65 53

3 Adult Basic Education (1 cohort) 32 30

4 Public Policy and Adult Education (1 cohort) 15 14

5Systematisation of Adult Education Practises (2 cohorts)

95 82

TOTAL 337 280

34

Our aim in this chapter is to providean overview of adult education pro-

grammes in South Asian countries basedon available review documents, findingsof research studies and experiences in thefield. We then review attempts that havebeen and continue to be made in Indiaand other countries in the region to pro-vide training to adult educators. Finally,we point to several issues that need to beaddressed by policymakers, planners andimplementers if they are to improve thequality of training of adult educators.

Understanding the context

The literacy statistics for the South Asianregion are alarming. Except for Sri Lankaand the Maldives, all other countries inthe region have a very large non-literateadult population. According to UNESCOstatistics, the South Asian region alonehad 429 million adult non-literates and50 million school-age children who havehad no schooling. Of these, females con-stitute the majority.

The Jomtien Declaration of 1990 onEducation for All was a landmark becauseit stated that complementary policies wereneeded to take into account both adultlearning and basic education for children.However, this still has not been reflectedin policies and programmes of most gov-ernments in the region. Instead, the key

focus of official policy has remained theprovision of universal primary education.In many highly populated South Asiancountries today, basic literacy is the onlymajor activity within the field of non-for-mal education. This is evident from theadult education programmes that arepresently offered in India, Pakistan, Nepaland Bangladesh.

In recent years the concept of lifelonglearning has been gaining acceptanceacross the world. Recognising the impor-tance of building a “knowledge society”and a “learning society” in the new mil-lennium, countries of the North have al-ready embraced the concept of lifelonglearning and are taking steps to make thisa reality for the citizens of their countries.By contrast, the countries of the South arestill struggling to provide basic educationto all. Clearly, a divide exists in education-al discourse, policy and practise betweencountries in the North and the South. Tobridge this gap it is now necessary thatlifelong learning—both as a concept andas an active principle—must shape educa-tion and learning policies and programmesin all countries (UIE 2001; Torres 2001).However, a review of policies, pro-grammes and delivery mechanisms foradult education in South Asia shows thatthere are no comprehensive policies forlifelong learning. According to MansoorAhmed (2002), South Asian countries are

Improving the Quality of Training of AdultEducation Practitioners in the South AsianRegion: Some Considerations

Anita Dighe

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still at the stage of building the prerequi-sites or necessary conditions for lifelonglearning by putting in place literacy, basiceducation and post-literacy programmes.Institutional structures and mechanisms formanaging, supporting and developing themajor components of lifelong learning areweak or even non-existent. Considerableattention needs to be paid to providingeffective professional and technical sup-port for capacity building at various levels.

While countries in the region havebeen grappling with the problems of mas-sive illiteracy among adults and children,various economic, political, socio-cultur-al and technological changes have beentaking place, to which people all over theworld are trying to respond. The forces ofglobalisation have engulfed most coun-tries in the world, leading to the margin-alisation and pauperisation of vast popu-lations. While information and communi-cations technologies (ICTs) have provid-ed exciting opportunities for networking,they have also introduced the problem ofthe digital divide. Conflicts arising fromsocial, economic and ethnic-religious dif-ferences, as well as poverty, political in-stability, social exclusion and environ-mental degradation, have significantlychanged the parameters for policymakingin adult education since the mid-1990s.While education cannot be the answer toall unsolved global problems, it still hasan important role to play in empoweringpeople to understand their realities andtransform them (Singh 2002).

It is within this context that we shallexamine the adult education programmesoffered, identify the functionaries runningthem, the nature of the training, and effi-cacy of such training programmes in thedifferent countries in the South Asian re-gion.

Current status of adult educator training in South Asia

A variety of terms are used to de-scribe the different forms of adult learningin the different countries of the region.These include “basic literacy”, “adult liter-acy”, “basic education”, “adult basic edu-cation and training”, “non-formal educa-tion”, “continuing education” and “com-munity education”. Likewise, terms suchas “adult educator”, “facilitator”, “literacyinstructor”, “grassroots worker”, “exten-sion worker” and “volunteer instructor”are used to describe the adult educationfunctionary.

In India the adult education func-tionary at the grassroots level has general-ly been either an ill-paid local worker orelse a volunteer with some degree of so-cial commitment. In the case of the RuralFunctional Literacy Programme or the Na-tional Adult Education Programme, theadult education functionary was often anunemployed village youth who was givena paltry stipend, which he or she receivedirregularly, and whose work was regardedas part-time. The educational backgroundof such functionaries varied. While manyof them have had low levels of education(often no more than an eighth grade pass),others have had a graduate or even a post-graduate background. With the launchingof the Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs)towards the end of 1980s, the focuschanged. It was strongly recommendedthat only a volunteer with some degree ofsocial and political commitment couldundertake literacy work. As a result, theTLCs mobilised hundreds of thousands ofyoung men and women as literacy volun-teers. Such volunteers were often socialactivists and were committed to bringingabout social change in the communitiesin which they lived. A large number of

Improving the Quality of Training of Adult Education Practioners in South Asia

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them belonged either to NGOs or to po-litical-social movements.

Yusef Shah’s (2004) review of thetraining programmes for adult educatorsprovides a good overview of training pro-vision in India. Working out a typology ofthe key training institutions at national,state and district levels, Shah lists the var-ious training institutions, including gov-ernment institutions, NGOs, universitiesand private organisations, as well as theinternational organisations that have beenproviding training. The major provider oftraining programmes for the adult educa-tors are the 27 State Resource Centres thatwere set up by the central government invarious states of the country. The other in-stitutions include 85 Jan Shikshan Sans-thans (Institutes of People’s Education),which provide vocational training at thedistrict level, the District Resource Unit(DRU) of the District Institute of Educationand Training (DIET), as well as universitydepartments of adult education. Many de-velopment ministries and other govern-ment departments, such as those forhealth, agriculture, animal husbandry,labour and the environment, also have avast number of training institutions underthem. Unfortunately, despite the fact thatthose who are trained in these institutions/organisations work with adults, they arenot identified as educators of adults. As aresult, little effort is made to ensure thatthe training content and the trainingmethodology are adequate to enable themto work effectively with adult learners.

While these grassroots-level func-tionaries operate at district, state and na-tional levels of any government pro-gramme, there are additional officials,often from the Indian Administrative Ser-vice, who have responsibility for the im-plementation of adult education, as well

as the various development programmes.In the initial years of the Total LiteracyCampaigns (TLCs), concerted efforts weremade to organise training programmesfor the myriad functionaries at variouslevels. Over the years, these training pro-grammes have become scarce. Presently,training programmes for adult educatorsat district, state and national levels are al-most non-existent.

The training methodology followedin most government training institutionshas been lecture-based and top-down, andit has often been reduced to mere knowl-edge transmission. To ensure training oflarge numbers of adult educators, the cas-cade approach was extensively used inthe TLCs, and continues to be used in thecontinuing education programmes whichbegan in 1999. The training materialswere developed centrally. The NationalLiteracy Mission (NLM) developed a train-ing kit for the continuing education pro-gramme comprised of four publications: amanual for training of Preraks (continuingeducation workers, from a Sanskrit wordmeaning “one who inspires”), a hand-book for Preraks, a manual for the trainingof key resource persons and a handbookon training methods. However, it was theBharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti (BGVS), a na-tional-level NGO, that developed de-tailed training guidelines and curricula forthe TLCs in two comprehensive volumes.Due to the efforts of BGVS, participatoryapproaches to training were introduced inthe TLCs. The State Resource Centres thenadapted the guidelines received from theNLM to suit their own needs.

The cascade approach of the TLCsenvisaged a three-tier system of trainingcomprising Key Resource Persons (KRPs),Resource Persons (RPs), Master Trainers(MTs) and Voluntary Instructors (VIs). The


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District Literacy Committees (Zilla Sak-sharta Samiti) responsible for organisingthe training programmes identified a lim-ited number of key resource persons (fiveto ten), as well as resource persons withrich experience and expertise in adult ed-ucation, and entrusted them with the re-sponsibility of designing the training cur-ricula and training MTs. The MTs werethen responsible for training VIs. The train-ing guidelines stipulated that the initialround of four to five days (24 hours) oftraining for VIs was to be followed bythree “booster rounds” of training for MTsand VIs.

According to Shah (2004), while thetraining curriculum gave 50% weightageto the literacy primer and to primer-basedtraining, there was very little emphasis onadult psychology and adult teachingstrategies and learning styles, which arecrucial for the effective mediation of thecurriculum.

