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IntroductionThe oscilloscope is an essential tool if you plan to design or repair electronic equipment. It lets you "see" electricalsignals.

Energy, vibrating particles, and other invisible forces are everywhere in our physical universe. Sensors can convert theseforces into electrical signals that you can observe and study with an oscilloscope. Oscilloscopes let you "see" events thatoccur in a split second.

Why Read This Book?

If you are a scientist, engineer, technician, or electronics hobbyist, you should know how to use an oscilloscope. Theconcepts presented here provide you with a good starting point.

If you are using an oscilloscope for the first time, read this book to get a solid understanding of oscilloscope basics.Then, read the manual provided with your oscilloscope to learn specific information about how to use it in your work. Afterreading this book, you will be able to:

Describe how oscilloscopes work Describe the difference between an analog and digital oscilloscope Describe electrical waveform types Understand basic oscilloscope controls Take simple measurements

If you come across an unfamiliar term in this book, check the glossary in the back for a definition.

This book serves as a useful classroom aid. It includes vocabulary and multiple choice written exercises on oscilloscopetheory and controls. You do not need any mathematical or electronics knowledge. This book emphasizes teaching youabout oscilloscopes - how they work and how to make them work for you.

Next Chapter: The Oscilloscope

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Table of Contents

Introduction

Why Read This Book? For More Information

The Oscilloscope

What Can You Do With It? Analog and Digital How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

Oscilloscope Terminology

Measurement Terms Types of Waves Waveform Measurements Performance Terms

Setting Up

Grounding Setting the Controls Probes Compensating the Probe

The Controls

Display Controls Vertical Controls Horizontal Controls Trigger Controls Acquisition Controls for Digital Oscilloscopes Other Controls

Measurement Techniques

The Display Voltage Measurements Time and Frequency Measurements Pulse and Rise Time Measurements Phase Shift Measurements What's Next?

Written Exercises

Written Exercise Answers

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Glossary

Index

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The OscilloscopeWhat is an oscilloscope, what can you do with it, and how does it work? This section answers these fundamentalquestions.

The oscilloscope is basically a graph-displaying device - it draws a graph of an electrical signal. In most applications thegraph shows how signals change over time: the vertical (Y) axis represents voltage and the horizontal (X) axis representstime. The intensity or brightness of the display is sometimes called the Z axis. (See Figure 1.) This simple graph can tellyou many things about a signal. Here are a few:

You can determine the time and voltage values of a signal. You can calculate the frequency of an oscillating signal. You can see the "moving parts" of a circuit represented by the signal. You can tell if a malfunctioning component is distorting the signal. You can find out how much of a signal is direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC). You can tell how much of the signal is noise and whether the noise is changing with time.

Figure 1: X, Y, and Z Components of a Displayed Waveform

An oscilloscope looks a lot like a small television set, except that it has a grid drawn on its screen and more controls thana television. The front panel of an oscilloscope normally has control sections divided into Vertical, Horizontal, and Triggersections. There are also display controls and input connectors. See if you can locate these front panel sections in Figures2 and 3 and on your oscilloscope.



Figure 2: The TAS 465 Analog Oscilloscope Front Panel

Figure 3: The TDS 320 Digital Oscilloscope Front Panel

What Can You Do With It?

Oscilloscopes are used by everyone from television repair technicians to physicists. They are indispensable for anyonedesigning or repairing electronic equipment.

The usefulness of an oscilloscope is not limited to the world of electronics. With the proper transducer , an oscilloscopecan measure all kinds of phenomena. A transducer is a device that creates an electrical signal in response to physicalstimuli, such as sound, mechanical stress, pressure, light, or heat. For example, a microphone is a transducer.

An automotive engineer uses an oscilloscope to measure engine vibrations. A medical researcher uses an oscilloscopeto measure brain waves. The possibilities are endless.



Figure 4: Scientific Data Gathered by an Oscilloscope

Analog and Digital

Electronic equipment can be divided into two types: analog and digital. Analog equipment works with continuouslyvariable voltages, while digital equipment works with discrete binary numbers that may represent voltage samples. Forexample, a conventional phonograph turntable is an analog device; a compact disc player is a digital device.

Oscilloscopes also come in analog and digital types. An analog oscilloscope works by directly applying a voltage beingmeasured to an electron beam moving across the oscilloscope screen. The voltage deflects the beam up and downproportionally, tracing the waveform on the screen. This gives an immediate picture of the waveform.

In contrast, a digital oscilloscope samples the waveform and uses an analog-to-digital converter (or ADC) to convert thevoltage being measured into digital information. It then uses this digital information to reconstruct the waveform on thescreen.

Figure 5: Digital and Analog Oscilloscopes Display Waveforms

For many applications either an analog or digital oscilloscope will do. However, each type does possess some uniquecharacteristics making it more or less suitable for specific tasks.

People often prefer analog oscilloscopes when it is important to display rapidly varying signals in "real time" (or as theyoccur).

Digital oscilloscopes allow you to capture and view events that may happen only once. They can process the digitalwaveform data or send the data to a computer for processing. Also, they can store the digital waveform data for laterviewing and printing.



How Does an Oscilloscope Work?

To better understand the oscilloscope controls, you need to know a little more about how oscilloscopes display a signal.Analog oscilloscopes work somewhat differently than digital oscilloscopes. However, several of the internal systems aresimilar. Analog oscilloscopes are somewhat simpler in concept and are described first, followed by a description ofdigital oscilloscopes.

Analog Oscilloscopes

When you connect an oscilloscope probe to a circuit, the voltage signal travels through the probe to the vertical system ofthe oscilloscope. Figure 6 is a simple block diagram that shows how an analog oscilloscope displays a measuredsignal.

Figure 6: Analog Oscilloscope Block Diagram

Depending on how you set the vertical scale (volts/div control), an attenuator reduces the signal voltage or an amplifierincreases the signal voltage.

Next, the signal travels directly to the vertical deflection plates of the cathode ray tube (CRT). Voltage applied to thesedeflection plates causes a glowing dot to move. (An electron beam hitting phosphor inside the CRT creates the glowingdot.) A positive voltage causes the dot to move up while a negative voltage causes the dot to move down.

The signal also travels to the trigger system to start or trigger a "horizontal sweep." Horizontal sweep is a term referring tothe action of the horizontal system causing the glowing dot to move across the screen. Triggering the horizontal systemcauses the horizontal time base to move the glowing dot across the screen from left to right within a specific time interval.Many sweeps in rapid sequence cause the movement of the glowing dot to blend into a solid line. At higher speeds, thedot may sweep across the screen up to 500,000 times each second.

Together, the horizontal sweeping action and the vertical deflection action traces a graph of the signal on the screen. Thetrigger is necessary to stabilize a repeating signal. It ensures that the sweep begins at the same point of a repeatingsignal, resulting in a clear picture as shown in Figure 7.



Figure 7: Triggering Stabilizes a Repeating Waveform

In conclusion, to use an analog oscilloscope, you need to adjust three basic settings to accommodate an incomingsignal:

The attenuation or amplification of the signal. Use the volts/div control to adjust the amplitude of the signal before itis applied to the vertical deflection plates. The time base. Use the sec/div control to set the amount of time per division represented horizontally across thescreen. The triggering of the oscilloscope. Use the trigger level to stabilize a repeating signal, as well as triggering on asingle event.

Also, adjusting the focus and intensity controls enables you to create a sharp, visible display.

