The Taste of Bread

Getting to Know Professor Calvel andBread ...................................... vii

James MacGuire

Working With the Masters....................................................... ix

Ronald L. Wirtz

How to Use This Book........................................................... xi

James MacGuire

Preface to the French Edition

.................................................... xiii

Henri Nuret

Color Plates....................................................................xvii

PART I-CHARACTERISTICS OF RAWMATERIALS AND DOUGHPRODUCTION ..... 1

Chapter! Flour..............................................................3

Type and Condition of Wheat

Milled into Bread Flour................... 3

Nature of Breadmaking Flour........................................ 3

Technical Characteristics ofBreadmaking Flour ........................11

Chapter 2 Dough.............................................................15

The Composition of Dough.......................................... 15

The Influence of Processing Agents

and the Use of Additives ............16

Additions to French Bread inCertain Foreign Countries................. 17

The Influence of Ingredients......................................... 18

PART II-THE ROLE OF MIXING ANDOF YEAST FERMENTATION INTHE CREATION OF BREADTASTE ..................................... 25

Chapter 3 Mixing.............................................................

27

Mixing: Dough Production and thePhysicochemical Development,Oxidation, and Maturation ofDough ................................ 27

Excessive Oxidation and ItsConsequences ............................30

Chapter 4 Fermentation......................................................38

The Role of Bread Fermentation...................................... 38

The Influence of DifferentBreadmaking Methods on Taste.............. 40

Evolutionary Changes in theDifferent Breadmaking Methods........... 45

Chapter 5 Organic Acids...................................................... 49

The Identification of VolatileOrganic Acids and Their Influenceon the Taste of Bread................................................. 49

The Relationship of Organic Acids,Mixing Intensity, Dough Oxidation

Level, and Bread ProductionMethod ...................... 50

Chapter 6 Dough Maturation andDevelopment ................................ 55

The Influence of Dough MaturationLevel ............................. 55

The Effects of Changes in pH andResidual Sugar Levels ................56

The Effects of Loaf Molding.......................................... 57

The Effect of Type and Degree ofPaton Development ...................

60

The Effects of Freezing Unbakedand Parbaked Loaves ..................61

PART III-BAKING AND KEEPINGQUALITIES OF BREAD ANDTHEIR RELATIONSHIP TOTASTE ...........................................65

Chapter 7 Bread Crust........................................................ 67

Ovens Used in Bread Baking......................................... 67

Formation, Coloration, and Degreeof Crust Baking and TheirRelationship to Bread Taste........................................ 69

The Effects of Oven Steam onCrust Taste .............................. 73

Flour-Dusted Breads and CrustTaste .................................. 75

Scaling of Bread Crust............................................... 76

Frozen Storage of Baked Bread....................................... 77

Chapter 8 Bread Crumb

...................................................... 78

Formation and Baking of the Crumb.................................. 78

Crumb Color and Cell Structure...................................... 79

Chapter 9 Bread Staling....................................................... 80

Storage and Staling Effects onBread Taste ............................. 80

Bread Staling and Factors thatInfluence It ............................. 81

Consumption of Stale Bread

......................................... 83

Shelf Life and Taste of IndustriallyProduced Packaged Breads ...........83

Types of Bread Spoilage.............................................. 84

PART IV-TRADITIONAL ANDSPECIALTY BREADPRODUCTION .................. 87

Chapter 10 Basic French Bread................................................. 89

Breadmaking with Levain and withLevain de Pate ...................... 89

Yeast-Raised French Bread (PainCourant) ............................. 94

Rustic (Country-Style) Bread withPure-Wheat Flour .................... 99

Chapter 11 Specialty Breads.................................................... 102

Specialty Breads....................................................102

Breads for Filling or Topping......................................... 119

Savory and Aromatic Breads......................................... 120

PART V-YEAST-RAISED SWEETDOUGH PRODUCTS, COMMONAND DIETETIC RUSKS,BREADSTICKS, CROISSANTS,PARISIAN AND REGIONALBRIOCHES............................................... 129

Chapter 12 Rusks and Specialty ToastedBreads .................................. 131

Rusks (Biscotte Courant)............................................. 131

Gluten-Free Breads.................................................137

Breadsticks and Grissini............................................. 137

Chapter 13 Yeast-Raised Sweet Doughs......................................... 141

Traditional Croissants............................................... 141

Chocolate-Filled Buns fromCroissant Dough ..........................148

Snail Rolls..........................................................149

Brioches

...........................................................149

Chapter 14 Regional Brioches.................................................. 158

Regional Brioches...................................................158

Vendee-Style Brioche................................................ 161

Specialty Brioches..................................................163

Brioche-Type Hearth Cakes from

Other Lands ......................... 175

PART VI-NUTRITIONAL VALUE OFBREAD, BREAD ANDGASTRONOMY, BREAD ANDTHE CONSUMER....................................... 181

Chapter 15 Qualities of Bread.................................................. 183

The Nutritional Value of Bread....................................... 183

Caloric Content andBioavailability................................... 185

The Progressive Decline of BreadConsumption in France ...............188

Bread Made from Stone-GroundFlour ................................ 189

Bread and Gastronomy.............................................. 190

Comparing Bread with OtherFoods ................................... 192

Selected Works of Professor RaymondCalvel ...................................... 197

Compiled by Ronald L. Wirtz

Index..........................................................................201

tti . To Know Professor Calvel and BreadI first met Professor Calvel during my

long internship at the well-knownrestaurant of Charles Barrier (who isincidentally a friend and mentor of JoelRobu- chon). Barrier used to make hisown smoked salmon, hams, pates, etc.,but his great love was bread. He had afully professional breadmakingoperation to make bread for sixty lunch-time customers, and then more bread for

sixty dinner customers.

At one point there were problems withthe bread, and it came as no greatsurprise to see Raymond Calvel arriveto look into things, since he and Barrierare great friends. The Professor took thetrain from Paris, asked a fewappropriate questions about the formulaand ingredients, had lunch in the diningroom, and returned to Paris on the train.He left behind a small sheet of paper onwhich, in his small and extremely neathandwriting, he had written a fewsuggestions-increase the proportion ofprefermented dough, add a bit morewater, mix a little less, and ferment a bitmore.

I wasn't then a baker, and the changesseemed insignificant. Nor did I realizethat by applying these few simplesuggestions it would be possible toproduce superior bread in just four hoursfrom start to finish. Calvel had applied aprinciple that can be summed up in anapparently contradictory phrase, ofwhich he is most fond. Panifier vite etbien-make bread quickly, but make itwell.

I was fascinated, and when the changeswere tried out, just a few hours after theProfessor's departure, I was amazed atthe results. When I tasted that wonderfulbread, I was hooked, and have been eversince.

Bakers have always been known fortheir desire to form friendships withtheir fellows and for their willingness toshare. This has been especially true inmy dealings with the professor's friendsand admirers throughout the world, andeach has endeavored to make myunderstanding of French baking andNorth American flours a bit less vague.Special thanks on this particular projectis due to Hubert Chiron, who has beenextremely generous in his assistance.

Much has happened in the world ofartisan baking since 1991, when webegan our efforts to see "Le Gout duPain" appear in English. ProfessorCalvel's principles have lost none of

their pertinence-au con- traire. With thegreater popularity of artisan breads andthe growing number of personsinterested in this field, they are moreapplicable than ever.