After the conclusion of the TLCs, theGovernment of India launched a Contin-uing Education (CE) Programme whichintroduced new categories of grassroots-level functionaries known as Preraks (fa-cilitators) and assistant Preraks. Their jobis to set up and manage Continuing Edu-cation Centres and organise a series of CEprogrammes for local communities. Un-like the TLC volunteers, who worked ona purely voluntary basis, the Preraks arepaid workers with twelve specific job re-sponsibilities, ranging from surveying theneeds of the local community to organis-ing various CE activities. The training ofthe Preraks also follows the cascade ap-proach, but has been reduced to a two-tier programme. The main organiser ofthe training programme—either the ZillaSaksharta Samiti or the State ResourceCentre—identifies and trains key resource

persons who in turn train the Preraks. Thebasic purpose of the training is to equipthe Preraks with the knowledge and skillsneeded for setting up and managing Con-tinuing Education Centres and organisingCE courses for local communities.

Shah (2004) has quoted several eval-uation studies on training that have iden-tified a number of weaknesses in this ap-proach. For example, one study observedthat the pedagogy of training was notgeared to meet the needs of adolescentand women learners, who constituted thebulk of the learners. Due to the perfuncto-ry nature of training, follow-up trainingwas rarely organised. Another study indi-cated that there was considerable trainingloss due to the time gap between thetraining of the RPs and MTs, and a lack ofmotivation among MTs and VIs who hadneither genuine interest nor any aptitudefor teaching adults. Yet another study con-cluded that one of the basic reasons forthe poor quality of training of instructorslay in the “superficial training” given bythe MTs, who perceived training merelyas an “official duty”. It was concluded thatwhile the cascade approach was usefulfor training a large number of functionar-ies, the availability of resources—in termsof training content, materials, duration,funds and technical inputs—gradually di-minished and reached its lowest point atthe level of the VIs, whose training wastherefore poor. While maximum re-sources were available for MTs, only min-imal resources were available for the VIs.

The training methodology has dif-fered in the case of the NGOs that havebeen involved in adult education work. Alarge number of NGOs have tended to useparticipatory methodology in their train-ing programmes. The Society for Partici-patory Research in Asia (PRIA), a promi-



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nent NGO, has played a key role in pro-moting this methodology by organisingtraining programmes for social activistsworking in various NGOs in the country.It has also disseminated a series of publi-cations which have been widely ac-claimed within the country as well as inthe region. There are a large number ofNGOs in the country that use participato-ry approaches in training social activistsfor their programmes. Unfortunately, ex-cept for Bharat Gyan Vigyan Samiti(BGVS), NGOs that have developed inno-vative training programmes have not beeninvolved in the government-funded pro-gramme.

As in India, the level of illiteracy isalso very high in Bangladesh. Despite thefact that many literacy and adult educa-tion programmes have been launchedover the past 50 years, Bangladesh stillhas a literacy rate of only 50%. The Jom-tien Conference stimulated greater offi-cial concern about the massive problemof illiteracy. By 1995 the Directorate ofNon-Formal Education (DNFE) within theMinistry of Education had been given theresponsibility of delivering all non-formaleducation programmes, including literacy,post-literacy and continuing educationfor adults and adolescents. The DNFEworks closely with NGOs around thecountry. Presently, there are about 500NGOs involved in the delivery of adultliteracy and basic education programmes,with about one million grassroots-levelfacilitators delivering these programmes.

Previously, the DNFE funded theNGOs to run a centre-based literacy pro-gramme. This has now been abandonedand a new programme, the Total LiteracyMovement (TLM), is now being run di-rectly through the district administration.In their case study, Harun-ur Rashid and

Habibur Rehman (2004) describe thetraining content and methodology that isused for training adult educators at vari-ous levels. Training programmes are or-ganised for the facilitators, supervisors andmanagement personnel. The trainingmethodology used is mainly participato-ry; a variety of methods are used in orderto reflect learners’ life situations, whichmakes the training programmes lively andrelevant. The cascade approach is usedfor conducting top-down training fromTOT (training of trainers) to the grassrootslevel. This approach results in a dilutionof training content as well as training effi-cacy (Rashid and Rehman 2004).

In Nepal a number of social and eco-nomic indicators indicate low levels ofdevelopment. More than 80% of the pop-ulation depends completely on agricul-ture. The literacy rate in Nepal is 58%,where the female literacy rate for the 6+age group is 44% as compared to a maleliteracy rate of 70.1%.

Nepal is another country whereNGOs play a major role in the non-formalsector. While the Ministry of Educationand Sports has the main responsibility fornon-formal education programmes, in re-cent years this responsibility has been shift-ing, and implementation of the govern-ment’s non-formal education programmeshas now mainly become the responsibilityof NGOs and CBOs. Beginning in 1995,the District Education Offices have beenauthorised to implement government-sup-ported non-formal education programmesby mobilising local NGOs/CBOs. Thispolicy was adopted in the spirit of decen-tralisation, partnership and the Local Self-government Act (Shrestha 2002).

The advantage of involving NGOs inadult education programmes becomesevident when we look at the experience



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of a large number of NGOs in the region.Besides building on experience from thefield, there is a constant endeavour toask critical questions and to search fornew models and approaches in the workthey are engaged in. Chij Shrestha (2002)avers that while adult educators wouldagree that learning should promote indi-vidual and collective change throughcommunity-based learning activities, inreality this is not happening. He says thatover the past 20 years in the South Asianregion generally, and specifically inNepal, there has been a growing use oftraining programmes in experientiallearning which are tailored to respond tosector-specific needs. Yet these trainingprogrammes have fallen short of achiev-ing a change in attitudes and practisesthat are critical to the application of newknowledge and skills. He therefore pro-poses that a learning model that pays at-tention to an “enabling environment” inwhich learning and action take place iscritical to the development of sustainableand transferable learning abilities. Ac-cording to Shrestha, the first step in thelearning process is the building of foun-dation skills. These are the most funda-mental elements of the learning modeland constitute the tools a learner needsto gather and process information, buildbasic knowledge, solve simple problemsand deal effectively with new and chang-ing situations. Foundation skills are linkedwith a number of generic competenciesor enabling factors that help learners con-solidate their foundation skills and en-hance learning opportunities. In the train-ing programmes that have been conductedby World Education (an internationalNGO) in South and Southeast Asia, ex-periments have been conducted on dif-ferent ways to link foundation skills and

generic competencies with sector-specificcontent or occupation-specific compe-tencies.

In Pakistan Bunyad, an NGO, acts asan umbrella organisation to support localNGOs and CBOs that wish to work in theareas of education, health, income gener-ation and physical disabilities in rural areasand urban slums. Bunyad has made sig-nificant and sustained efforts in femaleeducation by helping local communitiesto open and manage non-formal schoolsfor girls, as well as adult literacy andawareness programmes for women. Ac-cording to Iffat Farah (2002), since Jom-tien there has been considerable invest-ment by the Pakistani government, inter-national agencies and national NGOs toimprove access to basic education forwomen. While most of these efforts havetargeted primary level education for younggirls through formal and non-formal sys-tems, a less consistent investment hasbeen made in adult literacy programmesfor women. Bunyad developed an inno-vative programme for women which com-bined basic literacy skills and informationthat raised women’s awareness of rightsand their capacity to engage in economicactivities. To implement the programme,Bunyad encouraged a group of younglocal activists to form a Basic EducationResource Training Initiative at the level ofthe district centre. Local women with sec-ondary school education (ten years ofschooling) were selected as teachers andwere given a short (four-day) initial train-ing course.

This overview of the current status ofadult educator training in the South Asianregion identifies trends that can also beseen elsewhere in the developing world.In the international review of training ofadult educators undertaken by Madhu

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Singh and Veronica McKay (2004), thetraining of adult educators is identified asa neglected area in deliberations on edu-cation in general and, more specifically,in educational policy. They note that gov-ernments and policies have tended tomarginalise adult learning and the train-ing of adult educators. In most develop-ing countries, there is a massive numberof literacy and basic education workerswho need training. Due to the paucity ofresources and limited expertise at the locallevel, only a small percentage of fieldpractitioners receive training, which issometimes reduced to knowledge trans-mission guided by the instructor and isnot multidimensional, interactive, partici-pative or learner-centred. Since some ofthe countries adopt a top-down approach,considerable transmission loss occurs.Often, training programmes are conduct-ed in an ad hoc and superficial manner,and hence literacy workers and educatorsof adults remain ill-equipped to meettheir professional commitments and thechallenges of their work situations.

Singh and McKay are therefore con-tend that there is a real need for policy-makers to think of new approaches andalternatives for the training of adult educa-tors and literacy workers. Considering theenormity of the task, it is also necessary tolook beyond the present institutional set-tings and consider how distance and openlearning can be provided as part of anarray of strategic educational solutions.