Digital Oscilloscopes

Some of the systems that make up digital oscilloscopes are the same as those in analog oscilloscopes; however, digitaloscilloscopes contain additional data processing systems. (See Figure 8.) With the added systems, the digitaloscilloscope collects data for the entire waveform and then displays it.

When you attach a digital oscilloscope probe to a circuit, the vertical system adjusts the amplitude of the signal, just as inthe analog oscilloscope.

Next, the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) in the acquisition system samples the signal at discrete points in time andconverts the signal's voltage at these points to digital values called sample points . The horizontal system's sample clockdetermines how often the ADC takes a sample. The rate at which the clock "ticks" is called the sample rate and ismeasured in samples per second.

The sample points from the ADC are stored in memory as waveform points . More than one sample point may make upone waveform point.

Together, the waveform points make up one waveform record . The number of waveform points used to make awaveform record is called the record length . The trigger system determines the start and stop points of the record. Thedisplay receives these record points after being stored in memory.

Depending on the capabilities of your oscilloscope, additional processing of the sample points may take place,enhancing the display. Pretrigger may be available, allowing you to see events before the trigger point.



Figure 8: Digital Oscilloscope Block Diagram

Fundamentally, with a digital oscilloscope as with an analog oscilloscope, you need to adjust the vertical, horizontal, andtrigger settings to take a measurement.

Sampling Methods

The sampling method tells the digital oscilloscope how to collect sample points. For slowly changing signals, a digitaloscilloscope easily collects more than enough sample points to construct an accurate picture. However, for fastersignals, (how fast depends on the oscilloscope's maximum sample rate) the oscilloscope cannot collect enoughsamples. The digital oscilloscope can do two things:

It can collect a few sample points of the signal in a single pass (in real-time sampling mode) and then useinterpolation . Interpolation is a processing technique to estimate what the waveform looks like based on a fewpoints. It can build a picture of the waveform over time, as long as the signal repeats itself (equivalent-time samplingmode).

Real-Time Sampling with Interpolation

Digital oscilloscopes use real-time sampling as the standard sampling method. In real-time sampling, the oscilloscopecollects as many samples as it can as the signal occurs. (See Figure 9.) For single-shot or transient signals you mustuse real time sampling.

Figure 9: Real-time Sampling



Digital oscilloscopes use interpolation to display signals that are so fast that the oscilloscope can only collect a fewsample points. Interpolation "connects the dots."

Linear interpolation simply connects sample points with straight lines. Sine interpolation (or sin x over x interpolation)connects sample points with curves. (See Figure 10.) Sin x over x interpolation is a mathematical process similar to the"oversampling" used in compact disc players. With sine interpolation, points are calculated to fill in the time between thereal samples. Using this process, a signal that is sampled only a few times in each cycle can be accurately displayed or,in the case of the compact disc player, accurately played back.

Figure 10: Linear and Sine Interpolation

Equivalent-Time Sampling

Some digital oscilloscopes can use equivalent-time sampling to capture very fast repeating signals. Equivalent-timesampling constructs a picture of a repetitive signal by capturing a little bit of information from each repetition. (See Figure11.) You see the waveform slowly build up like a string of lights going on one-by-one. With sequential sampling thepoints appear from left to right in sequence; with random sampling the points appear randomly along the waveform.

Figure 11: Equivalent-time Sampling

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Oscilloscope TerminologyLearning a new skill often involves learning a new vocabulary. This idea holds true for learning how to use anoscilloscope. This section describes some useful measurement and oscilloscope performance terms.

Measurement Terms

The generic term for a pattern that repeats over time is a wave - sound waves, brain waves, ocean waves, and voltagewaves are all repeating patterns. An oscilloscope measures voltage waves. One cycle of a wave is the portion of thewave that repeats. A waveform is a graphic representation of a wave. A voltage waveform shows time on the horizontalaxis and voltage on the vertical axis.

Waveform shapes tell you a great deal about a signal. Any time you see a change in the height of the waveform, you knowthe voltage has changed. Any time there is a flat horizontal line, you know that there is no change for that length of time.Straight diagonal lines mean a linear change - rise or fall of voltage at a steady rate. Sharp angles on a waveform meansudden change. Figure 1 shows common waveforms and Figure 2 shows some common sources of waveforms.

Figure 1: Common Waveforms



Figure 2: Sources of Common Waveforms

Types of Waves

You can classify most waves into these types:

Sine waves Square and rectangular waves Triangle and sawtooth waves Step and pulse shapes

Sine Waves

The sine wave is the fundamental wave shape for several reasons. It has harmonious mathematical properties - it isthe same sine shape you may have studied in high school trigonometry class. The voltage in your wall outlet varies as asine wave. Test signals produced by the oscillator circuit of a signal generator are often sine waves. Most AC powersources produce sine waves. (AC stands for alternating current, although the voltage alternates too. DC stands fordirect current, which means a steady current and voltage, such as a battery produces.)



The damped sine wave is a special case you may see in a circuit that oscillates but winds down over time.

Figure 3 shows examples of sine and damped sine waves.

Figure 3: Sine and Damped Sine Waves

Square and Rectangular Waves

The square wave is another common wave shape. Basically, a square wave is a voltage that turns on and off (or goeshigh and low) at regular intervals. It is a standard wave for testing amplifiers - good amplifiers increase the amplitude of asquare wave with minimum distortion. Television, radio, and computer circuitry often use square waves for timing signals.

The rectangular wave is like the square wave except that the high and low time intervals are not of equal length. It isparticularly important when analyzing digital circuitry.

Figure 4 shows examples of square and rectangular waves.

Figure 4: Square and Rectangular Waves

Sawtooth and Triangle Waves

Sawtooth and Triangle waves result from circuits designed to control voltages linearly, such as the horizontal sweep ofan analog oscilloscope or the raster scan of a television. The transitions between voltage levels of these waves change ata constant rate. These transitions are called ramps .

Figure 5 shows examples of sawtooth and triangle waves.

Figure 5: Sawtooth and Triangle Waves

Step and Pulse Shapes

Signals such as steps and pulses that only occur once are called single-shot or transient signals. The step indicatesa sudden change in voltage, like what you would see if you turned on a power switch. The pulse indicates what you wouldsee if you turned a power switch on and then off again. It might represent one bit of information traveling through acomputer circuit or it might be a glitch (a defect) in a circuit.

A collection of pulses travelling together creates a pulse train. Digital components in a computer communicate with eachother using pulses. Pulses are also common in x-ray and communications equipment.

Figure 6 shows examples of step and pulse shapes and a pulse train.



Figure 6: Step, Pulse, and Pulse Train Shapes

Waveform Measurements

You use many terms to describe the types of measurements that you take with your oscilloscope. This section describessome of the most common measurements and terms.

Frequency and Period

If a signal repeats, it has a frequency . The frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz) and equals the number of times thesignal repeats itself in one second (the cycles per second). A repeating signal also has a period - this is the amount oftime it takes the signal to complete one cycle. Period and frequency are reciprocals of each other, so that 1/period equalsthe frequency and 1/frequency equals the period. So, for example, the sine wave in Figure 7 has a frequency of 3 Hz and aperiod of 1/3 second.

Figure 7: Frequency and Period

Voltage

Voltage is the amount of electric potential (a kind of signal strength) between two points in a circuit. Usually one of thesepoints is ground (zero volts) but not always - you may want to measure the voltage from the maximum peak to theminimum peak of a waveform, referred to at the peak-to-peak voltage. The word amplitude commonly refers to themaximum voltage of a signal measured from ground or zero volts. The waveform shown in Figure 8 has an amplitude ofone volt and a peak-to-peak voltage of two volts.

