Impact of Ecotourism on Village Economy and Society in Sikkim

Introduction

Tourism has emerged as one of the most important segments of the world economy.

It is a major economic activity not only for developing countries but also for most developed

countries. Tourism is one of the world’s largest industries, generating an estimated 11% of

global Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employing 200 million people and transporting

nearly 700 million international travelers per year- a figure that is expected to double by

2020. Developing countries currently have only a minority share of the international tourism

market (approximately 30%) but this is growing. International tourism arrivals in developing

countries have grown by an average of 9.5% per year since 1990, compared to 4.6%

worldwide. India itself has witnessed for the third consecutive year, a positive growth in

foreign tourist arrivals reaching a level of 3.92 million in 2005, which translates to a growth

rate of 13.2%. The tourism industry has been making important contribution to the

economies of developing countries, particularly to foreign exchange earnings, employment,

and GDP.

In the Tenth Five Year Plan of India, the core sectors of priority were agriculture and

infrastructure. Greater synergy among other economic and social sectors to promote

coordinated implementation of development programs for the generation of employment

opportunities was emphasized. The targeted poverty alleviation programs were to be given

greater attention .The tenth plan set the target of reducing poverty from 40% to 15% over

five years.

Tourism has potential advantages for pro-poor growth as it is a diverse industry and

has higher potential for linkage with other local enterprises because customers come to the

destination. It is also relatively labour intensive and employs a high proportion of women,

thus having great potential in poor countries and areas with few other competitive exports.

Tourism is highly dependent upon natural (e.g. wildlife, scenery) and cultural capital which

are assets that some of the poor have, even if they have no financial resources.

Tourism has become the most important civil industry in the world. Its contribution

to the Global Gross Domestic Product is about 11% involving nearly 7% of workforce to

make it the world’s largest creator of jobs. The total global capital investments (10.7%),

worldwide consumer spending (10.9%), and world’s international trade in goods and

1

services (6.8%) make tourism as one of the three top categories of trade (WTTC 1995). The

international tourist arrival has increased from 1980 onwards at an average rate of 4%. The

World Tourism Organization (WTO) estimates that the domestic tourism far exceeds

estimates of international tourist movements and expenditure, tenfold in terms of arrivals and

seven times in expenditure levels (WTO 1991). Understanding its high multiplier effect, the

governments around the world are taking more proactive roles to attract more tourists,

recognizing tourism as a tool for economic diversification where traditional industries are

failing and as a source of foreign exchange earnings and better employment opportunities.

Conceptual Framework

In every society, some people have a greater share of valued resources - money,

property, education, health and power – than others. These social resources can be divided

into three forms of capital – economic capital in the form of material assets and income;

cultural capital such as educational qualification and status; and social capital in the form of

networks of contacts and social association (Bourdieu 1986). The diachronic approach is

concerned with broadly separated time phases in a society. It is this approach which helps the

study of social change, namely the change in social structure (Radcliffe–Brown, 1957).

However the recent trends in tourism development schemes – projected as sustainable, nature

based, soft, green and ecotourism ventures has generated considerable public debate and

concern due to their potential serious implications on nature and society, particularly in

developing countries.

At a social level, balanced tourism favors contacts between holiday makers and local

population. As a result, encouragement of cultural exchanges and ethnic relations take place

between two countries (Chettri 2007). If planned in this way tourism undoubtedly provides

positive socio-cultural advantages (Bisht 1994).

Tourism can play a key role in the development of the remote mountain areas.

Development of tourism activities may help in the diversification of the mountain economy,

and provide viable alternative livelihood opportunities for the mountain people. In view of

limited industrial growth in Sikkim, tourism can become a potential source of income

generation in the remote hilly regions and generate employment opportunities to the local

community. Over recent years this area has experienced significant changes as a result of

tourism growth. Since 1990, there has been a tremendous growth in visitation number (Rai &

Sundriyal, 1997).