My greatest fortune in working on thisproject has been to come to know andcollaborate with Ron Wirtz. At theoutset, Ron was to translate and I was tolook into the technical aspects of puttingthe recipes and techniques into a NorthAmerican perspective. The boundariesblurred very quickly, and many of thefootnotes are his. My thanks go here toRon, inspired translator, valiant worker,and valued friend.

We apologize for any errors that mayhave eluded us, and we wish our readersevery success in understanding andbaking great bread.

Finally, one is tempted in situations likethis to think of something cute or cleverto say to one's family, when in fact it isbest to stay with the script: thanks toSuzanne and Lawrence, and apologiesfor the time and trouble.

James MacGuire

As a young university student in themid-1960s I had the opportunity toattend a summer course in Frenchlanguage and civilization at theSorbonne. That summer changed my lifein more ways than one. Not only did Ifall completely in love with the Frenchlanguage, but I came to know andappreciate the distinctive breads ofFrance. It was a matter of great sorrowfor me to find that such bread wasalmost completely unobtainable in most

of the United States at that time. It was aloss that I felt keenly for many years.

When I came to the American Instituteof Baking in 1987 as director of what isstill today the finest single library onbaking technology in North America, Iwas elated to find a sizable collection ofprofessional baking journals in French.Since I was also disappointed in thequality of the so-called French breadproduced at the AIB, I becamedetermined to research as much as Icould about the subject. As I readthrough article after article in severaldifferent baking journals, it becameapparent to me that many of the besttechnical articles and books had been

written by one man-Professor RaymondCalvel.

It was unfortunate that I did not meetProfessor Calvel in 1987 when hepresented his second seminar on hearthbreads at Kansas State University. I didreceive a copy of the course notes,however, and found that they followedclosely the principles that Calvel hadoutlined in La Boulangerie Moderne. Icontinued to read Calvel's articles asthey appeared, and in a 1989 article inLe boulanger-patissierwas intrigued tofind his statement that the best Frenchbread in North America was made in asmall bakery called Le PassePartout,owned and operated by James MacGuire

in Montreal. When I visited Montrealnearly four years later, I made apilgrimage to the Passe-Partout, anddiscovered that Calvel had spoken thetruth. I also dis

covered that James and I had a commonwish-that is, to see "Le Gout du Pain"appear in English. It is a wish that hastaken us a long while, and a great deal ofdiligent work, to finally bring to fruition.I am happy to note that through it all wehave become-and still remain-closefriends. I can also say with all sinceritythat he is one of the finest, mostdedicated and kindest men I have everknown.

There was a special challenge totranslating "Le Gout du Pain". AlthoughProfessor Calvel is a very respectedscientist and researcher, his syntax isoften uniquely poetic. I sometimes foundmyself in awe of the Professor's abilityto express very technological matters inan extremely lyrical form. In retrospect,I feel that this is fitting. Calvel is aunique combination of scientist, activist,and artist, such as only France couldproduce.

Through the kindness of Hubert Chiron,to whom I owe a special debt ofgratitude for his assistance on thisproject, I did finally get to meetProfessor Calvel at the Europain

conference in Paris in 1996 and again in1999. It was one of the high moments ofmy life to converse with a man whom Ihad come to respect and admire sodeeply, and I feel extremely grateful tohave been able to collaborate on thiseffort to bring his breadmakingprinciples to the English-speakingworld. I apologize for any errors thatmay have crept into the translation, andto those who may be offended by mydistinctively American writing style andvocabulary.

I wish to dedicate my efforts in thiswork to the memory of my grandfather,Ronald Louis Letourneau, who taught meto love the land and the wheat that grows

upon it, and gave me such pride in myQuebec heritage. Thanks to my wife,Karen, and my daughter Carolyn andfoster daughter Seong Eun (Esther) Ohfor their great patience.

Ronald L. Wirtz, PhD

The legendary French restaurateurFernand Point was fond of saying thatgreat cooking is merely a series ofsimple operations, but that each stagemust be completed successfully. This iscertainly the case with French baking.Professor Raymond Calvel is a verymeticulous man, and readers would bewell advised to follow his examplecarefully. Because hearth breads have sofew ingredients (basically flour, water,leavening, and salt), and because they

have been made for centuries, one istempted to oversimplify the process.Indeed, there are talented bakers whomeasure in handfuls and care little formethodology, but they are extremelyrare.

I assure readers that frequent readingand rereading of the facts and figures inthe professor's writings haven'tdiminished for me the fascination andmystery that surround great bread, andthey have made me a much better baker.Nothing, however, can replace hands-onexperience-the privilege of seeing andfeeling the texture of a properly kneadedand sufficiently fermented dough. Thismust be transmitted on the job, from one

baker to another, just as it has beenthroughout history. We also have toremember that beyond the facts andfigures, there is a basic truth thatProfessor Calvet often repeats tostudents and to additive manufacturers-people are going to eat the stuff.

Great baking starts with the properequipment, and it is certain that a steam-equipped deck oven, in which the loavesbake directly on the oven floor, remainsthe ideal. Bakers who tend to beobsessed with fancy (and expensive)equipment should know that the greatmajority of the loaves pictured in thisbook were mixed in an ancient 80-quartHobart planetary mixer and baked in a

used deck oven that could be termedadequate at best. All too often, the word"equipment" tends to mean ovens andmixers and overlooks the extremeimportance of an accurate scale and agood thermometer for water and doughtemperature calculations.

Readers who own a copy of the originalFrench edition will note a few minoradjustments to formulations, all of whichhave been reviewed or approved byProfessor Calvel. Most of the formulaein this English

edition have been adjusted so that therecipes in each section are based on thesame weight of flour. The original

baker's percentages given in the Frenchedition have been retained.'

For users of the metric system, one wayof understanding baker's percentages isto move the decimal point one digit tothe right, and to say to oneself: "For eachkilogram of flour, I will need...." This isthe beauty of the metric system, and it ismy sincere patriotic wish that the UnitedStates will join the rest of the world inusing it sometime before the nextmillennium arrives. For users of the U.S.system, one might say to oneself: "For

each 100 pounds of flour I willneed...."2

The use of baker's percentages and thestandardization of recipe weights makesit possible to analyze and comparerecipes. For example, the similaritiesbetween brioche and pain brioche(brioche bread) are great, but onequickly notices from the recipes thatpain brioche is much less rich thanbrioche. Although calculating baker'spercentages and comparing recipes willnever replace bowling or Parcheesi asfavored pastimes, doing so will greatlyenhance the reader's grasp of Professor

Calvel's breadmaking principles.

The professor's formulae are tried andtrue, and neophytes especially mustforgo the temptation to make changes, atleast until the recipe has been mastered.It should also be borne in mind thattemperatures and fermentation times areas important to a recipe's success as theingredient quantities. Any adjustmentsshould be fairly minor. For instance:

Kneading times might vary slightly, butit would be a mistake to underknead.Certain of Professor Calvel's NorthAmerican admirers follow hisprinciples to an extreme. It should be

remembered that each bread type has itsown characteristics, and a good baguettemust be relatively light and have adelicate crispy, crackling crust as wellas the delicate yellowish crumb thatproves kneading has been kept toreasonable levels.