Improving the quality of training foradult educators: Some considerations

To conclude we raise nine issues for con-sideration by policymakers, planners andadministrators in order to improve thequality of training of adult educators inthe South Asian region.

a) Re-visiting and re-formulating existingeducational policies and programmes

Presently, there is a disparity between ed-ucational discourse at international leveland the manner in which it is translatedinto educational policies in different coun-tries in South Asia. Even the “expanded vi-sion of basic education” for adults, youthsand children has only focused on primaryeducation. The concept of lifelong learn-ing has not found its way into the policiesof a large number of countries in the re-gion. Due to the crippling problem of illit-eracy, the region’s highly populated coun-tries have confined themselves to reducingilliteracy, and they continue to offer adulteducation programmes that are often staticand limited in time and scope. To movebeyond this narrow perception of adult ed-ucation, concerted efforts would have tobe made to examine the shortcomings ofexisting educational policies and to re-shape them in the light of the rapidchanges that are taking place within eachcountry and internationally. Even the con-cept of literacy has undergone a change.Conceived now in the plural as “literacies”and embedded in a range of life and liveli-hood situations, literacy differs accordingto purpose, content, use and institutionalframework (UNESCO 2002:17). Also, newchallenges of social and economic devel-opment, such as globalisation, humanrights, HIV/AIDS, sustainable developmentand Millennium Development Goals, willhave to be addressed. Commitment mustbe made to meet the educational needs ofmarginalised groups, such as poor ruraland urban women, out-of-school childrenand youths, physically challenged people,migrant workers, ethnic minority groupsand refugees. A well-defined educationalpolicy is necessary for the development ofsuitable training content and methodology,


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as well as for identifying partner institu-tions/organisations.

b) The importance of training adult edu-cators at various levels

Presently, the training of adult educatorsis a neglected aspect of adult basic educa-tion programmes; often it is not even in-cluded in the planning process of adult ed-ucation. Many of the training programmesfor adult educators are conducted as amere ritual or formality, so that they con-tribute only minimally to the professionalgrowth of the personnel involved. Thissituation has arisen because there is lackof understanding of the importance oftraining adult educators at various levels.As a result, adult education programmesare often started with inadequate or notraining at all.

The importance of training not just thegrassroots educators but also functionariesat various levels has to be fathomed. Train-ing plans have to be made, institutions forproviding such training identified, andbudget allocations made on a sustainedbasis. Training has to be seen not as aone-shot affair but as an on-going process.In-service and continuing education op-portunities should be created by offeringcourses that can lead to career develop-ment, offer certification and therefore pro-vide increased motivation to learn.

c) The importance of involving a morediverse range of stakeholders and or-ganisations

Today the design and implementation ofmany adult basic education and literacyprogrammes is a complex task. It must in-volve a more diverse range of stakeholdersand organisations, including local com-munity organisations, central governmentministries, universities, the private sector,international funding agencies, internation-

al and indigenous NGOs, and capacitybuilding organisations that have specialistknowledge and experience of basic edu-cation provision and training. Capacity-building organisations use participatory,local forms of analysis for programme de-sign and learning, such as participatoryrural/rapid appraisal, participatory needsanalysis and participatory learning ap-praisal. Building networks, coalitions andstrategic alliances would go a long way instrengthening the training programmes ofadult educators.

d) The importance of putting the learnerat centre stage

For an adult education programme to bemeaningful, the learner has to be at cen-tre stage, and the facilitator has to be seento be supportive of the process of learn-ing chosen by the learner. Since learningstyles and needs differ among adults, it isuseful to review some principles of adultlearning since understanding them willdecide the training content as well as thetraining methodology. So adults decidefor themselves what needs to be learned.They never approach additional learningwith a “clean slate”; thus learning thatlacks a concrete link to the life of thelearner has little value. Rather, learnersdraw upon past experience as a bench-mark by which they measure any new in-formation. Adults have learning needsclosely related to their lives and theirwork. They tend to define a useful learn-ing experience as one in which they canlink the new knowledge to their experi-ence and thus solve problems. They ex-pect information given to them to be im-mediately useful and that the process oflearning to be convenient and interesting.Above all, adults have a significant abilityto serve as a knowledgeable resource tothe facilitator and to fellow learners.


What is evident from the foregoing isthat, since adult needs are varied, the en-tire spectrum of adult learning in relationto intention has to be considered. Whileformal institutions of various kinds makeup one range of institutional support forsuch programmes, the challenge is toidentify all learning spaces that are avail-able for non-formal and informal learn-ing. These might include community cen-tres, libraries, mass media, youth clubs,women’s gatherings and the wide rangeof institutions, organisations and settingsthat make up a learning environment.Furthermore, rather than education beingthe concern of departments/ministries ofeducation alone, the various related de-partments and ministries, such as those ofhealth, agriculture and rural development,labour, and the environment, should becharged with training and implementa-tion of the programmes.

e) The importance of using participatoryapproaches

Experience is now showing that adult ed-ucation programmes deriving from needsassessments that directly involve learnersin analysing their interests and identifyingneeds are more successful than mass cam-paigns implemented by a governmentministry and focused on eradication. Ac-cording to Chris Yates (2004), the moresuccessful programmes have tended touse context-sensitive, localised and par-ticipatory models of action and learning.Participatory approaches inform thewhole curriculum development and im-plementation experience so that learnersare themselves directly involved in the de-sign, development, critical assessment andimprovement of their basic education pro-gramme. With more and more researchand field experiences validating the im-portance of participatory approaches, it is

necessary for training programmes to buildthe requisite skills among adult educators.

f) The importance of integrating genderconcerns into adult educator training

The education of girls and women isproving to be a major educational chal-lenge in South Asia. Yet issues relating togender are rarely included in trainingprogrammes for adult educators. Thereare several issues pertaining to genderthat require attention, including issues ofsocialisation and acculturation of boysand girls, as well as societal attitudes to-wards women and the internalisation oftheir subordination. Gender-related train-ing programmes need to be organised atall levels in order to question patriarchalvalues that affect the lives of both menand women. Inadequate attention hasbeen paid so far to understanding howwomen learn and what the barriers are totheir learning. The feminist literature oneducation suggests that women’s learn-ing styles differ from those of men. Theyare more interested than men in interac-tive learning. Given their preference for“social learning”, it is important to pro-vide them with opportunities to meetand interact with one another. Researchhas also shown that women do best inlearning environments that value affec-tive forms, as well as knowledge thatcomes from their life experiences aswomen. It is therefore necessary to un-derstand more about their experiences,their learning needs and the differencesand diversity among them, if a woman-friendly and woman-sensitive approachis to be planned for and implemented(Dighe 2002). Critical media literacywould be required to ensure that womencan analyse the stereotypical and retro-grade images of women that are con-veyed by the mass media.

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g) The importance of developing newmodels to promote adult learning

Training programmes organised by govern-ment-run organisations/institutions normal-ly do not pay much attention to efficacy.As a result, the quality of the training pro-grammes is often poor and their usefulnessquestionable. Training programmes focuslargely on knowledge transmission and theacquisition of skills. Rarely is an attemptmade to examine personal values and theextent to which they affect the adult educa-tor’s attitudes, beliefs and ideas. PoonamBhushan (2002) refers to the importance ofcritical, reflective learning in training adulteducators. Building on Jack Mezirow’swork, critical reflection on practise is sug-gested as a central element of learning forpersonal and professional growth. Such re-flection is particularly important whendealing with people who hold patriarchalvalues, or are intolerant of people fromother communities, castes, religions or eth-nic groups. The advantage of involvingNGOs is that they tend to try to improvethe quality of their training programmes bydeveloping models that promote adultlearning and bring about sustainedchange in individuals and communities.

h) The importance of research andevaluation of training programmes

Research and evaluation of adult educatortraining programmes is a neglected area.As a result, very little is known about theeffectiveness of training programmes orthe impact they have had. It is necessaryto understand not only the outcome butalso the processes involved in training sothat corrective action can be taken whenneeded. Research and evaluation of train-ing programmes, using participatory andaction research methodologies, wouldhelp to improve the quality of trainingprogrammes.

i) Use of open/distance learning meth-odologies for training adult educators

While there is extensive international ex-perience of open and distance learningapproaches for formal teacher training,the situation regarding the use of tech-nologies in the training of adult educatorsand literacy workers has been perfuncto-ry, with little effort having been made tolearn from such experiences and to buildon them. Tony Dodd (2004) examinesthe under-utilisation of open and distancelearning in training adult literacy and non-formal educators and proposes its expan-sion for various reasons. Its greatest ad-vantage is that it can reach large numbersof learners at the same time, and to do soit requires a minimum of institutional in-frastructure. In the process, it can reachout to trainees in remote and scatteredareas over a wide terrain.

The second advantage is that it cantrain facilitators without taking them awayfrom their work. As a result, it is possibleto provide long-term and in-depth trainingas compared to the traditionally short, in-tensive training. If correctly planned, suchtraining can lead to professional qualifica-tions that can in turn be a means of careerdevelopment and thereby become an im-portant form of motivation.

Finally, training by open and dis-tance learning can be highly economical.If the numbers to be trained are large,economies of scale come into play. Butwhile open and distance learning meth-odologies appear to be attractive, they arenot a panacea for all the problems relatingto the provision of quality training. Singhand McKay (2004) suggest that, unlessthe importance of quality issues—such asunderstanding cultural diversity and usingcontext-sensitive approaches, sensitivityto local knowledge, use of participatory


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approaches, understanding pedagogicalissues, and the creation of a conducivelearning environment—are integratedinto adult educator training, the role andthe use of open and distance learning willremain problematic and will not automat-ically transform educational practise.