2

Over the last three decades, there has been growing debate on the magnitude of

tourism in developing countries, and its impacts and implications in the host regions are

enormous. Due to tremendous growth and its adverse consequences in the host region, the

concept of tourism has now changed from mass tourism to ecotourism/responsible

tourism/nature oriented tourism. The concept is now gaining overwhelming response (Rai,

Lepcha, and Sharma). Ecotourism is an exciting new venture, which combines the pleasure

of discovering spectacular flora and fauna, and understanding their values with an

opportunity to contribute to their protection. By harbouring environmental, both among local

people and visitors, and by linking tourism to social and economic development, it is

possible to conserve the natural and cultural heritage of an area, and to improve the living

standards of host region inhabitants. Ecotourism is the largest growing sector with an

estimated annual growth rate of 10-15%. Amongst all international visitors (528 million),

nature tourists comprise 40-60% (211-317 million, contributing an international direct

economic impact of US$ 166-250 billion), and that of 20-40% are wildlife related tourists

(106-211 million, contributing an international direct economic impact of US$ 83-166

billion) (TES 1995). It is an alternative form of tourism that promotes positive tourism-

environment linkages, and at the same time, the host regions can take pride in what they

have to offer for their people and the tourists.

For a number of developing countries, their natural environments continue to be a

source of significant economic benefits, attracting international and domestic visitors often

in search of an authentic natural and, to a lesser degree, cultural experience. Tourism

associated with natural and protected areas has been and continues to be a growing sector in

the global tourism industry (Whelan, 1991; Brandson, 1996). Of the estimated $55 billion in

tourism receipts in the Third World, a significant portion of this in the early 1990s was the

result of nature tourism activities (Whelan, 1991). Although not always concerned with

protected areas, it is estimated that annual global expenditure on adventure-related travel

amounts to $110 billion (Adventure Travel Society, 1998). Conservative estimates of the

growth in demand for nature-related tourism range from 10 to 15 per cent while more

optimistic forecasts go up to 30 per cent (Brandon, 1996), the variation due primarily to

differences in the definition of the types of tourism included. Although difficult to

generalize, for many developing countries, their natural heritage is a primary attraction for

international visitors and the increasing number of domestic tourists.

3

The number of tourists visiting the Himalayan region is growing very fast during the

recent years. The data on tourists’ flow in the Himalayan region is not properly recorded and

maintained; though its implications and contribution in mountain economy are quite

significant. The share of domestic tourism in the economy of the region is overwhelming.

The western, central, and eastern Himalayan regions host about 96% domestic tourists of

the total visitors’ flow (AME 1995a, 1995b; Rai and Sundriyal, 1997). The concept of

domestic tourism is not properly accounted. The magnitude of tourist flow may testify to the

increasing economic importance of tourism. The sector contributed about Rs 200 to 250

crores annually to the state economy (AME 1995a, 1995b; Rai and Sundriyal, 1997). Of late

ecotourism has emerged as an important activity in the Himalayan region which includes

trekking, mountaineering river rafting and other nature oriented activities and attracts both

domestic and foreign tourists.

Ecotourism has been defined as a form of nature-based tourism in the marketplace,

but it has also been formulated and studied as sustainable development tool by NGOs,

development experts and academics since 1990. The term ecotourism, therefore, refers on

one hand to a concept under a set of principles, and on the other hand to specific market

segment. The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) in 1991 produced one of the earliest

definitions: “Ecotourism is responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment

and sustains the well being of local people.” IUCN (now called the World Conservation

Union) stated in 1996 that “eco-tourism is environmentally responsible travel and visitation

to relatively undisturbed areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and any

accompanying cultural features - both past and present) that promotes conservation, has low

negative visitor impact, and provides for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of

local populations.”

In other words, ecotourism is the symbiotic relationship between tourism and

environment which benefits the socio-economic condition of local inhabitants and at the

same time promotes tourism and protects the environment. By harbouring environmental

awareness both among local people and visitors, and by linking tourism to social and

economic development, it is potentially possible to conserve the natural and cultural heritage

of an area, and to improve the living standards of host region inhabitants. Ecotourism, if

developed responsibly and managed properly, can become a powerful instrument/strategy for

the biodiversity conservation. It is a form of tourism that promotes positive tourism-

4

environment linkages, and at the same time, the host regions can take pride in what they

have to offer for their people and the tourists.

Ecotourism has a growing niche market within the larger travel industry, with the

potential of being an important sustainable development tool. With billions of dollars in

annual sales, ecotourism is a real industry that seeks to take advantage of market trends. At

the same time, it frequently operates quite differently than other segments of the tourism

industry, because ecotourism is defined by its sustainable development results: conserving

natural areas, educating visitors about sustainability, and benefiting local people.