Phase

Phase is best explained by looking at a sine wave. Sine waves are based on circular motion and a circle has 360degrees. One cycle of a sine wave has 360 degrees, as shown in Figure 8. Using degrees, you can refer to the phaseangle of a sine wave when you want to describe how much of the period has elapsed.

Figure 8: Sine Wave Degrees

Phase shift describes the difference in timing between two otherwise similar signals. In Figure 9, the waveform labeled"current" is said to be 905 out of phase with the waveform labeled "voltage," since the waves reach similar points in their



cycles exactly 1/4 of a cycle apart (360 degrees/4 = 90 degrees). Phase shifts are common in electronics.

Figure 9: Phase Shift

Performance Terms

The terms described in this section may come up in your discussions about oscilloscope performance. Understandingthese terms will help you evaluate and compare your oscilloscope with other models.

Bandwidth

The bandwidth specification tells you the frequency range the oscilloscope accurately measures.

As signal frequency increases, the capability of the oscilloscope to accurately respond decreases. By convention, thebandwidth tells you the frequency at which the displayed signal reduces to 70.7% of the applied sine wave signal. (This70.7% point is referred to as the "-3 dB point," a term based on a logarithmic scale.)

Rise Time

Rise time is another way of describing the useful frequency range of an oscilloscope. Rise time may be a moreappropriate performance consideration when you expect to measure pulses and steps. An oscilloscope cannotaccurately display pulses with rise times faster than the specified rise time of the oscilloscope.

Vertical Sensitivity

The vertical sensitivity indicates how much the vertical amplifier can amplify a weak signal. Vertical sensitivity is usuallygiven in millivolts (mV) per division. The smallest voltage a general purpose oscilloscope can detect is typically about 2mV per vertical screen division.

Sweep Speed

For analog oscilloscopes, this specification indicates how fast the trace can sweep across the screen, allowing you tosee fine details. The fastest sweep speed of an oscilloscope is usually given in nanoseconds/div.

Gain Accuracy

The gain accuracy indicates how accurately the vertical system attenuates or amplifies a signal. This is usually listed as apercentage error.

Time Base or Horizontal Accuracy

The time base or horizontal accuracy indicates how accurately the horizontal system displays the timing of a signal. Thisis usually listed as a percentage error.



Sample Rate

On digital oscilloscopes, the sampling rate indicates how many samples per second the ADC (and therefore theoscilloscope) can acquire. Maximum sample rates are usually given in megasamples per second (MS/s). The faster theoscilloscope can sample, the more accurately it can represent fine details in a fast signal. The minimum sample ratemay also be important if you need to look at slowly changing signals over long periods of time. Typically, the sample ratechanges with changes made to the sec/div control to maintain a constant number of waveform points in the waveformrecord.

ADC Resolution (Or Vertical Resolution)

The resolution, in bits, of the ADC (and therefore the digital oscilloscope) indicates how precisely it can turn input voltagesinto digital values. Calculation techniques can improve the effective resolution.

Record Length

The record length of a digital oscilloscope indicates how many waveform points the oscilloscope is able to acquire forone waveform record. Some digital oscilloscopes let you adjust the record length. The maximum record length dependson the amount of memory in your oscilloscope. Since the oscilloscope can only store a finite number of waveform points,there is a trade-off between record detail and record length. You can acquire either a detailed picture of a signal for a shortperiod of time (the oscilloscope "fills up" on waveform points quickly) or a less detailed picture for a longer period of time.Some oscilloscopes let you add more memory to increase the record length for special applications.

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Setting UpThis section briefly describes how to set up and start using an oscilloscope - specifically, how to ground the oscilloscope,set the controls in standard positions, and compensate the probe.

Grounding

Proper grounding is an important step when setting up to take measurements or work on a circuit. Properly grounding theoscilloscope protects you from a hazardous shock and grounding yourself protects your circuits from damage.

Ground the Oscilloscope

Grounding the oscilloscope is necessary for safety. If a high voltage contacts the case of an ungrounded oscilloscope,any part of the case, including knobs that appear insulated, it can give you a shock. However, with a properly groundedoscilloscope, the current travels through the grounding path to earth ground rather than through you to earth ground.

To ground the oscilloscope means to connect it to an electrically neutral reference point (such as earth ground). Groundyour oscilloscope by plugging its three-pronged power cord into an outlet grounded to earth ground.

Grounding is also necessary for taking accurate measurements with your oscilloscope. The oscilloscope needs to sharethe same ground as any circuits you are testing.

Some oscilloscopes do not require the separate connection to earth ground. These oscilloscopes have insulated casesand controls, which keeps any possible shock hazard away from the user.

Ground Yourself

If you are working with integrated circuits (ICs), you also need to ground yourself. Integrated circuits have tiny conductionpaths that can be damaged by static electricity that builds up on your body. You can ruin an expensive IC simply by walkingacross a carpet or taking off a sweater and then touching the leads of the IC. To solve this problem, wear a groundingstrap (see Figure 1). This strap safely sends static charges on your body to earth ground.

Figure 1: Typical Wrist Type Grounding Strap

Setting the Controls

After plugging in the oscilloscope, take a look at the front panel. It is divided into three main sections labeled Vertical ,



Horizontal , and Trigger . Your oscilloscope may have other sections, depending on the model and type (analog ordigital).

Notice the input connectors on your oscilloscope. This is where you attach probes. Most oscilloscopes have at least twoinput channels and each channel can display a waveform on the screen. Multiple channels are handy for comparingwaveforms.

Figure 2: Front Panel Control Sections of an Oscilloscope

Some oscilloscopes have an AUTOSET or PRESET button that sets up the controls in one step to accommodate a signal.If your oscilloscope does not have this feature, it is helpful to set the controls to standard positions before takingmeasurements.

Standard positions include the following:

Set the oscilloscope to display channel 1 Set the volts/division scale to a mid-range position Turn off the variable volts/division Turn off all magnification settings Set the channel 1 input coupling to DC Set the trigger mode to auto Set the trigger source to channel 1 Turn trigger holdoff to minimum or off Set the intensity control to a nominal viewing level Adjust the focus control for a sharp display

These are general instructions for setting up your oscilloscope. If you are not sure how to do any of these steps, refer tothe manual that came with your oscilloscope. The Controls section describes the controls in more detail.

Probes

Now you are ready to connect a probe to your oscilloscope. It is important to use a probe designed to work with youroscilloscope. A probe is more than a cable with a clip-on tip. It is a high-quality connector, carefully designed not to pickup stray radio and power line noise.

Probes are designed not to influence the behavior of the circuit you are testing. However, no measurement device can actas a perfectly invisible observer. The unintentional interaction of the probe and oscilloscope with the circuit being tested iscalled circuit loading . To minimize circuit loading, you will probably use a 10X attenuator (passive) probe.



Your oscilloscope probably arrived with a passive probe as a standard accessory. Passive probes provide you with anexcellent tool for general-purpose testing and troubleshooting. For more specific measurements or tests, many othertypes of probes exist. Two examples are active and current probes.

Descriptions of these probes follow, with more emphasis given to the passive probe since this is the probe type thatallows you the most flexibility of use.