References

Ahmed, Mansoor. 2002. Lifelong Learning andthe Learning Society. In: Institutionalising Life-long Learning: Creating Conducive Environmentsfor Adult Learning in the Asian Context, ed. byMadhu Singh, 22–42. Hamburg: UNESCO Insti-tute for Education.

Bhushan, Poonam. 2002. Training of Functionar-ies in Adult Education: An Indian Perspective.www.col.org/pcf2/papers%5Cbhushan.pdf.

Dighe, Anita. 2002. Understanding How AdultsLearn: Some Considerations for Institutional Re-sponses to Meeting Basic Learning Needs. In: In-stitutionalising Lifelong Learning: Creating Con-ducive Environments for Adult Learning in theAsian Context, ed. by Madhu Singh, 139–152.Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education.

Dodds, Tony. 2004. Open and Distance Learn-ing: Training and Support for Adult Educators inthe Field. In: Enhancing Adult Basic Learning:Training Educators and Unlocking the Potentialof Distance and Open Learning, ed. by MadhuSingh and Veronica McKay, 256–267. Hamburg:UNESCO Institute for Education; Pretoria: Univer-sity of South Africa.

Farah, Iffat. 2002. Improving Quality of Life In-dices: The Role of Women’s Literacy in RuralPunjab, Pakistan. In: Institutionalising LifelongLearning: Creating Conducive Environments forAdult Learning in the Asian Context, ed. byMadhu Singh, 326–334. Hamburg: UNESCO In-stitute for Education.

Rashid, Harun-ur, and ANS Habibur Rahman.2004. Literacy and Adult Basic Education inBangladesh. In: Enhancing Adult Basic Learning:Training Educators and Unlocking the Potential ofDistance and Open Learning, ed. by Madhu Singhand Veronica McKay, 161–185. Hamburg: UN-ESCO Institute for Education; Pretoria: Universityof South Africa.

Shah, S. Yusuf. 2004. Approaches to TrainingGrassroots-level Workers in Literacy and AdultBasic Education: The Indian Scenario. In: Enhanc-ing Adult Basic Learning: Training Educators andUnlocking the Potential of Distance and OpenLearning, ed. by Madhu Singh and VeronicaMcKay, 29–66. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute forEducation; Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Shrestha, Satya Bahadur. 2002. Government andNGO Response to Cultural Diversity in Promot-ing Adult Learning in Nepal. In: InstitutionalisingLifelong Learning: Creating Conducive Environ-ments for Adult Learning in the Asian Context, ed.by Madhu Singh, 102–110. Hamburg: UNESCOInstitute for Education.

Shrestha, Chij K. 2002. Sustainable and Transfer-able Learning Abilities: Building on Experiencefrom the Field. In: Institutionalising Lifelong Learn-ing: Creating Conducive Environments for AdultLearning in the Asian Context, ed. by MadhuSingh, 49–60. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Ed-ucation.

Singh, Madhu, and Veronica McKay. 2004. Im-proving the Quality of Adult Basic Learning andEducator Training. In: Enhancing Adult BasicLearning: Training Educators and Unlocking thePotential of Distance and Open Learning, ed. byMadhu Singh and Veronica McKay, 1–27. Ham-burg: UNESCO Institute for Education; Pretoria:University of South Africa.

Torres, Rosa María. 2001. Lifelong Learning: ANew Momentum and a New Opportunity forAdult Basic Learning and Education (ABLE). Astudy commissioned by SIDA. Buenos Aires: In-stituto Fronesis (mimeograph).

Yates, Chris. 2004. Can Open, Distance and Flex-ible Learning Assist with Adult Basic Education? –Pursuing the Concept of Quality in the Context ofEducation for All. In: Enhancing Adult BasicLearning: Training Educators and Unlocking thePotential of Distance and Open Learning, ed. byMadhu Singh and Veronica McKay, 187–218.Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Education; Preto-ria: University of South Africa.

UNESCO. 2002. Education for All: Is the Worldon Track? Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO Institute for Education (UIE). 2001. Re-flecting on Lifelong Learning in Asia in the 21stCentury. Hamburg: UNESCO Institute for Educa-tion.


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Today, more than ever before, greaternumbers of adults are engaged in

learning and educational activities. Adultlearning is no longer confined to purelyeducational settings. It occurs in commer-cial, industrial, governmental, non-gov-ernmental and private institutions, and inmany other settings without an obviouseducational dimension. Adult educationincludes virtually all activities in whichthe capabilities of adults are developedfor specific purposes. Often such activi-ties are classified as human resources de-velopment or by another designation thatobscures their educational dimension.

The proliferation of adult educationhas inevitably led to an increase in thenumber of adult educators. Various termsare used to describe them, terms that re-flect the fact that many who engage inadult education and development do notperceive themselves explicitly as adulteducators. Terms like “training manager”,“training officer” and “human resourcesdevelopment officer” are common de-scriptions of adult educators in the corpo-rate world. “Community development of-ficer”, “community educator”, “commu-nity trainer”, “extension officer”, “healtheducator”, “family planning officer”,“sanitation officer”, “home economist”,“village health worker” and “mobilisationofficer” are common terms in the publicand the non-governmental sectors. Asthese terms suggest, each of these people

is an expert in a particular area. For ex-ample, the agricultural extension officeris well versed in agricultural matters,while the health worker is an expert onhealth issues.

Although adult educators are wellversed in their areas of specialisation, theyoften lack expertise in the processes ofadult education. Exposure to the theory ofadult education has proved very effectivein enabling the adult educators to com-bine practise and theory and thus becomemore effective in their work with adultlearners. Several programmes exist inAfrica that offer adult educators opportu-nities to learn more about the processes ofadult education.

This chapter contains a brief outlineof a few such efforts. Using insights de-rived from these efforts, the chapter at-tempts to offer general recommendationsfor the professional training of adult edu-cators in Africa. In addition, it critically ex-amines the issue of the professionalisationof adult education, and the problems as-sociated with the recognition and accred-itation of adult education in Africa. Thischapter also offers some general thoughtson policies that are conducive to the pro-motion of professional training of adulteducators. Finally, it presents some rec-ommendations on how the professionaltraining of adult educators in Africa canbenefit from international co-operationand networking.

Issues in the Training of Adult Educators: An African Perspective

Stanley Mpofu

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The professional training of adult educators in Africa: An overview

Three principal models of training adulteducators can be found in Africa. First,there is the traditional semi-distance edu-cation model typical of the adult educa-tion programmes offered by the Universi-ties of Zimbabwe (Harare, Zimbabwe)and Witwatersrand (Johannesburg, SouthAfrica). The former offers professionaltraining programmes in adult educationfrom the level of diploma to Ph.D., whilethe latter offers programmes from the de-gree level upwards. Founded under moreor less similar circumstances by the sameperson, Professor Denzil Russell, thesetwo programmes have, to this day, fo-cussed on the two traditional roles of adulteducation: as an agent of socio-politicalchange and as a means of empowermentfor the disenfranchised. Accordingly, theprofessional training offered at these insti-tutions continues to lean towards commu-nity-based education programmes, suchas adult literacy and basic education, com-munity development, health education,and workers’ and trade union educationand training. However, the arrival of in-dependence in Zimbabwe and democra-cy in South Africa has necessitated a shifttowards a more inclusive curriculum thatreflects the expanding role of adult edu-cation in society.

The programmes offered at these twoinstitutions are designed for the practisingadult educator. Hence, the programmesare semi-distance in nature. The studentsstudy independently most of the time.They attend only short residential ses-sions or study blocks on campus at desig-nated intervals throughout the academicyear. Altogether, they are not expected tobe away from their workplaces for longerthan eight weeks per academic year. And,

in accordance with the philosophy ofadult education, the programmes offeredat these institutions are experiential andlearner-directed in format. Thus the pro-grammes seek to demonstrate the link be-tween theory and practise and thereby toenable participants to apply what theylearn in the programme immediately totheir work settings.

The second model of training adulteducators is distance education, exempli-fied by the University of South Africa’s(UNISA) Adult Basic Education and Train-ing Programme (ABET), the University ofNamibia’s (UNAM) Diploma in Adult Ed-ucation and Community Developmentand the Namibia College of Open Learn-ing’s (NAMCOL) Certificate in Educationand Development. Like the semi-distancemodel, this model seeks to develop theadult education skills of practitioners andthus to formalise their roles as adult edu-cators. However, unlike the semi-distancemodel, this one relies on the availability ofrelevant study guides for each course. TheNAMCOL and the UNAM programmeshave had their share of problems relatedto materials. The former mitigated some ofthese problems by using UNISA’s ABETstudy materials, while the latter has, todate, run the programme as a semi-dis-tance education programme along thelines of those offered by the Universitiesof Zimbabwe and Witwatersrand.