One inevitable exception is thequestion of absorption of water (andother liquids). Careful readers willnotice that Professor Calvelreassuringly fine-tunes the amounts ofwater in the various bread recipesbecause of the presence of preferments,etc. However, lurking beneath this

beautiful logic is a minefield of varyingflour absorption levels. (It is for thisreason that the relatively minorreadjustments to the formulae forcroissants and brioche were notincorporated.) Whereas the professormight vary the hydration rate by 1% or2% from recipe to recipe, the differencefrom one flour to another can easily be3% to 4%. It has been assumed in thisEnglish version of the text that mostbakers will be using flour milled fromhard red winter wheat. Those who

use flour from hard red spring wheat-attention, Canadians!-might well find

themselves increasing the hydration.

It should be noted that doughs used forFrench bread will probably seem toowet to bakers who are accustomed toNorth American textures. This is an areawhere experience and hands-on learningare precious, but it is certain that neitherfirm doughs nor the currently fashionablesuperhydrated doughs will produce thetype of results that would meet with theprofessor's approval.

Certain readers might be tempted tolose patience with Raymond Calvel'sfastidiousness. On every occasion inwhich we have worked together, I havebeen convinced by the results, and at

times when I have drifted I have quicklyseen the error of my ways. The mostimportant piece of advice that I can giveto readers-besides reading and thenrereading this book-is to look seriouslyinto a method of calculating the watertemperature to ensure that doughs willbe at the proper temperature at the end ofmixing. (See Chapter 3.) The baker'sstress levels will become much moretolerable, the recipe schedules may befollowed almost exactly, and the endresults will be immeasurably improved.

North American flours might perhapsbenefit from slightly longer bulkfermentation times than those indicated,

but it would not be correct to assumethat if 2 hours is good, then 4 hourswould be twice as good. The timesindicated for the shaped loaves mightprove to be a bit too long for NorthAmerican flours and may be adjusteddownward if necessary.

James MacGuire

The author of the book that you areabout to explore asked me to present itto you. I would like to state that even if Ihad not known the name of its author, Iwould have been able to guess it fromthe profound knowledge of the baker'swork and the great attention to theproblem of good bread that isencountered in its pages.

The detailed table of contents andpreface certainly give the reader such athorough introduction to the available

material that I will limit myself to sayingthat, after providing an introduction tothe basic ingredients that make up breaddough, he proceeds to an in-depthdiscussion of the different breadproduction methods and the variousfactors that influence taste in both apositive and a negative sense. He thenfinishes this first part with remarks onthe baking process and the keepingqualities of bread.

In the second part, the reader will findprecise directions on the ways to makegood-quality bread, along with thosemethods that are most appropriate forcontinued use, including recipes anddetailed discussions. Side by side with

the critical elements, there is apresentation of the positive aspects ofcertain irreversible technical or socialdevelopments.

Having said that, and in spite of the factthat he is well known by the whole of theFrench baking community, it would seemto me to be both meaningful and pleasantto follow the author just a bit along thelengthy path that he has pursued.

As early as 1948-1950, he madecontacts with both English and Americanbakeries.

In 1954, at the invitation of Japanesebaking groups (professional bakers and

public agencies) and at the suggestion ofthe president of the French BakeryConfederation, Mr. Laserre, Mr.Raymond Calvel agreed to travel toJapan, where he spent three months andtraversed the country from the north tothe south.

He returned to Japan again in 1964, atthe time of the Olympic Games. Thatincident was the real point of departurefor the large-scale production of Frenchbread in Japan. Mr. Calvel proposedsetting up a stand at the Tokyo fair,where Mr. Bigot, a French baker, wasable to use a battery of Frenchequipment and the appropriate type 55unbleached flour to make baguettes that

were the highlight of the fair.

In subsequent years, Mr. Calvelreturned to Japan very often, a total of23 times so far. On the occasion of his20th trip, Professor Calvel was honoredby the combined milling and bakingindustries of Japan, who presented himwith an honorary diploma. Today, bothJapanese bakers and those French bakerswho have become established in Japancontinue to follow his precepts. Theirobservance of his principles haspermitted Professor Calvel to proclaimthat "the production of French bread inJapan has become a great success, andthe secret of this accomplishment is thatthe French bread being produced is

distinctively original, authentic, and ofvery high quality."

As a consequence, French bakingequipment and French yeast have beenimported to Japan, and the success of thebaguette has encouraged the progressiveentry of French pastry and Frenchcuisine into Japanese society.

It is interesting as well to note that theworks of Professor Calvel have beenwidely translated:

La Boulangerie Francaise wastranslated into Japanese and Spanish, LePain Francais et les ProductionsAnnexes into Japanese and Portuguese

(in Brazil), and Le Pain Francais intoJapanese and Italian.

Professor Calvel has voyaged to quite anumber of other countries, and histravels have always been marked bypractical instruction that has resulted insignificant improvement of the quality ofthe bread. He has also been able toremark that "French bread enjoys anenormous amount of positive interest(everywhere), although it is often verypoorly exploited."

After dealing at length with traditionalFrench breads, the author dedicatesseveral chapters to specialty breads andto yeast-leavened sweet doughs,

including brioches and croissants. Healso discusses the nutritional value ofbread in relation to the rate of extraction,and these points are especially pertinent.

In the last chapter, he discussesconsumer attitudes toward bread andalso the relationship between bread andvarious media. In this particularinstance, he demonstrates a sagacity thatis beyond reproach and that stronglyindicates that his talents go far beyondthose of a simple lover of good food.

In other parts of the text, he goes beyondtechnique alone to reveal the origins ofthe product under dis cussion. Inspeaking of his memories of a holiday

where good wine was associated withthe particular cake being produced, hestates: "This is a also a brioche that awine of the last vintage complimentsvery nicely, both of them being crowningjewels of the process of alcoholicfermentation."

Let us go on, or rather, let us return tothe discussion of the quality of bread.

Professor Calvel explains in somedepth the reasons for the lessening of thequality of bread: overoxidation of thedough by overmixing and the addition oflipoxygenase through the use of favabean or soy flour. It is thus that thecarotenoid pigments of the flour are

destroyed, and by the same means thatthe normal creamy white color of thecrumb and the authentic taste of bread isdenatured and degraded. These causeshave been known for quite some time,and the author sets forth very simplemeans to remedy them.

In agreement with him, I should repeatwhat I wrote in 1966 in an editorial inthe Bulletin des Anciens Eleves,Number 212: "We must restore bread'soriginal color and taste."

Why then, have things not changed, orrather, why have they changed so little?

I am told it is because the consumer

wants white bread. This is both true andfalse: it is true because whiteness isassociated with a certain idea of purity;it is false because we should associatethe creamy white tint (of good bread)with the concept of whiteness. Onnumerous occasions I have receivedclear confirmation that when consumersare presented with bread having a snowywhite crumb and bread with a lightcreamy white crumb, they have alwaysshown a clear preference for the latterwithout the slightest hesitation. You canclearly observe this fact whenever thereis a baker in a given area who offerstruly good bread to the consumer.

Whenever I personally find myself

presented with really good qualitybread-especially that made at the

ENSMIC1 in particular-I alwaysconsume at least a quarter more thanusual, and quite often even more thanthat. I am not saying that if consumerswere presented with "real bread" the percapita consumption would rise again to300 or 400 grams per day, but I amfirmly convinced that quality is the onlyreal remedy that will be effective incorrecting consumption's continualdecline. In my opinion, onlygourrnandise2 is the answer.