Using Passive Probes

Most passive probes have some degree of attenuation factor, such as 10X, 100X, and so on. By convention, attenuationfactors, such as for the 10X attenuator probe, have the X after the factor. In contrast, magnification factors like X10 have theX first.

The 10X (read as "ten times") attenuator probe minimizes circuit loading and is an excellent general-purpose passiveprobe. Circuit loading becomes more pronounced at higher frequencies, so be sure to use this type of probe whenmeasuring signals above 5 kHz. The 10X attenuator probe improves the accuracy of your measurements, but it alsoreduces the amplitude of the signal seen on the screen by a factor of 10.

Because it attenuates the signal, the 10X attenuator probe makes it difficult to look at signals less than 10 millivolts. The1X probe is similar to the 10X attenuator probe but lacks the attenuation circuitry. Without this circuitry, more interferenceis introduced to the circuit being tested. Use the 10X attenuator probe as your standard probe, but keep the 1X probehandy for measuring weak signals. Some probes have a convenient feature for switching between 1X and 10Xattenuation at the probe tip. If your probe has this feature, make sure you are using the correct setting before takingmeasurements.

Many oscilloscopes can detect whether you are using a 1X or 10X probe and adjust their screen readouts accordingly.However with some oscilloscopes, you must set the type of probe you are using or read from the proper 1X or 10Xmarking on the volts/div control.

The 10X attenuator probe works by balancing the probe's electrical properties against the oscilloscope's electricalproperties. Before using a 10X attenuator probe you need to adjust this balance for your particular oscilloscope. Thisadjustment is called compensating the probe and is further described in the next section. Figure 3 shows a simplediagram of the internal workings of a probe, its adjustment, and the input of an oscilloscope.

Figure 3: Typical Probe/Oscilloscope 10-to-1 Divider Network

Figure 4 shows a typical passive probe and some accessories to use with the probe.



Figure 4: A Typical Passive Probe with Accessories

Using Active Probes

Active probes provide their own amplification or perform some other type of operation to process the signal beforeapplying it to the oscilloscope. These types of probes can solve problems such as circuit loading or perform tests onsignals, sending the results to the oscilloscope. Active probes require a power source for their operation.

Using Current Probes

Current probes enable you to directly observe and measure current waveforms. They are available for measuring both ACand DC current. Current probes use jaws that clip around the wire carrying the current. This makes them unique sincethey are not connected in series with the circuit; they, therefore, cause little or no interference in the circuit.

Where to Clip the Ground Clip

Measuring a signal requires two connections: the probe tip connection and a ground connection. Probes come with analligator-clip attachment for grounding the probe to the circuit under test. In practice, you clip the grounding clip to a knownground in the circuit, such as the metal chassis of a stereo you are repairing, and touch the probe tip to a test point in thecircuit.

Compensating the Probe

Before using a passive probe, you need to compensate it - to balance its electrical properties to a particular oscilloscope.You should get into the habit of compensating the probe every time you set up your oscilloscope. A poorly adjusted probecan make your measurements less accurate. Figure 5 shows what happens to measured waveforms when using aprobe not properly compensated.



Figure 5: The Effects of Improper Probe Compensation

Most oscilloscopes have a square wave reference signal available at a terminal on the front panel used to compensatethe probe. You compensate a probe by:

Attaching the probe to an input connector Connecting the probe tip to the probe compensation signal Attaching the ground clip of the probe to ground Viewing the square wave reference signal Making the proper adjustments on the probe so that the corners of the square wave are square

When you compensate the probe, always attach any accessory tips you will use and connect the probe to the verticalchannel you plan to use. This way the oscilloscope has the same electrical properties as it does when you takemeasurements.

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The ControlsThis section briefly describes the basic controls found on analog and digital oscilloscopes. Remember that somecontrols differ between analog and digital oscilloscopes; your oscilloscope probably has controls not discussed here.

Display Controls

Display systems vary between analog and digital oscilloscopes. Common controls include:

An intensity control to adjust the brightness of the waveform. As you increase the sweep speed of an analogoscilloscope, you need to increase the intensity level. A focus control to adjust the sharpness of the waveform. Digital oscilloscopes may not have a focus control. A trace rotation control to align the waveform trace with the screen's horizontal axis. The position of youroscilloscope in the earth's magnetic field affects waveform alignment. Digital oscilloscopes may not have a tracerotation control. Other display controls may let you adjust the intensity of the graticule lights and turn on or off any on-screeninformation (such as menus).

Vertical Controls

Use the vertical controls to position and scale the waveform vertically. Your oscilloscope also has controls for setting theinput coupling and other signal conditioning, described in this section. Figure 1 shows a typical front panel and on-screenmenus for the vertical controls.

Figure 1: Vertical Controls

Position and Volts per Division

The vertical position control lets you move the waveform up or down to exactly where you want it on the screen.

The volts per division (usually written volts/div) setting varies the size of the waveform on the screen. A good general



purpose oscilloscope can accurately display signal levels from about 4 millivolts to 40 volts.

The volts/div setting is a scale factor. For example, if the volts/div setting is 5 volts, then each of the eight vertical divisionsrepresents 5 volts and the entire screen can show 40 volts from bottom to top (assuming a graticule with eight majordivisions). If the setting is 0.5 volts/div, the screen can display 4 volts from bottom to top, and so on. The maximum voltageyou can display on the screen is the volts/div setting times the number of vertical divisions. (Recall that the probe you use,1X or 10X, also influences the scale factor. You must divide the volts/div scale by the attenuation factor of the probe if theoscilloscope does not do it for you.)

Often the volts/div scale has either a variable gain or a fine gain control for scaling a displayed signal to a certain numberof divisions. Use this control to take rise time measurements.

Input Coupling

Coupling means the method used to connect an electrical signal from one circuit to another. In this case, the inputcoupling is the connection from your test circuit to the oscilloscope. The coupling can be set to DC, AC, or ground. DCcoupling shows all of an input signal. AC coupling blocks the DC component of a signal so that you see the waveformcentered at zero volts. Figure 2 illustrates this difference. The AC coupling setting is handy when the entire signal(alternating plus constant components) is too large for the volts/div setting.

Figure 2: AC and DC Input Coupling

The ground setting disconnects the input signal from the vertical system, which lets you see where zero volts is on thescreen. With grounded input coupling and auto trigger mode, you see a horizontal line on the screen that represents zerovolts. Switching from DC to ground and back again is a handy way of measuring signal voltage levels with respect toground.

Bandwidth Limit

Most oscilloscopes have a circuit that limits the bandwidth of the oscilloscope. By limiting the bandwidth, you reduce thenoise that sometimes appears on the displayed waveform, providing you with a more defined signal display.

Channel Invert

Most oscilloscopes have an invert function that allows you to display a signal "upside-down." That is, with low voltage atthe top of the screen and high voltage at the bottom.

Alternate and Chop Display

On analog scopes, multiple channels are displayed using either an alternate or chop mode. (Digital oscilloscopes do notnormally use chop or alternate mode.)

Alternate mode draws each channel alternately - the oscilloscope completes one sweep on channel 1, then one sweepon channel 2, a second sweep on channel 1, and so on. Use this mode with medium- to high-speed signals, when thesec/div scale is set to 0.5 ms or faster.



Chop mode causes the oscilloscope to draw small parts of each signal by switching back and forth between them. Theswitching rate is too fast for you to notice, so the waveform looks whole. You typically use this mode with slow signalsrequiring sweep speeds of 1 ms per division or less. Figure 3 shows the difference between the two modes. It is oftenuseful to view the signal both ways, to make sure you have the best view.