In the third model of adult educatortraining, there are full-time programmes,ranging from one to four years in dura-tion. Full-time professional adult educa-tion programmes take several forms. Forexample, there are full-time programmesthat cater to the practitioner, such as thedegree programme at the University ofBotswana and the advanced diploma of-fered by the Centre for Adult and Contin-


47

uing Education (CACE) at the Universityof the Western Cape. Although consistentwith the traditional purpose of adult edu-cation to improve the skills of the practi-tioner, this model takes the practitioneraway from the field of practise for verylong periods. The practitioners do not getto apply immediately what they learn inthe programme. Clearly, this model ismore concerned with helping practition-ers acquire professional qualificationsrather than with allowing them to applyimmediately what they learn. It worksvery well when a practitioner is able toget study leave for the duration of thetraining programme.

An adjunct to these full-time pro-grammes is provided by the pre-employ-ment full-time model that caters to theschool leaver. Examples of this model arethe University of Namibia’s full-time un-dergraduate programmes. Unlike those al-ready mentioned, these programmes donot avoid creating unemployment. Bytraining an annual average of 40 diploma-level and 20 degree-level graduates inadult education, this model risks floodingthe job market. If this happens, it may cre-ate despondency among unemployedprofessionally trained adult educators andtherefore reduce enrolment in other adulteducator training programmes.

Recognition, accreditation and profes-sionalisation of adult education

Although adult education has been a fieldof study for more than 50 years, it contin-ues to suffer from a serious problem ofperception, which, though not confinedto a particular part of the world, is acute inAfrica. Commenting on the state of adulteducation in Africa, Michael Omolewa(1995) lamented the general marginality

of adult education in most countries in theregion. He contends that there is a generallack of comprehension of adult educationin Africa and that this has led to indecisivepolicies on the structure and managementof adult education. He goes on to pointout that there is no consensus on the pur-pose of adult education and consequentlyvery little commitment to the promotionof adult education activities. In most partsof Africa, the perception of adult educa-tion remains very narrow, particularly inthe eyes of the layperson. Adult educationcontinues to be viewed as little more thanliteracy and remedial education.

A recent survey conducted amongindividual and institutional providers ofadult learning in Namibia (Mpofu andAmin 2003) found that a significant pro-portion of institutions (29 out of 68) andthe majority of individuals (51 out of 88)equated adult education with either liter-acy education or night school for adultswho missed out on formal schooling.

The lack of social recognition foradult education has serious implicationsfor accreditation and the professionalisa-tion of adult education. With regard toaccreditation, it is very difficult for the rel-evant authorities properly to evaluate aqualification in a field that is not only un-clear but on which there no consensus inrespect of meaning and scope.

In Namibia the two providers of pro-fessional adult education programmes(NAMCOL and UNAM) are still battlingthe relevant authorities with regard to theaccreditation and articulation of the Cer-tificate in Education and Development(CED) and the Diploma in Adult Educa-tion. A case in point is the requirementby the Public Service Commission (PSC)that the two-year CED programme be“upgraded to a three-year teaching qual-


48

ification”. It would appear that the PSCdoes not at present have a job categoryfor adult educators. Upgrading the CEDto a three-year teaching certificate wouldtherefore enable the PSC to place theCED holders on a par with the holders ofthe three-year teaching certificate fromteachers’ colleges. This is not an isolatedcase. Many such cases exist all over thecontinent. Existing job categories basedon the professional requirements of theformal education system have been soentrenched in society that many authori-ties and other social agencies do not seebeyond them. Hence, the tendency is toview anything unfamiliar in terms of ex-isting categories instead of creating a newcategory. The CED does not fit into theframework of teaching qualifications be-cause it was never intended to be a teach-ing qualification. In this respect, it seemsthat duration rather than programme con-tent was the key factor with regard to ar-ticulation and accreditation. In most cases,duration and content are considered to-gether for the purposes of accreditationand articulation.

The issue of duration is equally oneof cost. The longer the programme, themore expensive it is likely to be. Profes-sional programmes in Africa vary greatlywith respect to duration. Namibia seemsto offer the longest route. A person whobegins at the CED level can easily spendnine years before obtaining a degree fromUNAM. A person who begins the profes-sional journey in adult education from thediploma or the certificate level will spendat least five years before graduating with adegree from UNAM. Although relativelyshorter (two years to diploma level andtwo more to degree level), the Botswanaroute is particularly time-intensive due toits full-time nature. Similarly, the diploma

course offered at CACE (University of theWestern Cape) appears short (one year),but is also time-intensive due to its full-time format. With a duration of four tofive years part-time, the Universities ofWitwatersrand and Zimbabwe offer theshortest available route to the attainmentof a degree in adult education. However,in practise this route also involves consid-erable difficulties. The quality of the qual-ification can easily be compromised if thelearner has to juggle work and studies. Onthe other hand, full-time programmesdeny learners the opportunity to apply onMonday what they learned on Friday,something considered almost a require-ment of adult education worldwide.

Issues of social recognition, accredita-tion and articulation have serious implica-tions for the professionalisation of adulteducation. People are generally reluctantto embark on a professional journey thatlacks recognition. This is particularly im-portant for pre-employment adult educa-tion programmes. A qualification that lackssocial recognition may jeopardise one’schances for employment. Once again,UNAM provides a case in point. Of themore than 400 students who have en-rolled in the full-time diploma programmeat UNAM, 90% did not include adult ed-ucation among their three preferredchoices for programmes of study. Onlywhen they did not qualify for any of theirother choices did they opt to study adulteducation. Due to its lower entry require-ments, the Diploma in Adult Educationand Community Development gave stu-dents a convenient entry point into uni-versity education. Not surprisingly, manyof these students later tended to jump shipand join other programmes, until the Uni-versity put an end to the practise in Janu-ary 2002. The few that included adult ed-


49

ucation among their initial choices werepracticing adult educators who needed aprofessional qualification in the field oftheir practise.

Another case in point is provided bythe survey on the perceptions of adultlearning in Namibia (Mpofu and Amin2003). An insignificant number (five) ofthe 31 individual respondents whose jobdescriptions designated them as adult ed-ucators were enrolled or planning to enrolin a professional adult education pro-gramme. The rest were enrolled or wereplanning to enrol in programmes that fur-thered their areas of specialisation. In otherwords, they sought to enhance their pro-fessionalism in their areas of specialisa-tion. This highlights one of the greatestchallenges for the professionalisation ofadult education, namely the reluctance ofmany practising adult educators to identi-fy themselves with the field.

Many adult education practitionersare not schooled in the theory of adultlearning. Consequently, they do not iden-tify themselves with the field of adultlearning. Instead, they view themselvesas health educators, nutritionists, homeeconomists or in terms of other job titlesthat obscure the educational nature oftheir activities. Accordingly, when forcedto choose between developing the con-tent or the practise of their work, theychoose the former.

Although the odds are clearly stackedagainst professionalisation, adult educa-tors must also heed the advice of MichaelWelton (cited in: Scott et al. 2002) andvigorously support the professionalisa-tion of the field. As members of an edu-cational meritocracy, professional adulteducators have a clear stake in the field.It is in their professional interest to pro-mote the professionalisation of the field.

To this end, it is necessary to cease to seeadult education as a crusade (Okech 2001)to begin to see it as a form of knowledge(Rockhill cited in: Welton 1994). In thewords of Tom Heaney (1993), we musttherefore develop the best and the bright-est in adult education and validate theprivileges of this educated elite.

In this age of lifelong learning, educa-tion in general has shifted from being acommon good to a consumer product.According to Richard Edwards (1995), ed-ucation is now part of a “learning market”that supports economic needs for skills,competence and mobility. Adult educa-tion must take advantage of the learningsociety and shift from being an element ina crusade for social justice to a commer-cial commodity with a price tag on it. AsGlen Hass (1992: 33) pointed out, “Wemust treat adult education as a commodi-ty that can be purchased. We should notbe embarrassed to put a price on it. Intoday’s society, value is usually measuredby price. Adult education will become in-creasingly valuable.”

According to Matthias Finger (1995),the perception of adult education as aform of empowerment shared by PauloFreire, Myles Horton and Julius Nyereremay have lost the political context thatgave it meaning. There is therefore a needfor a new collective orientation in adulteducation, not only in Africa but world-wide. The success of this new vision will,to a very large extent, depend on our abil-ity to professionalise the field.

As is evident from the preceding dis-cussion, the professionalisation of adulteducation is likely to come with a largeprice attached—the abandonment of thesocial justice model that has served adulteducation well over the years. Just as theprofessionalisation of formal education


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has served to uphold and perpetuate thatsystem of education, the professionalisa-tion of adult education will serve to es-tablish and preserve adult education as afield of study. This may very well havethe undesired effect of turning adult edu-cation into a conservative educationalsystem bent on preserving the status quo,something that is anathema to the philos-ophy of adult education.