Do we not have the means to informmillers, bakers, and consumers to orientthem toward a concept (of bread quality)that will in both the short and long termbe more advantageous for them and foragricultural producers? We know that theconsumer would be receptive to beinghelped to rediscover good bread. Why,then, should we not succeed?

The work offered by this author is a

positive and very opportune response tothese questions, and it gives us themeans to accomplish these goals.

In conclusion, I would like to say that inthe mind and soul of Raymond Calvel,bread is the end product of work, of joy,and sometimes even of poetry-ofeverything that extends from thegerminating grain of wheat until thegolden loaf emerges from the oven.

It is his very life itself!

Henri Nuret

Honorary Professor of Milling

National School of Milling and

the Cereal Industries (ENSMIC)

The Taste of Bread

Color Plates

Plate 1 Cross sections, top to bottom:Intensive Mixing; Improved Mixing;Traditional Mixing

Plate 2 The baguette is not the only"French Bread". Clockwise from topright: Rye, Whole Wheat, Levain, Rustic.

Plate 3 Two kilogram levain miches.Exhibit 10-1.

Plate 4Baguettes can be made using recipes inExhibits 10-3 through 10-9.

Plate 5

Plate 6 Pain de Campagne, country-styleloaves-Exhibit 11-2.

Plate 7 La Charbonee du Boulanger(pork shoulder braised in red wine)finds a good match with Pain au Levain(sourdough).

Plate 8 Buttered rye bread is a classicaccompaniment to smoked fish and rawshellfish.

Plate 9 Walnut bread (Chapter 11) goesparticularly well with goat cheeses.

Plate 10 Croissants and other types ofviennoiseries are very much a part of theFrench baker's art, and are a welcomediversion for baker and customer alike.

Plate 11 Bubbles on the crust, a result ofretarding raw loaves at refrigerationtemperatures, are well received in NorthAmerica. In France, bubbles areconsidered a defect.

Plate 12 (A) Seam placement. The seammust be on the bottom of the loaf. Often avisible seam opens up more duringbaking than the loaf shown here. (B)Uneven shaping. (C) Pointed ends.Professor Calvel finds the currentfashion of pointed ends to beparticularly irksome. Pointed ends will

dry out and burn. (D) No steam. Lack ofsteam leads to a dull, greyish crust, andcan penalize volume. (E) Too muchsteam. Excess steam seals the crust;preventing the slashes from openingproperly and creating places where theloaf is overly dense. Rye bread,however, requires abundant steam toglaze the loaf and prevent the crust fromcracking and tearing.

Plate 13 (A) Overproofed loaf. Anoverproofed loaf flattens out. Theslashes do not open properly and thetexture of the crumb is penalized. (B)Improper slashing. Improper slashinghas a detrimental effect on theappearance of the loaf and its oven

spring. (C) Too much flour. Proper crustformation, browning, and flavor areinhibited by too much flour dusting. It isnot pleasant to eat! (D) Acceptable flour.Flour on a loaf should not be theequivalent of icing on a cake! It shouldbe remembered that slightly flouredcountry-style loaves came about becausetraces of flour remained after the doughwas allowed to rise in lightly flouredcloth-lined "banneton" baskets. It is not,therefore, an icing-style decoration.

Plate 14 (A) Slightly underbaked.Underdone loaves do not fully benefitfrom the flavors created by the maillardreaction and the carmelization of thecrust. (B) Proper crust color. (C) Toodark for general sale. However if a fewsuch loaves are produced because of hotspots in the oven, they can be set asidefor customers who prefer well done

loaves. (D) Too dark. Burned flavorsquickly mask the delicate flour andfermentation flavors. (E) Burned bottom.Uneven oven temperatures or movingloaves around as they bake can lead tobottom burning. The burned flavorsmigrate to the entire loaf. (F) Pale, thickcrust. Hyperdiastatic flour or an overlyfermented dough lacking in residualsugars will cause pale crust that is thickand dry. (G) Intensive browning. Veryhigh oven temperature or hyperdiasticitywill cause the loaves to brown tooquickly, before the crust is formed.

PART I

It is really no exaggeration at all to saythat producing good taste in bread is avery complex problem. In spite of that, itshould certainly be well understood bythe baker, and by all accounts it seems tograsp the attention of the consumer to aneven greater degree.

Although in principle the basic problemof bread taste is very complex, the main

elements may be divided into only fivekey factors:

the characteristics of raw materials andthe composition of the formula or recipe

mixing duration and intensity duringdough preparation

bread fermentation and its severalintermediate stages

dough division and formation of thepitons or unbaked loaves

baking of the dough and the bakingequipment used

The discussion that follows makes nopretense of being the last word on thissubject. The purpose is rather tocontribute to a better understanding ofthe creation of bread taste through ageneral discussion

of the topic. It is in this open andinquiring spirit that we will proceed toan examination of these elements:

1. the type and condition of the wheatmilled into bread flour

2. the necessary characteristics ofbreadmaking flour

3. the composition or makeup of thedough

4. the level of dough oxidation achievedin the mixing process

5. the leavening method used and thefermentation that results from it

6. the potentially damaging effects ofdough division and loaf forming

7. the baking of the dough

8. the influence of storage conditions onthe keeping qualities of bread

Information and commentary on theprincipal types of bread and yeast-leavened sweet dough products will beadded to the above, along with adiscussion of concerns relative to thenutritional value of bread and its placein the general realm of gastronomy.

The protein content of the wheat mayalso significantly affect the developmentof bread taste. Bakers will find it in theirbest interest to use a moderately strongflour for French bread, with the level ofprotein ranging from 11% to 13% (seeTables 1-1, 1-2, and 1-3); the use offlours with high levels of protein, suchas those on the order of 14% to 16%found in the United States or Canada, is

not advisable.' When very

high protein flours are used, the baker isobliged to overhydrate the dough. Theexcessive moisture content, incombination with the high protein, willoften yield bread that is mediocre inappearance, with a soft and thin crustand a tendency to become even softerthrough moisture migration. The crustbecomes rubbery when chewed, and incombination with the high gluten content,this excessive moisture results in alessening of desirable bread flavor andeating characteristics.

NATURE OFBREADMAKING FLOUR

Rate of extraction and ash content playa predominant role in the creation ofbread taste, and we should consider thetype of flour first of all. Without anyother qualifying term, the word "bread"refers to the end result of flourprocessing. Under normalcircumstances, this can only be wheatflour, and from the point of view of taste,the bread that results will have its owndistinctive qualities, which are deriveddirectly from the grain. As far as theFrench are concerned, the word "bread,"

when used alone, always means breadmade from white flour milled fromwheat.

Whenever the baker undertakes the useof mixed flours, as for example in theproduction of mixed wheat and ryebread (a mix of from 10% to 60% of ryeflour and 90% to 40% of wheat flour) orof common rye bread (a mix of from65% to 100% of rye flour and of 35% to0% wheat flour), taste combinations thatare very different from one another willbe obtained, depending on the uniquenature and the proportions of the twoflours that are used together.

Furthermore, whenever one mixes other

flours, those derived from either cerealgrains or legumes, with one or the otherof the two flours noted above (wheat andrye flours), the changes producedgenerally result in the unique tasteprofiles of the latter being spoiled. It isnot only the origin of the flour that isimportant, however. The extraction rate,that is, the quantity of flour obtainedfrom the milling of 100 kg of flour, alsoplays a determining role. The rate ofextraction most commonly used in breadflour production will be discussed insome detail later in this section.

