Topics we explicitly studied last year

• 1: Independence

• 2: Nation-building

• 3: Civil War/Reconstruction

• 4: Development of Modern Nations

• 5: Americas and Global Affairs

• 7: Depression and the Americas

• 11: Minorities and Civil Rights

Independence and Nation-Building

External factors for rebellion:

Resumption of mercantilist policies

Enlightenment ideas spreading from Britain

British attempts to restrict immigration into Northwest Territory after Pontiac’s Rebellion

Independence, cont.Internal factors:

Development of independent colonial governance, especially control over internal taxation

Growing sense of “Americanness,” especially as a consequence of the French and Indian War

Hefty market in real estate speculation

Growing resentment of English policy and soldiers during a postwar depression

Independence, cont.Action--a British mercantile policy (Stamp Act, Sugar Act, Tea Act) designed as revenue enhancer takes effect

Stirs up colonial resentment, leads to public protest and a “congress” (Stamp Act Boycott and Congress, Boston Massacre, Boston Tea Party) and repeal--pattern continues for 10 years

1774 the hard-line year--Intolerable Acts lead to Continental Congress and formation of militias (Minutemen)

1775--Lexington and Concord touches off open conflict with Britain

1776--Thomas Paine’s Common Sense leads to Dec of Independence

The war?Keys to victory:•French financial and naval support•Washington’s delaying and harassment tactics•Rebel control of the countryside•Distance of British Army•Impossibility of winning “hearts and minds” of the populace through war—that is, how to you gain the loyalty of people who are fighting for their liberty?•Key battles—Boston Harbor, Trenton, Saratoga, Yorktown•Key moments—crossing of the Delaware, Valley Forge (Washington’s leadership)

Government?Articles of Confederation -- gov’t created along revolutionary lines--but no real powers apart from “agreement” (Can’t tax or set national currency)

Debt, inflation, and Shays’ Rebellion in 1786-7 reveals weaknesses of Articles and state governments

Constitutional Convention meets 1787

Stress stronger executive and national congress, but still needs to embody Enlightenment principles

Government

Compromise the key:

Between large and small states--2 houses of congress, electoral college

Between north and south--slavery allowed in DC, no discussion on slavery allowed, 3/5s compromise, fugitive slave law

Between federalists and anti-federalists--3 branches of gov’t, checks and balances, national currency and taxes, Bill of Rights

Latin American Revolution

• External factors for rebellion:

• Resumption of mercantilist policies

• Enlightenment ideas spreading from France/US

• Napoleon’s invasion of Iberia, 1810

Latin American Revolution

• Internal factors:

• “Americanness”• Rejection of caste system & peninsulares• Mexico—lower class anger at all white classes• Spanish South America—upper class anger at

peninsulares, and fear of lower classes• Brazil—fear of violence from anti-Spanish

revolutions led to peaceful independence

LA Independence--Mexico• Touched off in 1810 by Peninsular Campaign—Grito

de Dolores• In Mexico, Hidalgo leads peasant masses against

elites• Becomes a racial war, fought with guerilla tactics until

1821• Spanish Cortes threatens elite privileges, refuses

home rule for colonies• Iturbide makes common cause with rebels to

overthrow viceroy

La Independence, Sp SA• Touched off my Peninsular Campaign

• Led by Bolivar in the North, San Martin in the South

• Criollos against Peninsulars and castas

• Bolivar agrees to end slavery and caste to gain non-whites (Angostura, 1819). San Martin does same.