Ecotourism is a small but rapidly growing industry working within a niche market

that is governed by market forces and regulations. Ecotourism is primarily advertised as

being equivalent to nature tourism in the market place. Some countries, companies and

destinations have social and environmental policies and programs, which others do not. This

has led to confusion worldwide about the meaning of the tourism as it is applied in the

marketplace. In ecotourism the prime motivation is the observation and appreciation of

natural features and related cultural assets, whereas in adventure tourism it is rather the

physical exercise and challenging situations in natural environments.

Statement of the Problem

Tourism is an industry that currently affects the society and livelihoods of many of the

world’s poor, both positively and negatively. Impacts vary between poor people,

destinations, and types of tourism. A reduction in world poverty is also an internationally

agreed priority and targets have been set to halve poverty by the year 2015. Achieving

poverty reduction requires actions on a variety of complementary fronts and scales, but a

prerequisite of significant progress is pro-poor growth - growth which benefits the poor.

Tourism is not very different from other productive sectors, but it has potential advantages

for pro-poor growth because:

It is a diverse industry. This increases the scope for wide participation, including the

participation of the informal sector.

It has higher potential for linkage with other local enterprises because customers

come to the destination;

It is relatively labor intensive and employs a high proportion of women;

It has potential in poor countries and areas with few other competitive exports;

5

Tourism is highly dependent upon natural capital (e.g. wildlife, scenery) and cultural

capital. These are assets that some of the poor have, even if they have no financial

resources.

Tourism products can be built on natural resources and culture which are assets that

some of the poor have.

Many disadvantages of tourism such as leakage and volatility of revenue are common

to other economic sectors. But tourism may involve greater trade-offs with local livelihoods

through more competition for natural resources. The challenge is to enhance the many

positive impacts it can have (Ecotourism and Conservation Society of Sikkim).

Sikkim Himalaya is a site of high biodiversity value, and one that is facing growing

threats from a variety of sources including commercial logging, farming practices and

tourism. As concern grows over the loss of both natural and cultural heritage in this region,

attention is turning to strategies, which seek to link conservation with tourism development

and generate incentives to conserve the resources on which economic benefits depend.

Sikkim is growing in popularity, and likely to attract increasing number of tourists in the

visiting area’s cultural sites and protected areas of high biodiversity value. The economic

significance of tourism industry is multifarious. Tourism development has a great deal of

appeal for its role in the economic development of remote mountain regions and its impact

on local society, economy, and the environment.

The tourist arrivals in Sikkim have increased by 176% between 1990 and 2003. No

doubt, tourism has contributed to a fast rise in State Domestic Product (SDP) and

employment in Sikkim. However, the benefits have not reached most of the poor who

continue to lag behind due to lack of opportunities and unsupportive tourism

legislations/regulations. The present pattern of tourism in Sikkim is Gangtok-centric and

holiday motivated. There is also an imbalance in the distribution of income between rural

and urban areas necessitating an imperative need for more integration of tourism in the rural

economy.

The problems facing the region call for the promotion of activities that are based on

the region’s comparative advantage, which help in the diversification of the mountain

economy, provide alternative livelihood opportunities for the local people and at the same

time actively promote environmental care so that the twin issues of economic development

and environmental degradation can be simultaneously addressed. Tourism in the mountains

6

has the potential of addressing all these concerns and providing alternative and environment

friendly income and employment opportunities across the region.

As concern grows over the loss of natural heritage in the area, it appears that this is

the ideal time to facilitate ecologically and socially responsible tourism at key destinations to

conserve the biological diversity of the area. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to

provide empirical evidence on the environmental, economic and social impacts of ecotourism

in Sikkim.

Objectives of Research

The objectives of this research proposal may be outlined as follows:

1. To understand the importance of ecotourism as an alternative livelihood in rural

Sikkim

2. To gauge the impact of ecotourism on village economy.

3. To measure the extent of the impact of ecotourism on village society.

4. To understand the role of ecotourism in the conservation of environment.

Review of Literature

Literature on Eco-tourism

Many authors have depicted eco-tourism as the means to achieve conservation

oriented rural economic development in ecologically rich areas. Many say that eco-tourism is

the only powerful answer to conserve and sustain tourism for future. According to Ceballos–

Lascurain (1996) eco-tourism is “traveling to relatively undisturbed areas with the specific

objective of studying, admiring and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals as

well as any existing cultural manifestations found in these areas”. Black (2006) defined eco-

tourism as an experience with a focus on the natural and cultural environment, as

ecologically sustainable activity, an activity with a pre-dominant educative and interpretive

programme and an activity that contributes to the local community groups and projects and to

the conservation of the surrounding environment. Eco-tourism has recently come to be

regarded as the panacea that enables us to aggressively seek tourism dollars with no obvious

damage to the ecosystems (Yadav 2002).