CHAPTER 1

TYPE AND CONDITIONOF WHEAT MILLED INTOBREAD FLOUR

The type and condition of the wheatmilled to obtain flour for breadmakingcan certainly influence the final taste ofthe product. First of all, wheat must be"healthy, sound and marketable,"according to the time-honored Frenchexpression. To meet these basic criteria,

it must not have been exposed toexcessive humidity, and it must show noevidence of all the consequences thatmay result from such exposure, such asthe odors of wet straw, mildew, or heatdamage as a result of fermentation orsprouting. Since these odors aredetectable in the finished flour, it iscertain that they spoil the taste of breadto a greater or lesser degree. The sameis true in regards to the accidentalpresence of insects or any foreign odorsthat might become apparent.

The type of wheat will also have aneffect on taste, according to whether thewheat is relatively soft and starchy orhard and vitreous. A starchy wheat berry

will yield a whitish flour that isgenerally poor in carotenoid pigments,while a hard, vitreous wheat berry,which is higher (perhaps much higher) incarotene, will result in a creamy-tintedflour, ranging from slight to marked.

This important difference will beapparent in both the color and taste ofthe bread, provided that the doughoxidation that occurs in mixing does notconceal or destroy it. If excessiveoxidation does not occur, the crumb ofthe bread will be more richly creamcolored, and will have a morepronounced, more distinctive, and moreagreeable flavor.

An important technical note aboutprotein and ash percentages. The figuresgiven in Professor Calvel's text areexpressed as a percentage of dry matter,which is customary in France. In theUnited States and Canada, figures arecalculated on a basis of 14% flourhumidity. This means that a fairlynormal-seeming 11.5% protein Frenchflour would in fact have a 9.5% proteincontent in North American terms, and

that a high-seeming .62% ash would be.525 in North American terms.Courtesy of National Banking Center,Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Figure 1-1 A Kansas Wheatfield.Courtesy of Kansas Wheat Commission,Manhattan, Kansas

There is no exact North Americanequivalent to French flours, and bakersin some areas might be obliged to searchfor an appropriate substitute. The dryNorth American plains produce wheatwith relatively high protein content.North American bakers have longbelieved that high protein level isdirectly related to flour quality. In thecase of authentic French breads, this isnot so. At the same time, simplychoosing North American flours withidentical protein content will not

guarantee perfect results.

Of North American flours, ProfessorCalvel prefers those milled from hardred winter wheats, grown in Kansas(Figure 1-1) and other Midwesternstates, because of their baking toleranceand slightly sweet flavor.

This is not to say that flours milled fromhard red spring wheat from the northernUnited States and Canada (Figure 1-2)are entirely unsuitable, although here, theavoidance of excessive protein levelsand the elusive search for the right flour,are of greater importance. The Professorhas achieved very good results onnumerous occasions with flours from

hard red spring wheats. Indeed,Canadian flours were used to make manyof the products photographed in thisvolume.

Figure 1-2 A Canadian Wheat Field.Courtesy of The Canadian Wheat Board,

Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

Flour is manufactured using a longseries of grindings, siftings, andregrindings, gradually extracting themaximum of endosperm whileeliminating the bran (Figure 1-3). Each"stream"-that is, the white flour resultingfrom each individual step-possesses itsown characteristics. French flours are"straight process" flours, meaning thatthe streams are blended back together,yielding an extraction rate of 72% to78%. This refers to the finished whiteflour expressed as a percentage of thewhole wheat used for its manufacture.

Unlike French straight process flours,most flours encounted in the UnitedStates and Canada are admixtures ofonly certain flour streams, selected forstrength or other desirablecharacteristics associated with eachcommerical flour category. Ourinvestigations into this were not fruitful,revealing only that each mill seems to dothings differently and that the littleinformation made available to bakers isof no use.

Figure 1-3 A Flour Mill. Courtesy ofKansas Wheat Commission, Manhattan,Kansas.It is generally known that wheat grainsare composed of a starchy kernel and ofseveral overlapping envelopes, from the

pericarp to the protein layer (Figure 1-4). The central problem of millingtechnology is to separate theseenvelopes from the kernel (or albumen)and to reduce the latter into flour.

Unless some qualifying term is used,such as the name of a particular grain orlegume, this is the product that isdesignated under the common name of"flour." This was the flour that I myselfdefined in 1952, in reference to theanatomy of the wheat grain, as beingmade of "the maximum of the starchyalbumen, with the minimum of thecovering envelopes."

To be more precise, it is generally

referred to as white flour. However, itshould be added at this point that it iswhite with a more or less light creamytint, the generic color of the starchyportion of the wheat kernel. In France,the purity level of such a flour isdetermined on the basis of mineralcontent, with an ash level (see Table 1-1) of about 0.55%. For an extraction ratefrom 75% to 79%, the variations in ashcontent are influenced by the type ofwheat, its preparation, the proceduresand equipment used in the mill, and theskill of the individual miller. As the ashlevel rises above 0.56%, it darkens thecolor of the flour more and more towardgray, as the flour becomes progressively

richer in particles of the bran envelopes.

Figure 1-4 The Kernel of Wheat.Source: Reprinted with permission as

shown in the American Institute ofBaking's Science of Bakingcorrespndence course.

The center of the wheat berry iscomposed of a higher percentage ofstarches and a lower percentage ofprotein. The percentage of proteinincreases proportionally from the centerof the berry toward the exterior.

Figure 1-5 Ash Oven.

The mineral content of flour isdetermined by incinerating a laboratorysample of flour under controlledconditions and weighing the resultingash (Figure 1-5). Because the mineralsare concentrated in bran and in the outerlayers of the wheat berry, the ash contentis an indication of the rate of extraction.The method of expressing ash content issomewhat different in France than inEnglish speaking countries, as noted inTable 1-1.

Most North American flours arecomposed of certain flour streams from

the milling process, which are selectedfor strength or other desirablecharacteristics. This allows the miller toproduce flours that are suited for theproduction of particular bakeryproducts. The relatively recentdevelopment of air classification offlour particles has led to even moreprecise selection.

The milling process (Figure 1-6)extracts the center portions of theendosperm first and then proceedsoutward toward the bran. The initialstreams are therefore lower in proteinand are marketed as all-purpose floursand baker's flours. Professor Calvel hasachieved excellent results using regular

baker's flours, and on certain occasions,all-purpose flours of above-averagebaking strength.

Very strong baker's flours from themiddle portion of the milling process arenot well suited to the artisan recipes inthis volume.

Clear flours, from the end of the millingprocess, are darker in color becausethey contain bran particles. They arevery strong and can be useful in theproduction of rye bread, where theirstrength is a boon and the darker colorunobjectionable.

Artisan bakers should bear in mind that

the majority of millers remain convincedthat all bakers are interested in super-strength flour products made only fromthe strongest flour streams. Only inrecent years have certain millers shownan interest in the production ofappropriate flours for artisan hearthbreads, and some very promising resultshave been achieved.

This flour possesses an idealcombination of qualities: it has acharacteristic taste in which the flavor ofwheat germ oil may be detected-a littlelike the flavor of hazelnuts. On thetechnological level, it also has anoptimal combination of good plasticproperties (strength, extensibility,elasticity) and fermenting properties(good dough fermentation activity, good"oven spring," that is, increase involume of the loaves).