• Both benefit also from British Naval mercenaries and loans from Brit gov’t

• Success by 1821-1824

Brazilian Independence• Napoleon forces out Royal Portuguese family,

who move to Rio• After threats of revolution in Portugal in 1820,

Joao returns, but heir to throne (Pedro I) remains in Rio

• 1822, Rio court fears revolt of slaves/property destruction if Brazil succumbs to violent revolution

• But also fears liberalism in Portugal• Pedro announces fico (I remain)

Both Difference

• Enlightenment ideology

• Attack against mercantilism

• Clash of Americanness with European hierarchy

• US—created white supremacist society; LA created a multiracial democracy

• US—relatively bloodless; LA--brutal

• US—one revolutionary army; LA—broken into several movements

LA Constitutions

• In general, they reflect the fears of white elites—loss of privileges and wealth, and racial wars

• Blend democracy (3 branches of gov’t, elections, end of casta system and slavery)

• With autocracy (suffrage restricted, criollos remain in posts, strong executive, property left untouched)

Both Difference

• Enlightenment ideology

• 3 branches of gov’t• Elected executive

• LA—no separation of Church and State

• LA—banned slavery• Strong dictatorial

Executive

Expansion -> ReconstructionMarket Revolution in North--

Growing industrialism

Belief in using government to create and support infrastructure (roads, canals, tariffs, social improvements)

Growing sense in “wrongness” of slavery along moral, economic, and political lines, but no real mass movement

Various political parties created, from Federalists to Democratic factions to Whigs stressing Northern, national merchant elite, urban middle class values

Expansion, contSouth--

Continued agricultural growth, especially in cotton, due to cotton gin

Need for expansion

Dislike of federal power, no interest in internal improvements

Hatred of tariffs, invocation of states’ rights to oppose them

Control of Democratic Party stressing northern immigrants’ & workers’, and Southerners’ farmers’, values, esp. affirmation of slavery for the latter

SlaverySlavery the greatest cause of American economic growth, yet it laid the foundation for the rise of industrialization—

developing clash between ways of life.

Slavery’s supporters claimed Bible supported slavery, also used racial inferiority of Blacks, and claims of paternal benevolence to support slavery. Fed protection of private property and claim of states’ rights under 10th amendment also key

Abolitionists relied mostly on horror stories of physical punishment and rhetoric of liberty to build, also claimed slavery morally destroyed white people, and argued that wage labor “perfected” the worker.

Expansion

Key Event: Mexican-American War, 1846-1848

Widely viewed as pro-slavery war for acquisition

Wilmot’s Proviso touches off N-S conflict over whether new territories shall be slave or free

Problem: what should happen should one side gain a majority in Congress

Southerners need a majority and control of at least two branches to preserve slave-system

Southerners also fear their own slaves, esp after Nat Turner’s rebellion in 1832

Expansion

Pattern: Southern attempts to protect slavery seen by North as attempt to take slavery national (and thus threaten Northern industry)

Northern attempts to contain slavery viewed by South as attempt to extinguish slavery (and thus threaten Southern basis of wealth and social values/status)

Increasingly vocal (but small) abolitionist groups make South fear a conspiracy afoot in North

Hence…

Expansion to Civil War

Every attempt at moderate compromise seen as trickery by extremists on both sides

Examples:

Compromise of 1850 falls apart over Fugitive Slave Act

Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 falls apart over popular sovereignty

Dred Scott Decision of 1857 falls apart over obvious pro-Southern intentionality, esp in wake of Lecompton Constitution

Election of 1860, tho’ Lincoln is a moderate, seen as permament minority status for South -> secession

Civil WarSouth attempting to keep slavery intact, asserts states’ rights argument for justifying secession

Lincoln invokes federalism to argue against legitimacy, asserts need to prove democracy works

Northern advantages: numbers, industry, railroad system, wealth, central gov’t to provide soldiers, funds, and organize materiel production

Southern advantages--fighting for “realer” goals, livelihood, recast war as resisting tyranny, in line with American revolution

Civil War Why does North Win?