Figure 3: Multi-Channel Display Modes

Math Operations

Your oscilloscope may also have operations to allow you to add waveforms together, creating a new waveform display.Analog oscilloscopes combine the signals while digital oscilloscopes mathematically create new waveforms. Subtractingwaveforms is another math operation. Subtraction with analog oscilloscopes is possible by using the channel invertfunction on one signal and then use the add operation. Digital oscilloscopes typically have a subtraction operationavailable. Figure 4 illustrates a third waveform created by adding two different signals together.

Figure 4: Adding Channels

Horizontal Controls

Use the horizontal controls to position and scale the waveform horizontally. Figure 5 shows a typical front panel andon-screen menus for the horizontal controls.



Figure 5: Horizontal Controls

Position and Seconds per Division

The horizontal position control moves the waveform from left and right to exactly where you want it on the screen.

The seconds per division (usually written as sec/div) setting lets you select the rate at which the waveform is drawnacross the screen (also known as the time base setting or sweep speed). This setting is a scale factor. For example, ifthe setting is 1 ms, each horizontal division represents 1 ms and the total screen width represents 10 ms (ten divisions).Changing the sec/div setting lets you look at longer or shorter time intervals of the input signal.

As with the vertical volts/div scale, the horizontal sec/div scale may have variable timing, allowing you to set the horizontaltime scale in between the discrete settings.

Time Base Selections

Your oscilloscope has a time base usually referred to as the main time base and it is probably the most useful. Manyoscilloscopes have what is called a delayed time base - a time base sweep that starts after a pre-determined time fromthe start of the main time base sweep. Using a delayed time base sweep allows you to see events more clearly or evensee events not visible with just the main time base sweep.

The delayed time base requires the setting of a delay time and possibly the use of delayed trigger modes and othersettings not described in this book. Refer to the manual supplied with your oscilloscope for information on how to usethese features.

Trigger Position

The trigger position control may be located in the horizontal control section of your oscilloscope. It actually represents "thehorizontal position of the trigger in the waveform record." Horizontal trigger position control is only available on digitaloscilloscopes.

Varying the horizontal trigger position allows you to capture what a signal did before a trigger event (called pretriggerviewing ).

Digital oscilloscopes can provide pretrigger viewing because they constantly process the input signal whether a triggerhas been received or not. A steady stream of data flows through the oscilloscope; the trigger merely tells the oscilloscopeto save the present data in memory. In contrast, analog oscilloscopes only display the signal after receiving the trigger.

Pretrigger viewing is a valuable troubleshooting aid. For example, if a problem occurs intermittently, you can trigger on theproblem, record the events that led up to it and, possibly, find the cause.

Magnification



Your oscilloscope may have special horizontal magnification settings that let you display a magnified section of thewaveform on-screen.

XY Mode

Most oscilloscopes have the capability of displaying a second channel signal along the X-axis (instead of time). This iscalled XY mode; you will find a longer discussion later in this book.

Trigger Controls

The trigger controls let you stabilize repeating waveforms and capture single-shot waveforms. Figure 6 shows a typicalfront panel and on-screen menus for the trigger controls.

Figure 6: Trigger Controls

The trigger makes repeating waveforms appear static on the oscilloscope display. Imagine the jumble on the screen thatwould result if each sweep started at a different place on the signal (see Figure 7).



Figure 7: Untriggered Display

Trigger Level and Slope

Your oscilloscope may have several different types of triggers, such as edge, video, pulse, or logic. Edge triggering is thebasic and most common type and is the only type discussed in this book. Consult your oscilloscope instruction manualfor details on other trigger types.

For edge triggering, the trigger level and slope controls provide the basic trigger point definition.

The trigger circuit acts as a comparator. You select the slope and voltage level of one side of the comparator. When thetrigger signal matches your settings, the oscilloscope generates a trigger.

The slope control determines whether the trigger point is on the rising or the falling edge of a signal. A rising edgeis a positive slope and a falling edge is a negative slope. The level control determines where on the edge the trigger point occurs.

Figure 8 shows you how the trigger slope and level settings determine how a waveform is displayed.

Figure 8: Positive and Negative Slope Triggering

Trigger Sources

The oscilloscope does not necessarily have to trigger on the signal being measured. Several sources can trigger thesweep:



Any input channel An external source, other than the signal applied to an input channel The power source signal A signal internally generated by the oscilloscope

Most of the time you can leave the oscilloscope set to trigger on the channel displayed.

Note that the oscilloscope can use an alternate trigger source whether displayed or not. So you have to be careful not tounwittingly trigger on, for example, channel 1 while displaying channel 2.

Trigger Modes

The trigger mode determines whether or not the oscilloscope draws a waveform if it does not detect a trigger. Commontrigger modes include normal and auto .

In normal mode the oscilloscope only sweeps if the input signal reaches the set trigger point; otherwise (on an analogoscilloscope) the screen is blank or (on a digital oscilloscope) frozen on the last acquired waveform. Normal mode canbe disorienting since you may not see the signal at first if the level control is not adjusted correctly.

Auto mode causes the oscilloscope to sweep, even without a trigger. If no signal is present, a timer in the oscilloscopetriggers the sweep. This ensures that the display will not disappear if the signal drops to small voltages. It is also the bestmode to use if you are looking at many signals and do not want to bother setting the trigger each time.

In practice, you will probably use both modes: normal mode because it is more versatile and auto mode because itrequires less adjustment.

Some oscilloscopes also include special modes for single sweeps, triggering on video signals, or automatically settingthe trigger level.

Trigger Coupling

Just as you can select either AC or DC coupling for the vertical system, you can choose the kind of coupling for the triggersignal.

Besides AC and DC coupling, your oscilloscope may also have high frequency rejection, low frequency rejection, andnoise rejection trigger coupling. These special settings are useful for eliminating noise from the trigger signal to preventfalse triggering.

Trigger Holdoff

Sometimes getting an oscilloscope to trigger on the correct part of a signal requires great skill. Many oscilloscopes havespecial features to make this task easier.

Trigger holdoff is an adjustable period of time during which the oscilloscope cannot trigger. This feature is useful whenyou are triggering on complex waveform shapes, so that the oscilloscope only triggers on the first eligible trigger point.Figure 9 shows how using trigger holdoff helps create a usable display.



Figure 9: Trigger Holdoff

Acquisition Controls for Digital Oscilloscopes

Digital oscilloscopes have settings that let you control how the acquisition system processes a signal. Look over theacquisition options on your digital oscilloscope while you read this description. Figure 10 shows you an example of anacquisition menu.



Figure 10: Example of an Acquisition Menu

Acquisition Modes

Acquisition modes control how waveform points are produced from sample points. Recall from the first section thatsample points are the digital values that come directly out of the Analog-to-Digital-Converter (ADC). The time betweensample points is called the sample interval. Waveform points are the digital values that are stored in memory anddisplayed to form the waveform. The time value difference between waveform points is called the waveform interval. Thesample interval and the waveform interval may be but need not be the same. This fact leads to the existence of severaldifferent acquisition modes in which one waveform point is made up from several sequentially acquired sample points.Additionally, waveform points can be created from a composite of sample points taken from multiple acquisitions, whichleads to another set of acquisition modes. A description of the most commonly used acquisition modes follows.