The professional characteristics ofadult educators

A critical analysis of the field reveals coreareas of study that befit a professionaladult educator. First, such educators needto be familiar with the philosophicalfoundations of adult education. This is animportant step in the professionalisationof the field. For one to identify with afield, one must be schooled in the theoryof that field. There is an element of emo-tional attachment that develops from be-ing associated with a particular fieldthrough schooling, which is different frombeing associated through practise only.Secondly, professional adult educatorsmust possess a critical perspective of poli-cies and practises of adult education.Knowledge of policy and policy alterna-tives enables adult educators to appreciatethe suitability of various adult educationprogrammes to the needs of a constantlychanging society. Similarly, knowledgeof the general practise of adult educationenables adult educators to appreciate thescope of adult education as well as itslimitations. Thirdly, professional adult ed-ucators need to be schooled in the devel-opment of adult education programmes.Given the context-specific nature of adultlearning needs, this is an essential com-ponent of the professional training of adult

educators. They need to know the crucialsteps involved in the development of pro-grammes which will address the learningneeds of their clientele. Fourthly, adulteducators must be schooled in the organ-isation and management of adult educa-tion programmes. This essentially involvesan analysis of the suitability of various or-ganisational and management strategiesfor the administration of adult educationprogrammes. Finally, adult educators mustbe conversant with methods of investiga-tion in education. Adult educators areoften required to conduct research (e.g.,needs assessments) as part of the adulteducation process. In addition, adult ed-ucators can benefit from the research ofothers (e.g., research on ways to increaseparticipation in adult education pro-grammes) and use it to improve theirpractise. Consequently, adult educationprofessionals need to acquire skills inproducing and analysing research.

In addition to these core areas ofstudy, adult educators need to be given anopportunity to enhance their proficiencyin specialised areas of adult education,such as literacy education or workers’ ed-ucation. Training in these specialisedareas must be available to the profession-al adult educator on demand.

With regard to models of instruction,a superficial analysis of current practiseseems to suggest that semi-distance edu-cation is the most suitable model for train-ing professional adult educators. Giventhe time limitations of the adult learner, itseems best to allow adult educators toapply immediately what they learn. Full-time programmes deny them this opportu-nity. Also, current trends in employmentindicate that it will be increasingly diffi-cult for adults to obtain fully-paid studyleave. Since all adults are breadwinners in


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one way or another, they are more likelyto participate in a semi-distance educationprogramme than a full-time programmerequiring daily classroom attendance.

Modularising the semi-distance edu-cation programme can provide addition-al flexibility in the training of professionaladult educators. Learners should be givenmaximum possible flexibility in partici-pating in a programme. For example,learners who complete two modules outof five should be at liberty to drop out fora year without losing the credits for themodules that they have completed.

The existence of multi-media facilitiescapable of producing printed materials,providing telecommunications, broadcast-ing and audio recording, makes the part-time semi-distance education model easilyapplicable across Africa. The advent ofvideo conferencing (though limited to spe-cific areas) provides additional flexibilityfor tutorials. The semi-distance educationmode of training professional adult educa-tors would benefit tremendously fromcomputer conferencing and networking.Lamentably, this technology is still severalgenerations away in most parts of Africa.

Also, the availability and accessibili-ty of locally produced reading materialswith African examples would go a longway towards grounding adult educationin the context of African society. Regret-tably, professional adult education pro-grammes in Africa continue to rely al-most entirely on reading materials fromother continents, particularly Western Eu-rope and North America. Unfortunately,this has served to portray adult educationas a Western luxury that African societies(most of which are struggling with formaleducation) can ill afford. It is hoped thatthe current initiative to produce adult ed-ucation textbooks from an African per-

spective, which is being undertaken atthe University of Botswana under the aus-pices of UNESCO and the Institute for In-ternational Co-operation of the GermanAdult Education Association (IIZ/DVV),will go a long way towards alleviating thisproblem. Apart from increasing the per-ceived relevance to Africa, the books inthe series African Perspectives on AdultLearning will be more affordable to theaverage student, thus making them easilyaccessible to semi-distance learners.

A flexible mode of instruction alsocalls for a flexible mode of assessment.A combination of assignments, practicalprojects and theoretical examinationsshould suffice. It must be borne in mindthat the term “professionalisation” iswidely understood in connection withexaminations. Therefore, examinationsmust be an important feature of profes-sional training of adult educators.

National and institutional policies

A clearly defined policy on adult learningprovides proper guidelines on coverageand planning parameters. It highlights thevariety of adult learning activities and thusfosters co-ordination and collaboration be-tween the many players in the field, andat the same time draws the attention of thepublic to available adult learning opportu-nities. In addition, a properly constitutedpolicy offers guidance on cost-effectivedelivery modes. This is particularly impor-tant in Africa where very few resourcesare available for the promotion of adultlearning.

Since UNESCO’s Fifth InternationalConference on Adult Education (CON-FINTEA V) in 1997, there is evidence ofan increasing acceptance of and a re-newed commitment to lifelong learning


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and the promotion of learning societies incertain parts of Africa. Two cases areworth noting in this connection. First, theGovernment of Namibia approved a Na-tional Policy on Adult Learning in 2003.Second, the Pietermaritzburg Declaration(2002), which was signed by 19 Africancountries, is clear testimony to a renewedcommitment to lifelong learning by nu-merous countries in Africa. Hopefully, thisrenewed commitment will be followedby an increased allocation of resources tothe promotion of adult education, whichin turn will create greater pressure for theprofessionalisation of the field.

Finally, to uphold the traditionalimage of adult education as a provider ofeducational opportunities to marginalisedsectors of the community, institutionsmust incorporate the recognition of priorlearning into the admission procedures ofprofessional adult education programmes.Learners must be credited for prior learn-ing that is relevant to the training pro-gramme at hand.


There is not a single international gather-ing of adult education scholars that doesnot recommend international co-opera-tion and networking of some sort. Yetthere is very little co-operation and net-working among providers of professionaladult education programmes. There is anurgent need to examine which conditionsare conducive to co-operation and net-working between the key adult educationinstitutions within particular regions andbeyond. There is also a need to determinethe areas in which co-operation is bothmost needed and most feasible. Most ob-viously these include co-operation in the

development of programmes, in the devel-opment of study materials, in the sharingof relevant materials and in staff exchangesand staff development programmes. Co-operation and networking are crucial forthe global articulation of professional pro-grammes.

Conclusion

To conclude, the following may be statedwith certainty: adult education can growas a field of study (and thus as a profes-sion) if those who practise it identifythemselves with the field and are there-fore committed to improvement of prac-tise in the field. The onus is on profes-sional adult educators to embrace adulteducation as both a field of practise and afield of study. A properly articulated fieldwith wide recognition is also more likelyto attract adherents than the amorphousfield that adult education has been per-ceived to be for so long.

References

Edwards, Richard. 1995. Behind the Banner.Adults Learning 6(6): 187–189.

Finger, Matthias. 1995. Adult Education and So-ciety Today. International Journal of Lifelong Ed-ucation 14(2): 110–119.

Hass, Glen. 1992. Entrepreneurial Education. In:Canadian Association for University Adult Edu-cation: Conference Proceedings, Ed. 356/383:29–34. Ottawa: CAUCE.

Heaney, Tom W. 1993. Identifying and Dealingwith Educational, Social and Political Issues.New Directions for Adult and Continuing Edu-cation 60: 3–20.

Mpofu, Stanley, and Miriam Amin. 2003. A Sur-vey of Perceptions, Delivery Systems and Fundingof Adult Learning in Namibia. Windhoek, Namib-ia: Directorate of Adult and Basic Education, Min-istry of Basic Education, Sport and Culture.


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Okech, Anthony. 2001. Participation in theICAE World Assembly: Thematic Workshop onDocumentation and on Training of Adult Educa-tors. Conference Report of the Sixth World As-sembly of the International Council for Adult Ed-ucation, Ocho Rios, Jamaica, 9–12 August.

Omolewa, Michael. 1995. Trends in AfricanAdult Education Research. Adult Education andDevelopment 45: 37–44.

Pietermaritzburg Declaration. 2002. Internation-al Conference on Adult Basic and Literacy Edu-

cation in the Southern African DevelopmentCommunity (SADC) Region. University of Natal,Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, 3–5 December.

Scott, Sue M., Bruce Spencer, and Alan M.Thomas (eds.). 2002. Learning for Life: CanadianReadings in Adult Education. Toronto: Thomp-son Educational Publishing.

Welton, Michael. 1994. Cathedrals and Dog-houses. International Journal of Lifelong Educa-tion 13(4): 281–289.


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Our intention in this chapter is to ex-amine the role of the Nordic Folk

Academy (NFA) in the professional andpersonal development of adult educationpractitioners. The NFA has developedcourses in continuing education and fur-ther training for adult educators in Nordiccountries of the Baltic Sea area. The NFAis a meeting place for adult educators andfunctions as a development centre forpopular and adult education in the Nordicregion and beyond. The aim of the NFA isto foster and develop co-operation amongadult educators in the Nordic countries,as well as between the Nordic countriesand other European countries.