Military strategy: Anaconda Plan - strangle economy (keys: Richmond, Vicksburg)

But need military victories to sustain public support

South--string out war long enough to make North tire of the war, hence series of bloody, but meaningless engagements (Manassas, Sharpsburg, Shiloh, Fredericksburg)

Gettysburg (1863) reveals growing weakness of Southern Army

Grant’s policy of total war takes war to civilians in Deep South

Appomattox in 1865 ends war

ReconstructionEssentially a debate between hard-line Republicans in Congress and moderates over what to do with South:

Either let it back into union, and back to business, or remake it as a version of the North (hence-reconstruction)

Key to the question--what to do with the ex-slaves? (either the basis of the plantation style economy but as wage workers, or the basis of Republican support for reconstruction)

Answer: Ultimately, Northern racism and war-weariness, couples with Southern resistance, lead to the South’s return to the union as a plantation economy, dependent on share-cropping, and all but controlled by Northern investment

Reconstruction

Key stages:

‘65 - ‘67

Lincoln’s Ten Percent plan calls for general amnesty

Slavery ends (13th amendment), but black codes reinstate slavery’s restrictions over freedmen’s … freedom,

Freedman’s Bureau established to aid freedmen

Struggle between Johnson and “radical” Republicans over extent of changes to South, esp over Civil Rights Act

Civil Rights Act turned into 14th Amendment (‘66), passed over Johnson’s veto, anyone born in US given citizen’s rights

Reconstruction2nd stage: Radical Reconstruction, ‘67-’72

Reconstruction Act of ‘67 turns southern states into military governorships

Impeachment of Johnson (but not his resignation) removes obstructionism

15th Amendment in ‘70 guarantees Fed protection of voting rights in face of KKK violence

Enforcement Acts (including KKK Act) in ‘70 & ‘71 protect freedmen’s rights with federal power

Period sees greatest growth of black voting power before or since

Reconstruction3rd stage: the decline of Reconstruction

•Southern white violence and Redemption Democrat Party reach highest stage of terrorist activity•Endemic corruption in Republican party lead to rise of liberal (laissez-faire) faction•Racism leads to loss of support for use of fed power to protect freedmen•Series of Supreme Court decisions limit use of fed power to protect individuals from state oppression:• Slaughterhouse cases • US v Reese• US v Cruikshank•Culminates in rise of Jim Crow and Plessy v Ferguson (‘96)

US Internal Development, 1876-1900

• Internal expansion, rise of agribusiness, railroad and mineral extractive industries, and Indian removal

• Industrial expansion in North and Midwest, rise of monopolies and labor movements, urbanization

• Plantation economies and sharecropping in the South• Gilded Age extremes of wealth• Large scale immigration, esp from Eastern and

Southern Europe

US Internal Development, 1876-1900

• Political corruption, unrest, poverty, racism lead to Progressivism

• An urban, liberal middle class response

• Roots in Gospel and science—technocracy and concern for the poor

• Belief in making democracy more responsive to voters, and creating more opportunity in capitalism, and making city more orderly and hygienic.

US Internal Development, 1876-1900

• Some examples:– Creating city commissions of experts– Anti-trust and anti-child labor laws– FDA and other regulatory agencies– Education reform– Income tax– Settlement Houses– Muckraking– National Park system

LA internal development: 1821-1850

• Caudillo era: strong men with the common touch (charisma)

• Represent mix of centralization and landowner interests

• Function of creole elite maintaining caste system • Supported by Church and Army• Resumption of agriculture on broad scale, loans

from Europe to fund military, at ruinous interest rates

LA Internal Development, 1850-1900s

• Rise of liberalism and positivism• Reflected goals of urban middle class and

landowners seeking greater export wealth• Policies of internal expansion and Indian

removal• Turn from expanding democracy to

expanding economic growth through trade with industrialized nations

LA Internal Development, 1850-1900s• Main figure—Porfirio Diaz of Mexico

• Importing foreign capital, workers, and technology

• Rise in urbanization, manufacturing, and services, esp transportation

• Mexico offers low-cost labor, free land, and minimal taxation to foreign companies

• Increased centralization due to military force, but at cost of rights and democracy

• Mexican elite grows wealthy, but majority of population grows poorer

• Loss of political control to foreign powers

• Sets stage for populist revolts throughout L.A.