Sample Mode: This is the simplest acquisition mode. The oscilloscope creates a waveform point by saving onesample point during each waveform interval. Peak Detect Mode: The oscilloscope saves the minimum and maximum value sample points taken during twowaveform intervals and uses these samples as the two corresponding waveform points. Digital oscilloscopeswith peak detect mode run the ADC at a fast sample rate, even at very slow time base settings (long waveforminterval), and are able to capture fast signal changes that would occur between the waveform points if in samplemode. Peak detect mode is particularly useful for seeing narrow pulses spaced far apart in time. Hi Res Mode: Like peak detect, hi res mode is a way of getting more information in cases when the ADC cansample faster than the time base setting requires. In this case, multiple samples taken within one waveforminterval are averaged together to produce one waveform point. The result is a decrease in noise and animprovement in resolution for low speed signals. Envelope Mode: Envelope mode is similar to peak detect mode. However, in envelope mode, the minimum andmaximum waveform points from multiple acquisitions are combined to form a waveform that shows min/maxchanges over time. Peak detect mode is usually used to acquire the records that are combined to form theenvelope waveform. Average Mode: In average mode, the oscilloscope saves one sample point during each waveform interval as insample mode. However, waveform points from consecutive acquisitions are then averaged together to producethe final displayed waveform. Average mode reduces noise without loss of bandwidth but requires a repeatingsignal.

Stopping and Starting the Acquisition System

One of the greatest advantages of digital oscilloscopes is their ability to store waveforms for later viewing. To this end,there are usually one or more buttons on the front panel that allow you to stop and start the acquisition system so you can



analyze waveforms at your leisure. Additionally, you may want the oscilloscope to automatically stop acquiring after oneacquisition is complete or after one set of records has been turned into an envelope or average waveform. This feature iscommonly called single sweep or single sequence and its controls are usually found either with the other acquisitioncontrols or with the trigger controls.

Sampling Methods

In digital oscilloscopes that can use either real-time sampling or equivalent-time sampling as described earlier, theacquisition controls will allow you to choose which one to use for acquiring signals. Note that this choice makes nodifference for slow time base settings and only has an effect when the ADC cannot sample fast enough to fill the recordwith waveform points in one pass.

Other Controls

So far we have described the basic controls that a beginner needs to know about. Your oscilloscope may have othercontrols for various functions. Some of these may include:

Measurement cursors Keypads for mathematical operations or data entry Print capabilities Interfaces for connecting your oscilloscope to a computer

Look over the other options available to you and read your oscilloscope's manual to find out more about these othercontrols.

Next Chapter: Measurement Techniques

Previous Chapter: Setting Up


Up To: Glossary

Up To: Index


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Measurement TechniquesThis section teaches you basic measurement techniques. The two most basic measurements you can make are voltageand time measurements. Just about every other measurement is based on one of these two fundamental techniques.

This section discusses methods for taking measurements visually with the oscilloscope screen. Many digitaloscilloscopes have internal software that will take these measurements automatically. Knowing how to take themeasurements manually will help you understand and check the automatic measurements of the digital oscilloscopes.

The Display

Take a look at the oscilloscope display. Notice the grid markings on the screen - these markings create the graticule .Each vertical and horizontal line constitutes a major division . The graticule is usually laid out in an 8-by-10 divisionpattern. Labeling on the oscilloscope controls (such as volts/div and sec/div) always refers to major divisions. The tickmarks on the center horizontal and vertical graticule lines (see Figure 1) are called minor divisions.

Many oscilloscopes display on the screen how many volts each vertical division represents and how many seconds eachhorizontal division represents. Many oscilloscopes also have 0%, 10%, 90%, and 100% markings on the graticule (seeFigure 1) to help make rise time measurements, described later.

Figure 1: An Oscilloscope Graticule

Voltage Measurements

Voltage is the amount of electric potential, expressed in volts, between two points in a circuit. Usually one of these pointsis ground (zero volts) but not always. Voltages can also be measured from peak-to-peak - from the maximum point of asignal to its minimum point. You must be careful to specify which voltage you mean.

The oscilloscope is primarily a voltage-measuring device. Once you have measured the voltage, other quantities are justa calculation away. For example, Ohm's law states that voltage between two points in a circuit equals the current timesthe resistance. From any two of these quantities you can calculate the third. Another handy formula is the power law: thepower of a DC signal equals the voltage times the current. Calculations are more complicated for AC signals, but thepoint here is that measuring the voltage is the first step towards calculating other quantities.



Figure 2 shows the voltage of one peak - V[p] - and the peak-to-peak voltage - V[p-p] -, which is usually twice V[p]. Use theRMS (root-mean-square) voltage - V[RMS] - to calculate the power of an AC signal.

Figure 2: Voltage Peak and Peak-to-peak Voltage

You take voltage measurements by counting the number of divisions a waveform spans on the oscilloscope's verticalscale. Adjusting the signal to cover most of the screen vertically, then taking the measurement along the center verticalgraticule line having the smaller divisions, makes for the best voltage measurements. The more screen area you use, themore accurately you can read from the screen.

Figure 3: Measure Voltage on the Center Vertical Graticule Line

Many oscilloscopes have on-screen cursors that let you take waveform measurements automatically on-screen, withouthaving to count graticule marks. Basically, cursors are two horizontal lines for voltage measurements and two verticallines for time measurements that you can move around the screen. A readout shows the voltage or time at their positions.

Time and Frequency Measurements



You take time measurements using the horizontal scale of the oscilloscope. Time measurements include measuring theperiod, pulse width, and timing of pulses. Frequency is the reciprocal of the period, so once you know the period, thefrequency is one divided by the period. Like voltage measurements, time measurements are more accurate when youadjust the portion of the signal to be measured to cover a large area of the screen. Taking time measurement along thecenter horizontal graticule line, having smaller divisions, makes for the best time measurements. (See Figure 4.)

Figure 4: Measure Time on the Center Horizontal Graticule Line

Pulse and Rise Time Measurements

In many applications, the details of a pulse's shape are important. Pulses can become distorted and cause a digitalcircuit to malfunction, and the timing of pulses in a pulse train is often significant.

Standard pulse measurements are pulse width and pulse rise time . Rise time is the amount of time a pulse takes to gofrom the low to high voltage. By convention, the rise time is measured from 10% to 90% of the full voltage of the pulse.This eliminates any irregularities at the pulse's transition corners. This also explains why most oscilloscopes have 10%and 90% markings on their screen. Pulse width is the amount of time the pulse takes to go from low to high and back tolow again. By convention, the pulse width is measured at 50% of full voltage. See Figure 5 for these measurement points.

Figure 5: Rise Time and Pulse Width Measurement Points

Pulse measurements often require fine-tuning the triggering. To become an expert at capturing pulses, you should learnhow to use trigger holdoff and how to set the digital oscilloscope to capture pretrigger data, as described earlier in theControls section. Horizontal magnification is another useful feature for measuring pulses, since it allows you to see finedetails of a fast pulse.

Phase Shift Measurements

The horizontal control section may have an XY mode that lets you display an input signal rather than the time base on the



horizontal axis. (On some digital oscilloscopes this is a display mode setting.) This mode of operation opens up a wholenew area of phase shift measurement techniques.

The phase of a wave is the amount of time that passes from the beginning of a cycle to the beginning of the next cycle,measured in degrees. Phase shift describes the difference in timing between two otherwise identical periodic signals.