At a lower extraction rate, the taste ofbread will still be highly distinctive, andperhaps even more tempting, but thefermentation of the dough will be slower

and the oven spring less pronounced.The bread will be less voluminous andthe crust will generally be thicker andless well colored. At a higher extractionrate (from 83% to 85%), the flourproduced will be grayish, and the tastewill change. To a greater or lesserdegree (depending on the rate ofextraction and other characteristics ofthe grain) it will take on the flavor of thebran envelopes, with an aftertaste of ash.The dough will also be different: it willbe stickier, lose its elasticity, becomemore porous, and lose its mixingtolerance. The loaves will be lessvoluminous, and the color of the crumbwill become grayish because of the

darkening effect of the higher ash level.

As the miller begins to grind at a 98%extraction rate to make flour for so-called whole-grain breads (a flour thatshould really be termed "whole meal"),the dough changes even more. It is adeep grayish tan, somewhat greasy andsticky to the touch; it loses extensibilityand elasticity and becomes still moreporous-as the dough pieces lose theirtolerance, the volume of the loaves isalso reduced. They become more dense,the crumb grain becomes tighter, and thedominant taste is that of the bran layersof the grain, the taste of ash. In the samemanner, bran bread, which has a slightlyhigher content of bran envelope particles

than whole meal pain complet, will havean ash taste that is even morepronounced. This bread is relativelydense and low in volume but often has alighter-colored crumb since the branparticles are larger.2

Whole-wheat breads and bran breadsgenerally have a higher water contentthan ordinary white bread because thebran in the flour absorbs more waterduring dough mixing and because thesemore dense loaves do not lose as muchwater through baking. The baker musttherefore be especially careful to ensurethat loaves of this type are thoroughlyand appropriately baked.

Thus, it may be said that the nature ofthe flour, its rate of extraction, and itspurity are all extremely important to theoverall development of bread taste.

Different Types of Flour Used inFrance

Regulations in France provide for theproduction of six types of flour (seeTable 1-2, and see Table 1-3 forInformation on North American flours),classified by ash content:

Type 45 flour is used primarily inspecialized products (i.e., puff pastry,brioche, and similar items) and for

household uses.

Type 55 flour is termed "breadmaking"flour. It is also used in biscuit-making(called cookies and crackers in theUnited States), for household uses, andin pastry-making.

Type 65 flour is primarily used inbiscuit-making. It may also be mixedwith those flours used for the productionof country-style breads.

Types 80, 110, and 150 are used on alimited basis and find their primaryapplication in the production of dark

and whole meal breads.

The ash content of a flour does not havea direct relationship to the quality of theflour in terms of breadmaking value. Ashas been discussed, however, an under-extracted flour will produce results thatare slightly inferior to a type 55 flour;furthermore, an increase of the extractionrate will affect results even more.

Wheat Grit, or Farina, Flour

Even though it is used only marginallyat present, this flour should bementioned here because of itsbreadmaking characteristics. It is astrong flour of superior quality, similar

to those obtained from fine particles ofthe gluten-rich outer layer of the wheatberry in the days of stone mills.

Today, wheat grit flour is produced byspecially milling strong breadmakingwheats, which have high levels of good-quality protein. This results in theproduction of two types of flour, type 45and type 55 (Ex hibit 1-1), which mustmeet the customary minimal qualitystandards. In actual practice, the qualitycharacteristics of these flours aremarkedly higher than the minimum.

These flours may be used to producefarina bread, which was commonlymade until about 1940, but which for all

practical purposes has nearlydisappeared today. However, farinaflours are presently used, either pure orin blends, in the production of sweetyeast doughs, in general baking, and inthe making of pastries such as brioches,croissants, and pan breads.

Different Types of Rye Flour

There are four types of rye flour inFrance. These are classified as shown inTable 1-4.

The ash content of rye flour varies overa wide range, and types 70, 85, and 130have standards that overlap. That islargely due to a high degree of

irregularity in the mineral content of thegrain, and for a given type of flour it mayvary according to mill grind lots, millingconditions, and the somewhat variableextraction rates used.

Exhibit 1-1 Alveograms andCharacteristics of French High-StrengthBreadmaking Flour

Certain recipes in this book call forfarine de gruau, which until thebeginning of World War II was made by"skimming off" the stronger flourstreams. In North American terms itcorresponded to a fancy patent flour andhad an extraction rate of 60% to 65%.Today's farine de gruau is merely astraight process flour produced from awheat of above-average strength. InNorth America a regular bread flour of

good strength is a suitable substitute.The use of a specialty strong flour wouldbe going too far.

As far as flavor and aroma provided byflour to the finished bread areconcerned, it seems that type 130produces the best taste. This flour has anash content between 1.20 and 1.30.

The three types of North American ryeflour are shown in Table 1-5.

Professor Calvel recommends the useof medium rye flour, which has anextraction rate of approximately 80%,for the rye bread recipes in Chapter 11.Please note that there is furtherdiscussion of North American rye floursin the rye bread recipe section, Chapter11.

TECHNICALCHARACTERISTICS OF BREADMAKING FLOUR

The baking quality of a flour determinesits technological properties. The bakingvalue of a flour is an indication of itsability to produce attractive and good-tasting bread under optimal productionconditions and with the best yield. Thequality of a flour may only bedetermined by test baking. However, itmay be indirectly determined byexamining two groups of factors:

The alveogram, which is the curve

recorded with this instrument (seeExhibit 1-1 and Exhibit 1-2),

thus furnishes the W value, which is inrelation to the dough surface; thepressure or (P) factor, which is theheight of the curve; and the inflationindex (G), which is shown in relation to(L), the length of the curve.

These factors provide information on

the strength of the flour;

the cohesiveness (P) and the waterabsorption ability of the flour; and

the extensibility (G) and its ability to

enable greater loaf volume.

It is necessary to add that there must bea good P/L relationship or ratioexpressed by the configuration of thecurve.

The Diastatic Power of a Flour

This quality of flour is generallymeasured by the falling number timeindex as shown by the Hagbergapparatus (Figure 1-8), whichdetermines the starch gel formingproperties of the flour.

It is advisable to add a test of flouracidity to the two quality tests outlined

in Exhibit 1-3. This flour pH or aciditytest allows a determination of its state ofconservation. It is important for thebaker to know the moisture content of theflour, which influences its keepingquality and its yield in bread.

Figure 1-7 The Chopin Alveograph.Courtesy of Seedura EquipmentCompany, Chicago, IL.

The quality of the protein in a givenflour is of far greater importance than theactual percentage. Proteins give strengthand structure to the dough, and in Frenchbreads must possess the qualitiesnecessary to permit unmolded loaves ofbread, which bake directly on the hearth,to hold their shape and have the rightdegree of oven spring. The Chopinalveograph tests a sample of unyeasteddough by inflating it until it bursts. Thedata recorded in this test indicate theflour's potential for breadmaking.Although the alveograph is widely usedin France and many other countriesaround the world, it is relatively littleknown in North America in comparison

to other types of dough testingequipment.

The baking quality of a flour is relatedto the quality and quantity of proteinsand of the gluten that derives from them.

The fermentation quality of the doughdepends especially on its diastaticpower and its fermentable sugar content.

The Baking Quality of a Flour

In France, this particular quality isdetermined through the use of the Chopinalveograph,3 by means of the calculationof the "W" value (Figure 1-7). This

figure results from finding the degree ofwork deformation of a sample of doughat a constant level of hydration. A doughsample in the form of a bubble issubjected to air pressure, and thedeformation of this bubble is recordedas a curve, the alveogram. The derivedW number represents the work ofdeformation expressed in thousandths ofergs per gram of dough.