Both Difference• Internal expansion/railroad

construction• Urbanization and growth of

working class• Immigration key • Increasing centralization• Growth of women’s rights

groups• White supremacist ideology

• LA remains heavily resource-based, while US industrializes

• US progressivism manages inequalities, LA positivism creates them

• Progressivism prevents revolution, Positivism creates it

• Heavy foreign influence in LA politics

US Expansion OverseasBackground: Washington’s Proclamation of Neutrality vs early expansionism (Canada, War of 1812, filibustering in Central America, interest in Cuba, Mexican-American War)

Warning off the French in Mexico in the 1860s

Internal expansion guided by Manifest Destiny (racial, religious, political causes)

Attitude summed up by Monroe Doctrine (1823): our hemisphere, our “laboratory”

ImperialismGuided by:

Mahan’s naval thesis (need for bases, ie; Hawaii, Philippines, Panama Canal)

Beveridge’s need for markets (ie; Open Door Notes in China, 1899, Philippines)

Racial theories – White Man’s Burden (ie; Cuba, Philippines)

Progressive idealogy of mediation and democratization (ie: Philippines, Cuba, Russo-Japanese Peace Treaty, Panama)

ImperialismSeizure of Hawaii (1898) after US planters overthrow queen – also a base in Pacific

Spanish-American War (1898) and Platt Amendment (1901) deliver us Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Philippines

Roosevelt reformulates Monroe Doctrine with Roosevelt Corollary: chronic wrongdoing by Latinos requires intervention

Leads to Panama Canal, as well as Caribbean and CA interventions “the American lake”

Taft’s Dollar Diplomacy – same goals met by foreign investment rather than military, ends up with military intervention to protect investments

WWIA Progressive war—

Progressivism—an urban, middle class phenomenon stressing:•Scientific, non-partisan solutions to national problems•Rehabbing democracy and capitalism•Smoothing gaping inequalities•Moral reform to perfect the individual, using government action

But also racist, usually intolerant of poor & immigrant culturesOften heavy-handed (ie: eugenics)

WWIUS involvement due to threats to neutrality (unrestricted sub warfare and Zimmermann Telegram , 1917)

Fought to spread democracy

Involved massive government action to organize country for war (WIB, draft, WIS, CPI, income tax)

14 points: popular sovereignty, democracy, free trade, cooperation to solve internat’l problems

Defeated by Congress concerned over American sovereignty

Wilson to RooseveltWilson intervenes in Mexico to protect US investments, but with avowedly pro-Democracy mission

1920s presidents run foreign policy according to the “Associative State” model—Government’s purpose is to facilitate trade and protect business climate—leads to low-scale military interventions in Nicaragua, Haiti, Dominican Republic. These are NOT full commitments.

FDR (1930s): Good Neighbor Policy—united front against fascism, stick to internal reforms during Depression

Establishment of Pan-American Conferences, acceptance of Mexican oil nationalization

Great Depression

• A consequence of wealth inequality• An unregulated stock market• A lack of consumer spending and

business investment• Causes unemployment, a contracting

economy, social instability• A loss of faith in traditional gov’tal

responses to economic crises

The New Deal (‘32-?)• FDR--restore faith in gov’t• Use gov’t spending as a stimulus (keynesianism) • Use gov’t power to remove inefficiencies in marketplace

and inequalities in society• Emphasize cooperation and traditional American values--

iconization of American workers• Develop coalition of workers (unions), women, minorities,

farmers to remain in power (New Deal coalition)• Use TVA, NRA, AAA, CCC, WPA in your answers• Essentially a progressive plan--“saved capitalism and

democracy” without radical change.

World War II• “Arsenal of Democracy” and Atlantic Charter--a war

for democracy and international security (4 Freedoms, Lend-Lease Act)

• Popular Front (center-left nations against fascism)—means US is okay with socialism now. Explains why Cardenas is able to nationalize US oil Companies

• Pan-American conferences keeps Latin America with Allies

• Quarantine actions against Japan• Pearl Harbor in ‘41 leads to US involvement in

Pacific and Atlantic

LA and the Depression• Mexico, Argentina, Brazil made money

exporting resources during WWI

• Marked political power of landowners, army, and foreign investments (neoimperialism)

• The post WWI depression began early in LA as demand for resources dropped suddenly.