In this chapter we present examplesfrom a recent project entitled “Learning 4Sharing” (see www.learning4sharing.nu),which began in 2000 and which aims todevelop new courses for adult educationpractitioners in Estonia, Latvia and Lithua-nia, based on the experience and needsin these three countries. It uses models ofbest practise that have been developed inNordic countries (Norway, Sweden, Fin-land and Denmark) and the rest of Eu-rope (primarily within the EU).

Current practise in the education andtraining of adult educators in the region

Recent training programmes have exam-ined the existing practise in the Nordic

and Baltic countries, and have modifiedand applied the most interesting and rele-vant elements. The following factors wereidentified as having contributed to thesuccess of existing adult educator trainingprogrammes:

1. Flexibility regarding time andplace: The Folk High School (FHS; www.gbg.fhsk.se) in Göteborg, Sweden, offers aDiploma of Folk High School Teacher Ed-ucation (see Apendix 1). The diploma canbe acquired after either one year of full-time study or two years of part-time study.The University College of Århus in Den-mark (www.jcvu.dk) offers a similar time-frame for adult educator training. Beingable to study at a distance and have a fewface-to-face meetings increases the motiva-tion of adult educators and the likelihoodthat they will take up professional studies.

2. Valuing professional experience:For applicants to the course at Göteborg’sFHS, the level of previous academic studyis not the decisive issue. One can enrol inthe course after either three years (120credits) of academic study or with fiveyears full-time work experience in folk-bildning (non-formal adult education).The Estonian programme for adult educa-tion practitioners requires three years ofprofessional experience as an adult edu-cator for entry. The Latvian programmehas no stipulated entry requirements withregard to formal education level. The de-

The Professional and Personal Develop-ment of Adult Education Practitioners inNorthern Europe

Antra Carlsen

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cisive factor is whether the applicant is ac-tively involved in the field of adult learn-ing—for example, as a teacher, mentor,coach, leader or consultant.

3. Diversity of target groups for adulteducation courses: The adult educator’straining course at the University Collegeof Århus aims to provide professionaladult education skills to a broad range ofprofessionals (including school teachers,nurses and trades people) who becomeinvolved in teaching adults. The adult ed-ucation profession is not the domain ofteachers alone. Today there is a need foreducational leadership and guidancecounselling in many other professions.Therefore, adult education training cours-es need to be organised for a broad rangeof professional groups. The training foradult educators (five credits) organised byVOX Norway (National Institute for AdultEducation, www.vox.no) in co-operationwith Telemark College, Norway, is aimedat adult education teachers, union leaders(shop stewards) and organisers of learningin companies.

4. The concept of the “reflective prac-titioner”: The courses at Göteborg’s FHSand Linköping University (www.liu.se/ffk/eng/Education) seek to understand anddevelop practise more than to implementtheories. At Göteborg’s FHS, students arerequired to read a total of 1,500–2,000pages, but there are also practise periodswhich are followed by reflection. The keyconcept is that of the “reflective practi-tioner”. A tutor leads group work afterevery practise period, with the aim of re-flecting on experience and comparing thiswith theory. At the University College ofÅrhus, the second half of the programmeis linked more to research and projectwork, and the goal is to produce a reporton one’s own practise. Practise is under-

stood not only as an educational experi-ence but also as a research opportunity.

5. Four areas of competence: Alladult educator training programmes focuson four areas of competence. The first ofthese involves pedagogical and didacticcompetence. Here emphasis is placed onbuilding skills in initiating, rationalisingand explaining. The second area of com-petence is communication skills, whereemphasis is placed on the skills needed toguide adults through the learning process.The third area is reflection competence,which should be developed throughoutthe programme. There is no learning with-out reflection, and therefore this compe-tence is very important in training adulteducation practitioners. The final area isstudy competence. This means develop-ing study skills so that, after graduating,the adult educators will be able to contin-ue with further studies on their own.

6. Multi-dimensional testing: Thefinal assessment is based on reflectionupon one’s own experience during thepractical and theoretical studies. This is awritten examination. During their stud-ies, students must reflect upon theory andpractise in a “diary”, and this constitutespart of the assessment.

The three new courses for adult edu-cation practitioners that have been devel-oped in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania with-in the Learning 4 Sharing project havebeen influenced by these important factorsidentified in existing training programmesin the Nordic and Baltic countries.

The personal and professional characteristics of adult educators

The most important and relevant roles ofthe adult educator are as guide, facilitator,teacher and coach. Based on these roles,

Development of Adult Education Practitioners in Northern Europe

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the Learning 4 Sharing project has listedfour competence fields. For each field aset of criteria has been developed to guidean adult educator towards improved per-formance. (For the list of the minimum setof criteria, see Appendix 3.)

The development of these criteria ispart of an attempt to validate qualificationsand gain recognition for adult educatortraining courses. A system of evaluationhas been developed and consists of fourparts: self-evaluation, student evaluation,employer’s evaluation and colleagues’evaluation. The four-part evaluation sys-tem provides proof of quality in the train-ing programme and gives the adult educa-tors the necessary tools to understandtheir own personal development.

The issue of professionalisation andprofessional development

Today the professional and personal de-velopment of adult educators go hand inhand. The adult educator must be ableto fulfil a number of different roles thesedays. This requires not only profession-alisation but also reflection.

Every adult educator has a uniquestyle, although he or she may use methods

similar to those of other adult educators.This original style is based on personalabilities and enables the adult educator tobehave effectively in a particular role.However, relying on one’s teaching styleentails a danger that one may rely exces-sively on one’s strong attributes and neg-lect to develop the weaker ones. There-fore, training programmes for adult educa-tors must offer the opportunity for self-de-velopment in the “opposite role” (teacher/coach, guide/facilitator). Analysing one’sown style as an adult educator is of greathelp for one’s further professional devel-opment. Also, the adult learners of todayhave changing needs and therefore theadult educator should be very flexible inhis or her role. Adult educator trainingprogrammes are thus required to follow aholistic approach that ensures both pro-fessional and personal development.

The roles of the adult educator areprincipally those of guide, teacher, facili-tator and coach. To be a guide means thatan adult educator acquaints others withnew opportunities for development. Thisrole presupposes the ability to orient learn-ers to work not only towards goals butalso towards processes. The main task ofa guide is to encourage self-motivation


Diagram 1. Map of the relations between adult educators’ roles

GUIDE(organisation)

“breaking rules”, “integration”,or innovation or holistic approach

TEACHER COACH(knowledge) (skills)

“making rules”, “empowering people”,or orientation or raising capabilitytowards values

FACILITATOR(attitudes)

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among learners. To be a teacher meansthat an adult educator is a mediator ofknowledge. The main task of this role is tocreate a positive learning environment,supporting the development of self-direct-ed learners. To be a facilitator means thatan adult educator manages group dynam-ics and helps learners to find their role ina network of relationships with both effi-ciency and care. To be a coach meansthat an adult educator is able to influencethe shaping of a learner’s personality, em-powering the learner with the skills need-ed for self-actualisation.

Training curricula, materials andmedia, and modes of instruction and assessment

The three new training programmes thathave been developed in Estonia, Latviaand Lithuania within the Learning 4 Shar-ing project have been designed on thebasis of the minimum set of criteria for agood adult educator and the four roles ofan adult educator. However, to developthe national curriculum for adult educa-tion practitioners, each country has cho-sen its own path and priorities towards thecommon goal.

Latvia has carried out market researchfor the new programme and found outthat there are two major target groups. Ithas therefore shaped the training pro-gramme according to whether the mainmission is either civil society developmentin the context of municipalities, or thepreparation of training experts for privatecompanies.

Lithuania has placed more emphasison enlarging the trainers’ network in thecountry. The idea of the “learner’s diary”has been central to curriculum develop-ment in Lithuania as a tool for self-reflec-tion and development.

Estonia has taken a model of societyas its point of departure. The training cur-riculum has been designed to develop theadult educators who could assist to devel-op an ideal model of society. The Eston-ian perspective on curriculum develop-ment is very interesting from the point ofview of civil society. It shows how adulteducation can become a tool in societaldevelopment. The Estonian curriculum de-fines the learning activities which will en-able educators of adults who have at leastthree years of teaching experience to im-prove their knowledge, skills and compe-tence in accordance with their own needs,the needs of society (social cohesion) andthe labour market.

Two principles have been taken intoaccount while developing the Estoniancurriculum. First, there is the integrationof different sectors of adult educationthrough adult educator training. Second,there is the adaptation of Estonian adulteducation with regard to its content andorganisation according to internationallyrecognised theoretical and methodologi-cal standards.

The curriculum is based on an educa-tional paradigm according to which edu-cation can develop only in the context ofthe existing global, national and local cul-ture. The relationship between the teacherand learner is based on the mutual respectfor personalities, and the teacher andlearner are partners performing differentroles in this process. In this model, adultlearning, including literacy learning, isabout learning to cope in a rapidly chang-ing world and participating consciously inshaping one’s environment. The develop-ment and needs of people at different lifestages, as well as the relationship of learn-ing to practical life situations, is taken intoaccount in this. Important factors in thesuccess of these programmes include mo-


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tivation of teachers, a humanistic orienta-tion, intuition, erudition, co-operativeabilities and health. The curriculum isopen for continuous development and ad-justment in accordance with changes insociety and science.