One method for measuring phase shift is to use XY mode. This involves inputting one signal into the vertical system asusual and then another signal into the horizontal system. (This method only works if both signals are sine waves.) Thisset up is called an XY measurement because both the X and Y axis are tracing voltages. The waveform resulting from thisarrangement is called a Lissajous pattern (named for French physicist Jules Antoine Lissajous and pronouncedLEE-sa-zhoo). From the shape of the Lissajous pattern, you can tell the phase difference between the two signals. Youcan also tell their frequency ratio. Figure 6 shows Lissajous patterns for various frequency ratios and phase shifts.

Figure 6: Lissajous Patterns

What's Next?

This section has covered basic measurement techniques. Other measurement techniques involve setting up theoscilloscope to test electrical components on an assembly line, subtracting noise from a signal, capturing elusivetransient signals, and many others that would take too much room to list. The measurement techniques you will usedepend on your application, but you have learned enough to get started. Practice using your oscilloscope and read moreabout it. Soon its operation will be second nature to you.

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Written ExercisesThis section contains written exercises that cover information in this book. The exercises are divided into two parts, Part Iand Part II.

Part I covers information presented in these sections:

The Oscilloscope Oscilloscope Terminology

Part II covers information presented in sections:

Setting Up The Controls Measurement Techniques

Part I Exercises

The following exercises cover information presented in these sections:

The Oscilloscope Oscilloscope Terminology

Check how well you have absorbed the information in these sections by doing this short self-test. You will probably wantto print a copy of this test to work on.

Vocabulary Exercise

Write the number of the definitions in the right column next to the correct words in the left column.



View answers.

Using Oscilloscopes Exercise

Circle the best answers for each statement. Some statements have more than one right answer.

1. With an oscilloscope you can: Calculate the frequency of a signal. Find malfunctioning electrical components. Analyze bird calls. All the above.

2. The difference between analog and digital oscilloscopes is: Analog oscilloscopes do not have on-screen menus. Analog oscilloscopes apply a measurement voltage directly to the display system, while digitaloscilloscopes first convert the voltage into digital values. Analog oscilloscopes measure analogs, whereas digital oscilloscopes measure digits. Analog oscilloscopes do not have an acquisition system.

3. An oscilloscope's vertical section does the following: Acquires sample points with an ADC. Starts a horizontal sweep. Lets you adjust the brightness of the display. Attenuates or amplifies the input signal.

4. The time base control of the oscilloscope does the following: Adjusts the vertical scale. Shows you the current time of day. Sets the amount of time represented by the horizontal width of the screen. Sends a clock pulse to the probe.

5. On an oscilloscope display: Voltage is on the vertical axis and time is on the horizontal axis. A straight diagonal trace means voltage is changing at a steady rate. A flat horizontal trace means voltage is constant. All the above.

6. All repeating waves have the following properties: A frequency measured in hertz. A period measured in seconds.



A bandwidth measured in hertz. All the above.

7. If you probe inside a computer with an oscilloscope, you are likely to find the following types of signals: Pulse trains. Ramp waves. Sine waves. All the above.

8. When evaluating the performance of an analog oscilloscope, some things you might consider are: The bandwidth. The vertical sensitivity. The ADC resolution. The sweep speed.

View answers.

Part II Exercises

The following exercises cover information presented in these sections:

Setting Up The Controls Measurement Techniques

Check how well you have absorbed the information in these sections by doing this short self-test. Answers begin onpage.

Vocabulary Exercise

Write the letter of the definitions in the right column next to the correct words in the left column.



View answers .

Using Oscilloscopes Exercise

Circle the best answers for each statement. Some statements have more than one right answer.

1. To operate an oscilloscope safely, you should: Ground the oscilloscope with the proper three-pronged power cord. Learn to recognize potentially dangerous electrical components. Avoid touching exposed connections in a circuit being tested even if the power is off. All the above.

2. Grounding an oscilloscope is necessary: For safety reasons. To provide a reference point for making measurements. To align the trace with the screen's horizontal axis. All the above.

3. Circuit loading is caused by: An input signal having too large a voltage. The probe and oscilloscope interacting with the circuit being tested. A 10X attenuator probe being uncompensated. Putting too much weight on a circuit.

4. Compensating a probe is necessary to: Balance the electrical properties of the 10X attenuator probe with the oscilloscope. Prevent damaging the circuit being tested. Improve the accuracy of your measurements. All the above.

5. The trace rotation control is useful for: Scaling waveforms on the screen. Detecting sine wave signals. Aligning the waveform trace with the screen's horizontal axis on an analog oscilloscope. Measuring pulse width.

6. The volts per division control is used to: Scale a waveform vertically. Position a waveform vertically. Attenuate or amplify an input signal. Set the numbers of volts each division represents.

7. Setting the vertical input coupling to ground does the following: Disconnects the input signal from the oscilloscope. Causes a horizontal display to appear on the screen. Lets you see where zero volts is on the screen. All the above.



8. The trigger is necessary to: Stabilize repeating waveforms on the screen. Capture single-shot waveforms. Mark a particular point of an acquisition. All the above.

9. The difference between auto and normal trigger mode is: In normal mode the oscilloscope only sweeps once and then stops. In normal mode the oscilloscope only sweeps if the input signal reaches the trigger point; otherwise thescreen is blank. Auto mode makes the oscilloscope sweep continuously even without being triggered. All the above.

10. A digital oscilloscope's acquisition controls let you specify: Whether the oscilloscope uses real-time or equivalent-time sampling to collect sample points. Whether to average a collection of records to form a waveform. How sample points are processed to form waveform points. All the above.

11. The acquisition mode that best reduces noise in a repeating signal is: Sample mode. Peak detect mode. Envelope mode. Averaging mode.

12. The two most basic measurements you can make with an oscilloscope are: Time and frequency measurements. Time and voltage measurements. Voltage and pulse width measurements. Pulse width and phase shift measurements.

13. If the volts/division is set at 0.5, the largest signal that can fit on the screen (assuming an 8 y 10 division screen)is:

62.5 millivolts peak-to-peak. 8 volts peak-to-peak. 4 volts peak-to-peak. 0.5 volts peak-to-peak.

14. If the seconds/division is set at 0.1 ms, the amount of time represented by the width of the screen is: 0.1 ms. 1 ms. 1 second. 0.1 kHz.

15. By convention, pulse width is measured: At 10% of the pulse's maximum voltage. At 50% of the pulse's maximum voltage. At 90% of the pulse's maximum voltage. At 10% and 90% of the pulse's maximum voltage.

16. You attach a probe to your test circuit but the screen is blank. You should: Check that the screen intensity is turned up. Check that the oscilloscope is set to display the channel that the probe is connected to. Set the trigger mode to auto since norm mode blanks the screen. Set the vertical input coupling to AC and set the volts/division to its largest value since a large DC signalmay go off the top or bottom of the screen. Check that the probe isn't shorted and make sure it is properly grounded. Check that the oscilloscope is set to trigger on the input channel you are using.

View answers.


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Part II: Oscilloscope Usage Exercise Answers

1. To operate an oscilloscope safely, you should: All the above.

2. Grounding an oscilloscope is necessary: For safety reasons. To provide a reference point for making measurements.

3. Circuit loading is caused by: The probe and oscilloscope interacting with the circuit being tested.

4. Compensating a probe is necessary to: Balance the electrical properties of the 10X attenuator probe with the oscilloscope. Improve the accuracy of your measurements.

5. The trace rotation control is useful for: Aligning the waveform trace with the screen's horizontal axis on an analog oscilloscope.