According to Butler (1992), Healy (1992) and Ceballos-Lascurian (1996), nature

tourism denotes all tourism directly dependent on the use of natural resources in a relatively

undeveloped state, including scenery, topography, water features, vegetation and wildlife etc.

7

Thus it includes hunting, countryside motor biking, and white-water rafting, even if the use

of the natural resources by the tourist is neither wise nor sustainable. Like traditional tourism,

it can be negatively influenced by various external factors. This accounts for its instability as

a source of income. Nevertheless, nature based tourism (which includes ecotourism) is a

rapidly growing sector of the tourism economy. Its global value for 1988 has been estimated

to have been as high as US$1 trillion (Filion et al.1992).

“Ecological tourism” or “Ecotourism” as defined by IUCN’s Ecotourism Program is

“environmentally responsible travel and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas, in

order to enjoy and appreciate nature that promotes conservation, has low visitor impacts, and

provides for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local population” (Ceballos-

Lascurain 1993). The Ecotourism Society definition is similar: “ecotourism is responsible

travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of local

people” (Boo, 1990, Blangy & Wood 1992, Lindberg & Hawkins 1993, Hvenegaard &

Dearden 1998).

Wallace (1992) observes, ecotourism operators have begun to form partnerships with

protected area managers and local people, with the intention of contributing to the long-term

protection of natural resources and local development and in the hope of improving mutual

understanding between hosts and visitors (Wallace 1992). Ecotourism is reliant on natural

phenomena in relatively undisturbed sites (Boyed et al.1992), such as protected areas. Before

being promoted, the impacts of ecotourism must be thoroughly examined in the context of a

protected area’s mandate. Tour operators call themselves “ecotourism operator, with varying

standards for conservation and development goals. However, monitoring has been proposed

recently for some jurisdictions” (Allcock et al.1994).

According to Hammond et al (1995), Ecotourism has strong correlations with

sustainable tourism, which contains economic, ecological, social and cultural dimensions to

be assessed and this requires developing Criteria and Indicators (C&I) in all respects. These

C&I should be multidisciplinary, covering all aspects of social, environmental, ecological,

cultural, economic and institutional factors affecting sustainable ecotourism in this national

park.

Our sages and saints have been moving to mountains, meadows and streams and

experiencing elevation of mind that close contact and communion with nature produces.

They understood that man and nature were not two separate entities but an enmeshed part of

the same organic entity and the same divine spirit (Jag Mohan, 2002). With the evolution of

8

pilgrim tourism mountains became the destination for peace seekers, healers and mediators.

Later with the growth of adventure tourism, mountains became the playground for trekkers

and mountaineers. The mountain world today is in perilous ecological state. The biophysical

and socio-economic resource base is undergoing disastrous impoverishment due to human

action. Being an environment friendly activity eco-tourism aims at promoting environmental

values and ethics in preserving nature in an uninterrupted form. It thus benefits wildlife and

nature by contributing towards ecological integrity (A.B.Chettri, unpublished thesis).

Bisht (1994) observes that at a social level, balanced tourism favors contacts between

holiday makers and local population. As a result, encouragement of cultural exchanges and

ethnic relations take place between two countries .If planned in this way tourism undoubtedly

provides positive socio-cultural advantages. Tourism brings investment. The tackling of

certain social problems, opening of schools and dispensaries and revival of old customs and

style along the trek route to Everest in Solu Khumbu district of Nepal is yet another example

of humanizing tourism and making it more acceptable and trauma-free for local people.

Tourism helps in building society by introducing planned development. As per the

requirement of tourists, amenities are provided and similar planning is carried out in a society

.This helps local people in planning their surrounding.

Some authors are more skeptical of the true objective of eco-tourism and do not see it

as a solution to the destructive aspects of tourism. “The recent tendency to qualify tourism in

ecologically-sensitive areas like forests and coasts as ‘eco-tourism' or ‘nature tourism' is a

terminology that is applied for the convenience of tourism service-providers. The very

reason why the tourism industry opted for this terminology was because wherever tourism is

practised, it has proven to be detrimental to the environment and the social fabric of local

communities. So, rather than changing what you are doing, the solution has been to simply

change what you call it. Not tourism but eco-tourism,” states a draft paper ‘Biodiversity and

Tourism' prepared by the Bangalore-based group Equations.