The national and institutional policiesrequired to enhance the training ofadult educators

The project’s title, “Learning 4 Sharing”,itself gives an idea of the nature of thisproject. “It has been a pleasure, both froman intellectual and an institutional per-spective, to support and follow the life ofthe project,” says Carina Abréu, Directorof the Nordic Folk Academy. For the par-ticipating institutions, the project has givenstaff the opportunity to educate them-selves further, according to their needs atthe time. That might involve studying fora diploma that gives a formal qualifica-tion, or it might involve developmentwork in the project group. The flexibilityof the leader will help staff to search formore diverse competencies in the contin-uing education “market”. From the expe-rience of the Learning 4 Sharing projecttwo messages emerge. One concerns theneed for support structures for continuingeducation. These include paid leave andflexible working hours. The other con-cerns the adaptation of the mode of train-ing provision to the adult educators’ de-mands. A variety of continuing educationcourses are available, both formal andnon-formal. The emphasis is on the quali-fications the course entails and on givingthe practitioners an opportunity to be-come partners in designing the course.

The methods of Learning 4 Sharingteach us a lot about how to operate in aglobal market of learning and education,

how to create avenues for exchange andco-operation, and how to remove barriers.For its participants, Learning 4 Sharing of-fers the opportunity to learn more aboutoneself and one’s institution. An organisa-tion or country develops a strong aware-ness of the need for both personal devel-opment and institutional change. Both re-quire much effort and investment of timeand other resources. However, a singleinstitution, to say nothing of an individualadult educator, cannot pursue this inno-vative path alone.


Learning 4 Sharing supports partnerships,international co-operation and the shar-ing of common experience. The NordicCouncil of Ministers has contributed tothis process by supporting the three-yearproject. With respect to international co-operation, this project shows how to takeinto account different contexts, systemsand cultures. It also demonstrates how tomotivate adult educators to get involvedin designing continuing education pro-grammes through an analysis of theirown practise and how to overcome psy-chological barriers and learn from otherpeople’s experiences.

For international co-operation it is achallenge to achieve results that are equal-ly relevant for all partners. The three fac-tors on which the success of internationalco-operation depend are communication,co-operation and quality assurance.

Three new training programmes wereadapted to the needs and situation of eachcountry. The fact that each country hasthe opportunity to implement the projectin its own way has made for highly rele-vant and differentiated project results. The


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experience of sharing has also made for ahighly creative working process and aproject that attracts great international in-terest. Communication and co-ordinationof work has been of vital importance forreaching the project goal because it hasallowed all of the countries involved andthe different working group members tobe involved and to make a major contri-bution. Finally, having a set of criteria toanalyse one’s own teaching and learningexperiences has provided the basis for thenecessary assessment system and quality

assurance procedures for the new pro-grammes.

The existence of an international net-work in this project has had an enliveningand energising effect. In the future, thecontents of the Learning 4 Sharing projectwill also be distributed through the flexi-ble, internet-based learning platform atAdult Study Net (www.adultstudy.net), aproject of the European Union’s Socratesprogramme. For co-operation and net-working, however, face-to-face meetingsamong people are still necessary.


Appendix 1: Curriculum of the DiplomaCourse in Education at the FolkHigh School, Göteborg, Sweden

The programme is divided into four blocks:

1. Adult education as social and local phe-nomena

• History of the idea, roots and meaning• Foundation of the idea, forms and in-

stitutions• Actual social tasks and conditions• Meaning in local society• Interpretation of local tasks

2. Knowledge, education, learning• Concepts• Research activities: how different adult

education institutions follow these con-cepts

• Adult education in different contexts:practice and theory

• Planning, organization and evaluationof study processes

• Didactics

3. Adult learners• Social conditions that influence the

learning of adults• Cultural, social, economical and labour

market factors that influence adultlearning

• Motivation as a personal starting pointof learning

• Specialist pedagogy • Different arenas for adult education—

formal and non-formal• Andragogy, lifelong learning, the knowl-

edge society, case studies, experientiallearning

4. Professional skills and responsibilities ofthe adult educator

• Pedagogical and social-pedagogicaltasks of the adult educator

• Different methods in working withadults

• Supporting the idea of folkbildningthrough the everyday work of the adultteacher

• Planning outdoor activities• Group processes in the adult study

group• Contextual didactic questions

Appendix 2:The M. A. programme atThe Danish University of Education, Copenhagen

The Masters programme (part-time) foradult educators awards 60 credits accord-ing to the European Credit Transfer Sys-tem. The programme lasts for two years(students take two modules per year).Studies are intensive in small groups offive to six students. There is also a lot ofcommunication via the internet.

The programme is divided into fourconceptual levels. The first level is linkedto individual approaches, the seconddeals with organizational issues, the thirdlevel analyses the social dimension, whilethe fourth level involves project work.There is a lot of emphasis on developingone’s individual skills and on studying ac-cording to one’s own learning style.

There are two modules in the syl-labus. The first deals mainly with the issueof the individual. Individual change af-fects many different aspects of personality;that is, changes relating to cognition, emo-tion, attitudes, values and action. The the-oretical spectrum is broad with a focus onadult psychology. The study of learningtheory covers individual life history, val-ues, identity, motivation, personality de-velopment, social relations and networks.The second module involves competencedevelopment in the workplace; in otherwords, organizational learning. The de-velopment of qualifications required inthe workplace is intimately connectedwith organizational development in thelight of new technologies and the globali-sation of production and trade. Thus, thecontent of this module is based on organi-zational theory.

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CriterionCriteria

descriptionMeasures

Level of achievement

(for all criteria)

List of possible tools

Self-esteem

Appreciating one’s worthand importance, being re-sponsible for oneself andacting responsibly to-wards others

1. Courage2. Openness for feed-

back3. Willingness to share

1. At present you are notmeeting this criterion, al-though the opportunityis available. This needsto be considered as apriority area for your de-velopment.

Observation bya colleague

Tolerance

Ability to demonstratefairness and understand-ing of people whose wayof thinking and opinionsdiffer from one’s own

1. Respect for differences2. Patience

2. This has beendemonstrated. Youneed to consider howyou will develop thisfurther.

Group work

Responsibility

Being responsible forone’s actions; consider-ing the result and effectsin advance

1. Self-discipline2. Commitment3. Ability to take on du-

ties and fulfil them.

3. You have met thiscriterion to a degreethat is appropriate.

Tests for partici-pants; teacher’sself-assessment

Communicationskills

1. To foster dialogue inthe learning process bydeveloping the ability tolisten actively, and totransmit information inwritten or oral form. 2. The ability to makeoneself understood andto understand others

1. Presentation, active lis-tening and question-ing skills

2. Constructive feedbackis given to learners

3. Interested in feedbackabout oneself

4. Excellent Interview; col-lecting feedbackfrom the targetgroup (question-naire)

Empathy Responsiveness

1. Responsiveness to-wards learners’ needs

2. Understanding learners’feelings

3. Ability to sense atmos-phere.

Flexibility

Ability and willingness tochange and achieve thebest result in a permanent-ly changing situation

1. Ability to adapt courseto learners’ needs

2. Ability to reorganisecourse structure ac-cording to learners’needs

video taping;self-analysis

Appendix 3: Personal development measurement criteria

Carmen Campero, Teacher and Researcher, the Adult Education Academy, NationalPedagogical University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico.

Magaly Robalino Campos, Senior Programme Specialist, UNESCO Regional Office forLatin America and the Carribbean, Santiago, Chile.

Antra Carlsen, Coordinator of a Nordic Network for Adult Learning, Swedish NationalAgency for Flexible Learning, Hässleholm, Sweden.

Anita Dighe, Director, Campus of Open Learning, University of Delhi, Delhi, India.

Gabriela Enriquez, Director for Education and Lifelong Learning, Centro de Coop-eración Regional Para La Educación de Adultos en América Latina y el Caribe (CRE-FAL), Pázcuaro, Michoacán, México.

Graciela Messina, Teacher, Guest Researcher and Consultant, Centro de CooperaciónRegional para la Educación de Adultos en América Latina y el Caribe (CREFAL),Pázcuaro, Michoacán, Mexico.

Stanley Mpofu, Consultant, International Consulting Services, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe.

Madhu Singh, Senior Programme Specialist, UNESCO Institute for Education, Ham-burg, Germany.

Frank Youngman, Professor, Department of Adult Education, University of Botswana,Gaborone, Botswana.

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Contributors

training o faded

Documents

zilla saksharta samiti

sixth world assembly

magaly robalino campos

senior programme specialist

folk high school

transferable learning abilities

key resource persons

northern europeantra carlsen