6. The volts per division control is used to: Scale a waveform vertically. Attenuate or amplify an input signal. Set the numbers of volts each division represents.

7. Setting the vertical input coupling to ground does the following: All the above.

8. The trigger is necessary to: All the above.

9. The difference between auto and normal trigger mode is: In normal mode the oscilloscope only sweeps if the input signal reaches the trigger point; otherwise thescreen is blank. Auto mode makes the oscilloscope sweep continuously even without being triggered.

10. A digital oscilloscope's acquisition controls let you specify: All the above.

11. The acquisition mode that best reduces noise in a repeating signal is: Averaging mode.

12. The two most basic measurements you can make with an oscilloscope are: Time and voltage measurements.

13. If the volts/division is set at 0.5, the largest signal that can fit on the screen (assuming an 8 y 10 division screen)is:

4 volts peak-to-peak. 14. If the seconds/division is set at 0.1 ms, the amount of time represented by the width of the screen is:

1 ms. 15. By convention, pulse width is measured:

At 50% of the pulse's maximum voltage. 16. You attach a probe to your test circuit but the screen is blank. You should:

All the above.


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GlossaryAC

(Alternating Current) A signal in which the current and voltage vary in a repeating pattern over time. ADC

(Analog-to-Digital Converter) A digital electronic component that converts an electrical signal into discrete binaryvalues.

Alternate ModeA display mode of operation in which the oscilloscope completes tracing one channel before beginning to traceanother channel.

AmplitudeThe magnitude of a quantity or strength of a signal. In electronics, amplitude usually refers to either voltage orpower.

AttenuationA decrease in signal voltage during its transmission from one point to another.

AveragingA processing technique used by digital oscilloscopes to eliminate noise in a signal.

BandwidthA frequency range.

CRT(Cathode-Ray Tube) An electron-beam tube in which the beam can be focused on a luminescent screen andvaried in both position and intensity to produce a visible pattern. A television picture tube is a CRT.

Chop ModeA display mode of operation in which small parts of each channel are traced so that more than one waveform canappear on the screen simultaneously.

Circuit LoadingThe unintentional interaction of the probe and oscilloscope with the circuit being tested, distorting the signal.

CompensationA probe adjustment for 10X probes that balances the capacitance of the probe with the capacitance of theoscilloscope.

CouplingThe method of connecting two circuits together. Circuits connected with a wire are directly coupled; circuitsconnected through a capacitor or a transformer are indirectly (or AC) coupled.

CursorAn on-screen marker that you can align with a waveform to take accurate measurements.

DC (Direct Current)A signal with a constant voltage and current.

DivisionMeasurement markings on the CRT graticule of the oscilloscope.

Earth GroundA conductor that will dissipate large electrical currents into the Earth.

EnvelopeThe outline of a signal's highest and lowest points acquired over many repetitions.

Equivalent-time SamplingA sampling mode in which the oscilloscope constructs a picture of a repetitive signal by capturing a little bit ofinformation from each repetition.

FocusThe oscilloscope control that adjusts the CRT electron beams to control the sharpness of the display.

FrequencyThe number of times a signal repeats in one second, measured in Hertz (cycles per second). The frequencyequals 1/period.

Gigahertz (GHz)1,000,000,000 Hertz; a unit of frequency.



Glitch An intermittent error in a circuit.

GraticuleThe grid lines on a screen for measuring oscilloscope traces.

Ground

1. A conducting connection by which an electric circuit or equipment is connected to the earth to establish andmaintain a reference voltage level.

2. The voltage reference point in a circuit.

Hertz (Hz)One cycle per second; the unit of frequency.

Kilohertz (kHz)1000 Hertz; a unit of frequency.

InterpolationA "connect-the-dots" processing technique to estimate what a fast waveform looks like based on only a fewsampled points.

Megahertz (MHz)1,000,000 Hertz; a unit of frequency.

Megasamples per second (MS/s)A sample rate unit equal to one million samples per second.

Microsecond A unit of time equivalent to 0.000001 seconds.

Millisecond (ms)A unit of time equivalent to 0.001 seconds.

Nanosecond (ns)A unit of time equivalent to 0.000000001 seconds.

NoiseAn unwanted voltage or current in an electrical circuit.

OscilloscopeAn instrument used to make voltage changes visible over time. The word oscilloscope comes from "oscillate,"since oscilloscopes are often used to measure oscillating voltages.

Peak - V[p]The maximum voltage level measured from a zero reference point.

Peak-to-peak - V[p-p]The voltage measured from the maximum point of a signal to its minimum point, usually twice the V[p] level.

Peak DetectionAn acquisition mode for digital oscilloscopes that lets you see the extremes of a signal.

PeriodThe amount of time it takes a wave to complete one cycle. The period equals 1/frequency.

PhaseThe amount of time that passes from the beginning of a cycle to the beginning of the next cycle, measured indegrees.

ProbeAn oscilloscope input device, usually having a pointed metal tip for making electrical contact with a circuit elementand a flexible cable for transmitting the signal to the oscilloscope.

PulseA common waveform shape that has a fast rising edge, a width, and a fast falling edge.

RMSRoot mean square.

Real-time SamplingA sampling mode in which the oscilloscope collects as many samples as it can as the signal occurs.

Record LengthThe number of waveform points used to create a record of a signal.

Rise TimeThe time taken for the leading edge of a pulse to rise from its minimum to its maximum values (typically measuredfrom 10% to 90% of these values).

Sample PointThe raw data from an ADC used to calculate waveform points.

ScreenThe surface of the CRT upon which the visible pattern is produced - the display area.

Signal Generator



A test device for injecting a signal into a circuit input; the circuit's output is then read by an oscilloscope. Sine Wave

A common curved wave shape that is mathematically defined. Single Shot

A signal measured by an oscilloscope that only occurs once (also called a transient event). Single Sweep

A trigger mode for displaying one screenful of a signal and then stopping. Slope

On a graph or an oscilloscope screen, the ratio of a vertical distance to a horizontal distance. A positive slopeincreases from left to right, while a negative slope decreases from left to right.

Square WaveA common wave shape consisting of repeating square pulses.

SweepOne horizontal pass of an oscilloscope's electron beam from left to right across the CRT screen.

Sweep SpeedSame as the time base.

Time BaseOscilloscope circuitry that controls the timing of the sweep. The time base is set by the seconds/division control.

TraceThe visible shapes drawn on a CRT by the movement of the electron beam.

TransducerA device that converts a specific physical quantity such as sound, pressure, strain, or light intensity into anelectrical signal.

TransientA signal measured by an oscilloscope that only occurs once (also called a single-shot event).

TriggerThe circuit that initiates a horizontal sweep on an oscilloscope and determines the beginning point of thewaveform.

Trigger HoldoffA control that inhibits the trigger circuit from looking for a trigger level for some specified time after the end of thewaveform.

Trigger LevelThe voltage level that a trigger source signal must reach before the trigger circuit initiates a sweep.

VoltThe unit of electric potential difference.

VoltageThe difference in electric potential, expressed in volts, between two points.

WaveformA graphic representation of a voltage varying over time.

Waveform PointA digital value that represents the voltage of a signal at a specific point in time. Waveform points are calculatedfrom sample points and stored in memory.

Z-axisThe signal in an oscilloscope that controls electron-beam brightness as the trace is formed.


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the xyzs of oscilloscopes - cbeb2020cbeb2020.org/basica2/osciloscopio.pdf · xyzs/intro.html...

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