Figure 1-8 Falling Number Apparatus.As regards the W value, some much

stronger flours that have been milledfrom strong wheats can give ex

cellent results provided that the proteinlevel is equal to or less than 13.5%, asin the case of flours with a W value ofbetween 300 and 350.

Evolution of the Strength ofBreadmaking Flours

Finally, one cannot discuss thetechnological characteristics ofbreadmaking flour without speaking ofthe evolution of the quality of wheats

and of flour over the past 50 years. Untilaround 1935-1940 the quality (of bothwheat and flour) was poor.

As an example, consider flour strengthas expressed by the W value, whichmeasures the strength of the physicalproperties of doughs. In the past thismeasurement reached an average of 90in the Parisian region and reached alevel of only 70, with difficulty, in theprovinces. Today, these numbers havemore than doubled: in a normal year,Chopin W values are found at aminimum of 140 and are virtuallyalways between 160 and 180.

Figure 1-9 Automatic Flour Silo.Courtesy of Technosilos/ F.B.M. BakingMachines, Inc., Cranbury, New Jersey.

Flour and water are heated until thestarches gelatinize, and the viscosity ofthe result is measured. Low enzyme

activity results in a thick gel (high fallingnumber), and high enzyme activity leadsto greater breakdown of starches and aless viscous gel (lower falling number,and in more extreme cases,hyperdiasticity).

Bearing in mind these different tests, theflour that would be appropriate forproper production of French breadwould correspond to the quality criteriashown in Exhibit 1-2.

Larger bakeries are often equipped withflour silos, which save space andfacilitate flour handling. The more recentcloth designs are less prone to mildew

and other problems.

Unbleached flours must be aged for 2 to3 weeks following milling to achieveoptimal performance. It should also benoted that unbleached flours carry theinherent danger of viable insect larvae,therefore requiring strict cleaning andhygiene procedures.

Exhibit 1-2 Characteristics of FrenchFlour, U.S. Winter Wheat Flour, andCanadian Spring Wheat Flour

Exhibit 1-3 Tests of Flour DiastasticityHypodiastasticity is manifested in

sluggish fermentation, lower loafvolume, and a pale, thick crust. Theaddition of small amounts of enzyme-active malt products is the usual remedy.Readers will notice that the bread

formulae involving preferments containmore malt than straight dough recipes.This is to compensate for diastic- ity"eaten up" during long fermentations.

Hyperdiastasticity causes slack, stickydoughs that ferment too quickly, leadingto collapse of the raw loaves and a thin,soft crust. This condition is caused bysprouting of wheat under dampconditions before harvest or by highlevels of starch damage in the flour.

The harder a wheat is, the greater thestarch damage it suffers during milling. Itis curious to note that many of thecharacteristcs attributed to NorthAmerican flours in general are also

characteristics associated with starchdamage:

doughs become sticky toward the endof mixing

shaped loaves ferment rapidly and tendto flattenout

slashes do not open properly duringbaking

crusts soften shortly after baking.

This matter remains largely unexploredbut informal conversations with HubertChiron of the INRA (French National

Agricultural Research Institute) andother French bread experts conjecturethat insufficient tempering of the wheatprior to milling, and rough millingpractices may play a key role in thismatter. Given these tendencies, andhaving in mind that many NorthAmerican flours already contain maltproducts, the quantities of malt indicatedin the formulae may prove unnecessaryor even deleterious. Test bakes withthese factors in mind will quickly clarifythe situation.

Before World War II, doughs wereeasier to mix and to develop, and thedough became a coherent, smooth, andhomogeneous mass very rapidly. In

order to reach the same stage ofdevelopment, doughs made from thewheats available today require aprogressively greater degree of mixingand much more mechanical work input.

In the first instance (pre-1939 flours),contact of the dough with atmosphericoxygen was minimal,

and the dough retained a creamy color;in the second (with present-day flours),the dough requires much more mixing. Ifthe baker does not exercise great care,the dough will become somewhat moreoxidized and a bit whiter and will loseflavor in proportion to the amount ofmechanical energy required to mix it. As

will be mentioned in later chapters,certain additives, combined withexcessive mixing, encourage andaccelerate this phenomenon of oxidation.

All of these tests, facts, and figures areextremely useful for establishingparameters for flour selection. However,nothing can replace test baking of floursamples as the absolute criterion of flourquality.

In the long run, it is best for bakers todeal with millers who are capable ofproviding a consistent product eventhough these flours might prove to beslightly more expensive. Neophyte

bakers in particular would be welladvised to seek out flours that are knownto be appropriate for hearth breads. Thiswill eliminate one variable from a longlist of headaches.

NOTES

1. In spite of this general statement,Professor Calvet has shown numeroustimes that it is certainly possible tomake very good bread with higher-protein North American flours, bothU.S. hard red winter wheat flour and theeven higher-protein Canadian hard

spring wheat flour. Bread productionbased on these wheats certainly requiresproper attention to flour blending inorder to achieve proper bakingcharacteristics, and also makessystematic bake testing of flour lotsabsolutely necessary. For a discussionof Professor Calvel's pioneering effortsin this area, see the articles printed inBoulanger-Pdtissier and listed in thebibliography, especially those thatdescribe his work at Kansas StateUniversity in the 1980s and in Japan.

Most flour used in Japan since the1960s has been a blend of various

grain lots from the United States,Canada, Australia, France, and lessersources. As Professor Calvel hasnoted, the production of French breadfrom flours typically available in

Japan may pose some interestingtechnical problems, but it is certainlyachievable. This may be becauseJapanese milling practices arereportedly more gentle than those usedin North America.

2. It has been written that ash contentfigures are of more interest to millersthan to bakers on a daily basis, since ashcontent can be used as an indication that

milling equipment is properly adjusted.

3. This instrument is used somewhatrarely in North America. Several othertests are widely used to test wheat flourproperties. For a discussion of wheatflour testing methods in North America,see the numerous papers and testmethods available from the AmericanAssociation of Cereal Chemists(AACC). Extensive references areavailable on the AACC web site,currently located at http://www.scisoc.org/aacc/.

=

CHAPTER 2

The influence of processing agents andthe use of additives.

The influence of ingredients.

THE COMPOSITION OFDOUGH

It is certain that the taste of breadcannot be dissociated from thecomposition or makeup of the dough. For

French bread, the composition is simple:a dough based on 100 kg flour willcontain around 60 L water, 2 kg salt, and2 kg yeast. Depending on the particularcase, a relatively small number ofadditives may be added, including

ascorbic acid, incorporated either intothe flour at the mill at a rate of 20 to 60mg per kilogram of flour or into thedough by the baker at the rate of 20 to80 mg per kilogram of flour, with a maxi

mum permissible use level of 300 mgper kilogram of flour;

lecithin, at a rate of 100 to 200 g per

100 kg of flour, with a maximumpermissible use level of 300 g per 100kg;

cereal amylases, in the form of maltedflour or malt extract, up to a maximumpermissible use level of 300 g per 100kg of flour';

fungal amylases, at levels ranging from10 to 30 g per 100 kg of flour, with thelevel of concentration being stated bythe supplier to the user; and

faba (fava) bean flour, which is mixedwith bread flour at the mill at levels

ranging from 0.6% to 0.8% (with amaximum permissible level of 2.0%).Since the early 1980s, faba bean flourmay be replaced by 0.2% to 0.3% ofsoybean flour.

