Theory of KnowledgeTheory of KnowledgeAreas of KnowledgeAreas of Knowledge

HISTORYHISTORY

““All history is then the history of All history is then the history of thought.” R.G. Collingwoodthought.” R.G. Collingwood

““Even God cannot change the past.” Even God cannot change the past.” AgathonAgathon

The aims of understanding history as The aims of understanding history as an area of knowledge:an area of knowledge:

Distinction between Distinction between historyhistory and and historiographyhistoriography

Role of bias and selection in Role of bias and selection in historical processhistorical process

Difficulties in historical causationDifficulties in historical causation

Historical judgments are subject to Historical judgments are subject to standard criteria of plausibility standard criteria of plausibility (consistency, coherence, etc.)(consistency, coherence, etc.)

The role of history with respect to The role of history with respect to other disciplines (areas of other disciplines (areas of knowledge)knowledge)

The problems of knowing the past:The problems of knowing the past:

• Information can be incomplete.Information can be incomplete.• It can be inaccurate.It can be inaccurate.• It can be wrong.It can be wrong.• It may be impossible to know.It may be impossible to know.

The facts of history:The facts of history:

1.1. Collecting facts “hard core”Collecting facts “hard core”

2.2. Analyzing themAnalyzing them

The wishes and interests of the The wishes and interests of the historian decide what is worth historian decide what is worth knowing.knowing.

The need to sort and siftThe need to sort and sift The theories of the historians The theories of the historians

determine how the categorization determine how the categorization takes place; therefore, they are no takes place; therefore, they are no longer hard core facts.longer hard core facts.

For example: Numbered red For example: Numbered red triangle, green circle, yellow squaretriangle, green circle, yellow square

How do we determine the reliability How do we determine the reliability of our sources?of our sources?

A biased historian is like a scientist A biased historian is like a scientist “fixing the data” in his experiment “fixing the data” in his experiment

so that it lends evidence to his so that it lends evidence to his hypothesis.hypothesis.

We choose how to describe events We choose how to describe events and what is important depending and what is important depending onon

1. what information is available1. what information is available 2. our paradigms2. our paradigms

What will our own age be called in What will our own age be called in the future?the future?

Can it be a name we can predict?Can it be a name we can predict?

The study of history is problematic.The study of history is problematic.

If state of mind is significant, then some If state of mind is significant, then some factors are beyond our reach.factors are beyond our reach.

Is history about indviduals or about social Is history about indviduals or about social forces?forces?

History explains group r/t individual History explains group r/t individual behavior; yet some individuals override behavior; yet some individuals override the group.the group.

Yet no single leader could stop the Yet no single leader could stop the advancement of information technologyadvancement of information technology

What are considered valid sources What are considered valid sources of history?of history?

A personal diary?A personal diary? A government document?A government document? Bank accounts?Bank accounts? Other?Other?

Causationism in historyCausationism in history

History is about finding causes and History is about finding causes and effects. effects.

How many? How many? How to prioritize?How to prioritize? Hierarchy of causes?Hierarchy of causes? How far back/forward do we look for How far back/forward do we look for

causes and effects before reaching causes and effects before reaching absurdity? (Cleopatra’s nose)absurdity? (Cleopatra’s nose)

The inevitability of history?The inevitability of history?

Historical determinismHistorical determinism Is history really cyclical? Is history really cyclical? Does history depend on Does history depend on

Race?Race? Climate?Climate? Class struggle?Class struggle? Psychology of the times?Psychology of the times? Progress?Progress? Pure chance?Pure chance?

Select the paradigmSelect the paradigm

Then select the data.Then select the data. Get data, then change the paradigm Get data, then change the paradigm

if necessary.if necessary.

History aims for objectivity.History aims for objectivity.

History is a human endeavor.History is a human endeavor. How do we select the right version?How do we select the right version? Difficulty in obtaining certaintyDifficulty in obtaining certainty Historian seeks convergence of Historian seeks convergence of

evidence and hopes that evidence and hopes that explanations are reasonable and explanations are reasonable and consistent with the evidence.consistent with the evidence.

Is a historian more like a painter or a Is a historian more like a painter or a photographer?photographer?

Food for ThoughtFood for Thought

The study of history can be justified The study of history can be justified on the grounds that on the grounds that

it contributes to our sense of identityit contributes to our sense of identity it is a defense against propagandait is a defense against propaganda it enriches our understanding of it enriches our understanding of

human naturehuman nature

Although history is based on Although history is based on primary sources:primary sources:

Even primary sources are a selective Even primary sources are a selective interpretation of events.interpretation of events.

They cannot always be taken at face They cannot always be taken at face value.value.

Since history deals with complex Since history deals with complex situations:situations:

Historical events rarely have a single Historical events rarely have a single cause but are usually the result of a cause but are usually the result of a combination of factors.combination of factors.

Two theories of history:Two theories of history:

The Great Person Theory (history is The Great Person Theory (history is determined by great individuals)determined by great individuals)

Economic Determinism (history is Economic Determinism (history is determined by economic factors)determined by economic factors)

Revisionists rewrite history.Revisionists rewrite history.

Examples?Examples? ______________________________________ ______________________________________ ______________________________________ ______________________________________ ______________________________________ ______________________________________ ______________________________________

PerceptionPerception: how reliable is : how reliable is eyewitness testimony as a primary eyewitness testimony as a primary source?source?

ReasonReason: What common fallacies : What common fallacies arise in studying history?arise in studying history?

EmotionEmotion: What role should empathy : What role should empathy play in a historian’s work?play in a historian’s work?

LanguageLanguage: Can historical events be : Can historical events be described in truly neutral language?described in truly neutral language?