• Argentine and Brazilian leaders borrowed heavily to sustain agriculture but their economies crashed.

• This led to the rise of ISI

ISI• Policy for Mexico (Cardenas), Arg, and Brazil

(Vargas) in the 30s• Heavily populist, nationalistic (Self-sufficiency and

unity were the two key policies)• Build up industry for protection against dependence

on foreign powers• Centralization of gov’t power• Appealed to army, labor unions and urban middle

class since all 3 gained power and $• And country seen to become powerful enough to

resist foreign (esp US) influence• WWII—US and Britain need imports

ISI fails• ISI could not replace heavy industrialization of US and

Europe• Growing power of left-wing scares army and middle class,

so ISI gov’ts turn right-wing, crush unions and communists• End of WWII marks onset of Cold War, and LA scramblers

to become anti-communist• End of WWII marks return of US as top industrial power,

which outcompetes LA• Combo of traditional landowners and army restore raw

material-based economy and themselves into power.

Origins of Civil Rights

• Booker T Washington—”Cast Down Your Bucket” (Self-Help, econ. growth)

• WEB DuBois—Talented 10th, importance of Civil Rights

• Harlem Renaissance + Marcus Garvey—blacks celebrate history, ethnicity, drive to develop independent and self-sufficient black community

Civil Rights, phase one• Importance of WWII Progressivism and Cold War

Rhetoric• Importance of NAACP legal strategy• 1945-1956--for blacks, increasing gov’tal support for

ending legal segregation– 1941: Fair Employment Act– 1948: Executive Order 9981– 1954: Brown v Board of Education

Public backlash in Little Rock and Brown II decision (“all deliberate speed”) reveal limitations of civil equality by legislation

Civil Rights, phase two• Direct Action--cause a crisis in the white community

leading to legal enforcement of desegregation--blacks act themselves– Birmingham bus boycott, 56-57 (SCLC)– SNCC/CORE sit-ins/Freedom Rides 1960-61– Marches/boycotts throughout South in 1963 (Birmingham

Letter, March on Washington)– Leads to Civil Rights Act (1964) to outlaw public discrimination– Freedom Summer of 1964 designed to enroll blacks as voters,

but also to enforce fed regulation of voting rights – Violence/murders leads to Voting Rights Act of 1965 promising

fed enforcement of voting rights

Civil Rights, Phase 3• New turn caused by poverty and white violence; new

movements occur in North (site of economic segregation)--demands for anti-poverty programs

• Malcolm X-separation & self-reliance• Black Power--black self-worth, study white racism, black

culture• Black Panthers--self-defense• Summer riots in major industrial cities in mid-60s• Speak to incompleteness of Great Society programs• Black radicalism less effective for white rapprochement,

lead to conservative backlash and white power politics

Civil Rights Spreads• Black Power a model for other minorities (asians,

hispanics, gays, women, Indians, even prisoners)• Rise in pride movements, studies programs, fiction

circles, even Panther-based movements, and union movements based on equal wages--usually aimed at end to public/private discrimination

• Usually derided as “identity politics”• American Indian Movement (AIM) most militant,

seizing Alcatraz in 1969, and holding out in Pine Ridge Rez (1973)

Civil Rights--Nat’l Politics• Executive support highest during LBJ’s presidency-has

tended to decrease in support since Reagan• Judicial branch--expanded definition of and fed support for

civil rights until early 1970s (Roe v Wade usually seen as watershed)

• Since then, a retrenchment in constitutional authority for enforcement of racial equality (end of affirmative action, etc.)

• Legislatively, Southern and Western states reflecting new conservatism have tended to block civil rights programs and to pass by initiative legislation to end state programs (combo of white backlash and small gov initiatives)