According to Sekhsaria, environmental activist and author of Troubled Islands -- a

compilation of his writings on the indigenous peoples and environment of the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands: “Eco-tourism is like a wave sweeping through wild and natural India,

capitalizing on the diversity and beauty of this country's rich and varied natural heritage. It

does not matter that our forests, grasslands, wetlands and rivers are the very basis of our life

systems. Across the length and breadth of this country, from Maharashtra to West Bengal,

9

from Kerala to Uttaranchal, the eco-tourism juggernaut is on the roll, particularly in those

areas that are being protected and conserved for wildlife.”

According to a World Tourism Organization report, tourism has the unique capacity

of generating trade and investment directly at the local level, as tourists and entrepreneurs

seek new destinations. It can contribute significantly to rural development, agricultural

transformation, community enrichment and social empowerment. But this must be balanced

with the tremendous pressure on natural, cultural and socio-economic environments of

popular places of tourist interest. Many of the claims concerning the benefits of ecotourism

have been exaggerated, or owe more to labelling and marketing, as such projects are often

planned and carried out without local support, and indeed threaten rather than benefit local

peoples cultures, their subsistence economies and life sustaining natural resource base. It is

because of this that critics regard ecotourism more as an ‘eco-façade’ and as a tactic to

conceal the consumptive and exploitative practices of the mainstream tourism industry – by

greening it (Fernandez 1994, Munt 1994).

Literature on Sikkim

Sikkim, a small mountainous State in the Eastern Himalayas has its own identity of

social structure, economic life and cultural values. Diversified physiographic features of

Sikkim provide structural diversity in the ethnic population. The Sikkim Himalayan people

have a diverse nature of Socio-economic characteristics and this diversity is measured in

terms of their social status and economic structure. However the developmental activity

comparatively seems to be taking its shape in economic passion and social organization for

successive years. The socio-cultural and economic set up of Sikkim reveals that population is

growing in numbers followed by rapid development of infrastructure development. When we

consider the cultural impact of tourism, poor sector sometimes loses its moral values in

tourism process (Jina 1994). Cultural and Social change takes place through a number of

factors slowly over a period of time (Bezbaruah, 1999).

Hooker (1855), a British naturalist, first studied and described social institutions of

Sikkim. In his report he gives an account of his travel in Sikkim and discusses the history and

religion in Sikkim. Latham’s descriptive ethnology offers information on the Murmi, Kirata,

Limbo, Bodo and Lepcha races of Sikkim. Risley (1894) edited the “Gazetteer of Sikhim”.

The gazetteer gives detailed historical, geographical, botanical and zoological accounts of

Sikkim. White (1908), the first British Political Officer posted in Sikkim gave a vivid

10

account of the origin of its people in “Sikkim and Bhutan: Twenty-one years on Northeast

Frontier 1887-1908”. The History of Sikkim, written by ninth Chogyal of Sikkim Thutob

Namgyal and Gyalmo Yeshay Dolma, Queen of Sikkim, (1908) offers a fascinating account

of the origin of Sikkim and of the Namgyal dynasty that ruled over Sikkim between 1641-

1975. However the account is till 1908, which is the year this text was compiled. It talks

about the culture and history of Sikkim and gives interesting accounts regarding various

important places including the setting up of various monasteries in Sikkim. It offers valuable

insight into the history of various communities of Sikkim and also gives the pedigree of

leading families of Sikkim. It is perhaps the only authentic indigenous work on Sikkim with

its sources including the Holy Buddhist (Pechaas) scriptures of Sikkim. “Excerpts from

history of Sikkim” by Rocks also contains excerpts from the main body of the book, “The

History of Sikkim”. He also gives an ethnographic profile of the Bhutias, Lepchas, Limbus,

and Mangars. Stocks (1925) wrote about “Folklore and Religious Belief of the People of

Sikkim”. It is an anthropological study which contains the religious rites and customs of the

inhabitants of Sikkim. “Reflection on Tibetan Culture”, Essays in memory of Turell. V.

Wylie contains an essay by Leo Rose, which highlights the historical background of the state

of Sikkim. He touches upon the traditional political institutions in Sikkim under the Namgyal

dynasty and the changes that took place in Sikkim because of contact with neighboring states

of Tibet, British India and Nepal. In fact he makes a historical perspective of modern Sikkim.

Bhasin (1989) in her book, “Ecology, Culture and change: Tribal of Sikkim Himalayas”,

used a micro approach to study the Dzongu reserve, and Lachung valleys. It focuses on the

interplay between ecology and socio-cultural environment. Kotturan (1983) in “The

Himalayan Gateway” depicted Sikkim’s history, culture and its nature. He also collected the

“Folk Tales of Sikkim” (1989), which is a collection of tales of mythological nature, some of

which have moral teaching and some are humorous. Desai (1988) in her book “Eco-system

and Ethnic constellation of Sikkim” has examined the process of transformation in the state

of Sikkim as result of changing human activities. The Anthropological Survey of India

launched the People of India Series in 1985 to prepare anthropological profile of all

communities. As a part of this project the state of Sikkim was studied and a bio-cultural and

linguistic profile of 25 communities was prepared. Dhamala (1993) edited the 39 th volume of

“People of India, Sikkim”. In 1988, a society called ‘Himalayan Today’ was founded at

Gangtok by a group of people drawn from public and academic life. It was a research

organization, which laid emphasis on culture, society and economy of Himalayan Region. A

11

special volume on society, culture and economy of Sikkim edited by Lama was brought by

the society.

From a review of the literature available on eco-tourism impacts in Sikkim it is seen

that considerable work has gone into establishing the importance of eco-tourism as a

conservation and natural resources management tool; some work has even focused on the

possibility of promoting eco-tourism as a means of village development but there is an

information gap on the quantitative impacts of eco-tourism on the village economy and its

social impacts in terms of changes that occur to traditional social institutions due to exposure

to alien culture. This study will probe these aspects of the current development scenario of

the State.

Research Questions

The increasing economic importance of tourism has captured the attention of most

countries. However, the global growth of tourism poses a significant threat to cultural and

biological diversity. Eco-tourism in Sikkim, which has a forest cover of more than 46% of

the geographical area with its exquisite flora and fauna apart from scenic values of its

landscapes, must therefore impact on the village economy, as villagers provide the support

mechanisms for eco-tourism. It must also impact on the indigenous social elements in so

much as there will be a socio-cultural invasion and therefore infusion of an alien culture into

the local settings.

The research project will seek to answer the following questions:

1. Has there been an increase in per capita income due to tourism related activities?

2. Has the eco-tourism led to self-sufficiency of the village economy and a reduction in

dependence on govt.?

3. Is the impact more or less on different ethnic groups or is it evenly spread across all

sections of the village community?

4. Is eco-tourism a sustainable venture for the village and if so, what are the conditions

that need to be sustained for eco-tourism to sustain itself?

5. Has there been a cultural invasion as a result of the eco-tourism? and

6. If so, is the Govt./PRI/CBO/local society/Non-government agency doing anything to

preserve the indigenous culture?

12

Research Hypothesis

Mass tourism may have an adverse effect on social behavior, attitudes, and religious

sentiments, traditional as well as on the economy. Among some of the adverse impacts of

tourism in Sikkim there is evidence of changes in socio-cultural outlook. However, the

employment generated through tourism, especially eco-tourism, has resulted in providing

means of sustenance to those who are living near the forested areas and are no longer

dependent on the sale (illegal or legal) of forest products. This has led to biodiversity

conservation which in turn provided pleasant landscapes for eco-tourism.

Methodology

At least two major ecotourism destinations in Sikkim will be selected as study sites.

A descriptive cross sectional research design will be used for the study comprising of

questionnaire surveys and group discussions with the different stakeholders to ecotourism in

the study site. As the population consists of numerous and scattered small units, normally no

up-to-date lists exist which can be used as the sampling frame. Consequently, a multistage,

area-based design is required, just as in typical household surveys (Verma 1992). The sample

design considerations for informal sector survey comprise sample size, stratification,

selection of area units and listing.

Questionnaire surveys will be conducted with ecotourism service providers (like

guides, animal operators, trek cook and porters), hotel and lodge operators and tea

shopkeepers and foreign and Indian tourists. Semi structured informal interviews will also be

used to obtain appropriate information. Apart from the above, the methodology will be based

on the final destination level Criteria and Indicators (C&I). Informal interactions will also be

conducted with ‘home stay’ representatives, village youth. Visits will be also made to the

police check post for collecting data on international and domestic tourists. Transect walks

will be conducted at the ecotourism sites for gauging the level of impact of ecotourism in

these areas.

For developing C&I, participants from different parts of Sikkim representing

community based NGOs working in the field of ecotourism development and conservation,

students, forest department personnel, JFM and EDC members and local community

members from the nearby villages will be interviewed.

In order to determine the economic benefits of nature-based tourism in the selected

tourist spots, a detailed schedule will be developed. Part 1 of the schedule will be to obtain

13

the background information on the visitor’s current visit to the selected spot; part 2 will

include data on travel costs involved with the trip to the selected spots, part 3 and part 4 will

contain the economic valuation questions and visitors’ impressions. The present study on

tourists will be based on multi-stage sampling technique. The tourists will be selected

randomly and the interview will be conducted in two stages.

The study however will have its limitations in the sense that the findings from this

case study may also not be applicable in other parts of the globe as the socio-cultural

situation in the state of Sikkim of India is rather unique to the region and may find its

replicability within India a non-feasible proposition. Despite its limitations the study will

provide some useful insights on some community opinions towards ecotourism. There is

need to develop an applied tool to measure threshold of tourism impacts and change in socio-

economic and environmental status of the site through Criteria and Indicator (C&I) under the

framework of sustainability.

Time Budgeting

The total time needed for completion of the research work is two years. The first six months

will be spent on reviewing the literature and in the collection of secondary data related to the

research work. The next six months will be spent on field surveys to collect primary data and

in collation and compilation of the data so collected. Another year would be needed for data

analysis and writing the thesis.

Tentative Chapterisation of the Thesis

CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION: Design of the Thesis

CHAPTER 2 - REVIEW OF LITERATURE

CHAPTER 3 - ECOTOURISM IN SIKKIM: Initiation, Growth and Marketing of

Ecotourism in Sikkim

CHAPTER 4 - CASE STUDY: Ecotourism in select villages

CHAPTER 5 - SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS: Indicators of Economic

Development

CHAPTER 6 - IMPACT OF ECO-TOURISM: Impact on Village Economy and Society.

CHAPTER 7 - SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS: Suggestion of future management of

Tourism

14

Bibliography

Academy for Mountain Environics (1995a). “Mountain tourism in Himachal Pradesh and the hill

districts of Uttar Pradesh: An overview”, MEI Discussion Paper Series 95/6, ICIMOD, Kathmandu.

Academy for Mountain Environics (1995b). “Mountain tourism for local community development.

Report on case studies in Kinnaur district, H.P and Badrinath tourist zone”, U.P. MEI Discussion

Paper Series 95/13, ICIMOD, Kathmandu.

Adventure Travel Society (1998). Press Release - Adventure Travel Congress, Colorado.

Allcock, A., Jones, B., Lane,S. & Grant, J. (1994). National Ecotourism Strategies, Canberra,

Commonwealth of Australia.

Beauvoir Stocks, C.De. (1925) Folklore and Religious Belief of the People of Sikkim, Anthropolgical

Study.

Bezbaruah, M.P. (1999) Indian Tourism beyond the Millennium. Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi.

Bhasin, Veena1989); Ecology, Culture and Change, Tribals of Sikkim Himalayas; Tribal Studies of

Indian Series T-133:Inter India Publication.

Bisht (1994) Tourism in Garhwal Himalaya, Indus Publishing Co, Delhi.

Blangy, S. & Wood, M.E. (1992) “Developing and implementing ecotourism guidelines for wild

lands and neighboring communities”, Paper presented in IV World Congress on National Parks and

Protected Areas,10-21 February, Caracus, Venezuela.

Black, R. (2007), Quality Assurance and Certification in Ecotourism, The International Ecotourism

Society, Australia.

Boo, E. (1990) Eco-tourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls, Vol I & II, Washington DC, USA, WWF.

Brandon, K. (1996) Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues, Environment Department

Papers, No.33, The World Bank, Washington D.C.

Butler,J.R.(1992) Ecotourism:its changing face and evolving Philosophy.Paper presented in IV

World Congress on Natural Parks and Protected Areas,10-21 Feb,Carocas ,Venezuela.

Ceballos-Lascurian, H. (1993) Ecotourism in Central America. Technical Report for WTO/UNDP

Project CAM 790/011.

Ceballos-Lascurian, H. (1996) Tourism, Ecotourism and Protected Areas, Gland, Switzerland, IUCN

Chettri A.B. (2007) Environmental Degradation in Sikkim with Special Reference to Tourism,

Unpublished thesis, North Bengal University.

Desai, Mamta,(1988) “Eco-system and ethnic constellation of Sikkim”.

Dhamala Ranju R1995/96); women Participation in Socio-Economicand Political Process of

Sikkim.Himalayan Miscellany 9/10;Mar-28-34

Filion, F.L., Foley, J.P. & Jacquemot, A.J. (1992) “The economics of global ecotourism”, Paper

Presented in IV World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, 10-21 February, Caracas,

Venezuela. Nature of Change. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.

15

Healy, R.G.(1992) property rights and tourism resources :tourism resources as common pools and

common property. Paper presented in IV World Congress on National parks an protected areas, 10-21

February, Caracas, Venezuela.

Hooker, Joseph Dalton (1855) “Himalayan Journals: Note of a naturalist in Bengal, the Sikkim and

the Nepal Himalayas, the Khasia Mountains, A new edition, carefully revised and condensed London,

2 Vol 5.

Hvenegaard, G.T. & Dearden, P. (1998) “Ecotourism versus tourism in a Thai national park”, Annals

of Tourism Research, 25:700-720.

JagMohan, (2002) “Eco-tourism planning” in Yojna, Vol 46:7.

Jina, Premsing (1994) Tourism in Ladakh Himalaya, Indus Publishing Co. New Delhi.

Kotturn, G,(1983) “The Himalyan Gateway”, History and Culture of Sikkim . Sterling Publishers

Pvt.Ltd.

Latham, Robert Dalton (1859) “Descriptive Ethnology, Vol I: Eastern and Northern Asia-

Europe.london.

Lindberg, K and Hawkins D.E. eds. (1993).Ecotourism: A guide for Planners and Managers, North

Bennington VT., The Ecotourism Society.

Munt I. (1994). “The shaky ground of sustainable tourism”, TEI Quarterly. Environmental Journal

2(4): 4-38.

Rai, S.C and Sundriyal, R.C.1997, “Tourism and biodiversity conservation: The Sikkim Himalaya”,

Ambio, Volume26, Issue 4, pp 235-42.

Radcliffe-Brown, A.R. (1960) “Social structure” In M.N.Srinivas edited, Method in Social

Anthropology, Bombay: Asia Publishing House

Radcliffe-Brown, A.R, (1968) Structure and Function in Primitive Society, Lond Cohen and West

Ltd.

Rai S.C, Lepcha R, and Sharma, E, (1998) Ecotourism: A strategy for Conservation and

Developmen: Research for Mountain Development; Some initiatives and Accomplishments.

Gyanodaya Prakashan, Naintal.

Redelift, M. (1987), Sustainable Development: Exploring the Contradictions. London, Methuen.

Risely. H.H, (1894) “Gazetteer of Sikkim:” (ed) Bengal Government Secretariat, Calcutta.

TES (1995).The Ecotourism Society.TES Fact Sheet Collection,North Bennington,VT.

Thutob Namgyal and Yeshay Dolma, (1908), “History of Sikkim”, complied by Their Highness

Maharaja Sir Thutob Namgyal and Rani Yeshay Dolma, translated by Lama Dawa Kazi Samdup.

Verma, V. (1992) Methods of Data Collection on the Informal Sector, Geneva, International Labour

Office.

16

Wallace, G.N.(1992) “Real eco-tourism: assisting protected area managers and getting benefits to

local people”. Paper presented in IV World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, 10-21

February, Caracas, Venezuala.

Wallace, G.N. & Pierce, S.M.(1996). “An evaluation of ecotourism on Amazons, Brazil”. Annals of

Tourism Research 23:843-873

White, J.C., (1909) “Sikkim and Bhutan : 21 year on North East Frontier, 1887-1908.”

World Tourism Organisation (1991).Tourism to the year 2000:Qualitative aspects affecting global

growth.Madrid.

World Travel and Tourism Council (1995).Travel and tourism’s economic

perspective .WTTC.Brussels.

Yadav, Santosh. (2002): “Eco-tourism: Problems and prospects” in Yojna, Vol 46.

17