Figure 2-1 Weighing Equipment.Courtesy of Edward Behr.

Careful use of precise weighing

equipment (Figure 2-1) leads topredictable results.

Other additives may also be used in theproduction of unsweetened specialtybreads, such as

calcium propionate or propionic acid,used to retard the growth of molds insliced and packaged breads. Thepermissible use level is 0.5% maximumof finished product weight, whichequates to approximately 0.7% to 0.8%of the additive based on total flourweight;

citric acid, limited in use to theproduction of mixed rye-wheat bread orwhole rye bread2 (citric acid may beused up to a level of 500 g per 100 kg offlour); and

powdered wheat gluten (obtainedduring the production of wheat starch, asa result of the starchgluten separationstage). There is no limitation on the useof wheat gluten as an ingredient addedto bread flour for the production ofcommon bread, specialty breads, andhigh protein (dietary) breads.

The largest part of bread production in

Francecommon white hearth breads-results from the use of standard type 55flour. This flour type by itself wouldseem to have only a limited influence onthe creation of bread taste. Within thebroad general classification of Frenchbreads, the type of flour should be amatter for consideration only in the caseof specialty product manufacture.However, the production level of theseitems is relatively minor in comparisonto total bread production.

In any case, a lack of vitreous qualitiesin the wheat berry, and an ash levelapproaching the maximum of 0.60%,may sometimes play a limiting role inthe development of desirable flavor

characteristics.

THE INFLUENCE OFPROCESSING AGENTSAND THE USE OF ADDITIVES

Ascorbic Acid

Ascorbic acid (or vitamin C) reinforcesthe physical properties of dough andhastens its maturation (Exhibit 2-1).Furthermore, it increases the formingand handling tolerance of the unbakeddough pieces and promotes theproduction of larger volume loavessince it allows them to be baked at ahigher proof level. It should be pointed

out that ascorbic acid is destroyed byheat in the course of the baking process,and that no trace of it remains in thefinished bread.

Exhibit 2-1 Effect of the Addition ofAscorbic Acid to Flour at the Mill

Do not be alarmed by the amounts ofascorbic acid, which are expressed inmilligrams, or in the form of even morealarming parts per million. In manyareas, ascorbic acid is available from

bakery supply houses in easy-to-useforms. Follow manufacturers' guidelinesto obtain the amounts indicated, andensure that the product in question doesnot contain any undesirable ingredients.It is also possible to add 1 g of ascorbicacid crystals to 1 kg of flour or to 1 L ofwater. Each gram or milliliter of theresulting mixture would then correspondto 1 mg of ascorbic acid. Be sure that theascorbic acid crystals being used are afree-running dry powder that has beenprotected from light. Ascorbic acidmixed with water should be discarded atthe end of the production day because itoxidizes rather quickly.

Contrary to the influence with which ithas often been credited, ascorbic acidhas practically no influence at all on thedevelopment of bread flavor.

Since it can accelerate the maturation ofthe dough and thus permits a reduction inthe length of fermentation, ascorbic acidcan indirectly limit the formation oforganic acids, which contribute to thedevelopment of the taste of bread. Thus,the improper use of ascorbic acid maysomewhat handicap the full developmentof bread taste.

Lecithin

Lecithin is a fatty material produced

industrially from soybean germ. It is alsofound in egg yolk. Lecithin hasemulsifying properties and functions as alubricating agent during doughformation. In addition, it has antioxidantproperties. Even at a usage level of0.1% to 0.15%, it exhibits a tendency toslow dough oxidation and the resultantbleaching effect and thus to protect theflavor complex of bread from beingspoiled.3

Amylases

Both cereal and fungal amylases areused to correct hypodiastatic flours andto reestablish the amylolytic balance that

is appropriate to proper breadfermentation. When fungal amylases areused judiciously, their secondary effectsadd to the tolerance of the dough andcontribute to greater volume of thefinished loaves.

The addition of amylases tohypodiastatic flours, whether directlyinto the flour or at the dough mixingstage, plays a modest but positive role inthe development of the taste of bread:amylases permit the proper rising of thedough throughout fermentation and allownormal increase in volume of the loaves(oven spring) during baking.Furthermore, amylases aid in thedevelopment of optimal crust color,

which is an important contributor totaste, and they also improve the shelf lifeof bread.

Cereal amylases result from the maltingof barley or wheat and may be found inthe forms of malt flour, dry malt extracts,or malt syrups. The use of these maltproducts helps to enrich the aroma ofbread. Malt flour is generally added tobread flour at the mill; malt extracts aremore rarely added by the baker duringdough mixing.

Fungal amylase is a natural substance,obtained from the culture of Aspergillusoryzae or Aspergillus niger. Completelypure and highly active forms of the

enzymes are mixed with a starch carrier,then blended with bread flour at the mill.Fungal amylases have practically nodirect influence on the development ofbread flavor.

Calcium Propionate and PropionicAcid

These substances are used in Franceand in numerous other countries for theirantifungal properties. Their function is toinhibit and delay the development ofmold, notably in the commercialproduction of specialty breads andsweetened-dough bakery products (forexample, white pan breads), for which

the salable life may extend over afortnight. These breads are generallysliced before being cooled andpackaged, with an intended shelf life ofaround 2 weeks.

These preservatives give the breadsboth a taste and an odor that are highlydisagreeable and atypical of bread. Thisacidic and slightly putrid character isstriking, especially when the package isfirst opened,

since these odors are then released fromthe package headspace where they havebecome concentrated.

Citric Acid

The use of citric acid is limited to theproduction of rye breads or mixed-flourbreads that are based primarily on ryeflour. French regulations specify that itshould be used in a premix with pure ryeflour or premixed with rye blend floursthat are to be used in the production ofrye breads.

The use of citric acid allows theproduction of rye bread doughs that areslightly less sticky, easier to handle, andmore cohesive. The end result is moreregularly rounded breads, with a less-sticky crumb and better shelf life.Broadly speaking, there is considerableadvantage to the use of citric acid insuch breads, especially as regards the

development of flavor.

Bean Flour

The presence of bean flour inbreadmaking flour has an extremelydetrimental effect on the development ofbread flavor whenever intensive mixingis used, as will be discussed later in thistext.

ADDITIONS TO FRENCHBREAD IN CERTAIN FOREIGN COUNTRIES

The preceding discussion of theinfluence of dough composition and theeffect of additives on the taste of Frenchbread does not cover all theirregularities one finds when discussingFrench bread worldwide. It is notenough to add that it is forbidden,whenever one makes such bread-realFrench bread-to use denatured flours, orto add fats, sugars, milk powder, or anyproducts of another type that woulddetract from its original, distinctive

character.

French food legislation goes to greaterlengths to guarantee the authenticity offoods than most other countries. A 1993law intended to protect artisan bakersagainst the onslaught of industrial bakersdefines pain maison as bread madeentirely in the bakery from start to finish,using the acceptable ingredients asdiscussed in this chapter. Pain traditiongoes still further, excluding the use ofascorbic acid and lecithin, but allowingfaba or soy flours because they havebeen used traditionally. From ahistorical viewpoint this may make somesense, but considering the dangers of

oxidation, the end result could be theopposite of that which is desired.

Whenever one speaks of French breadbeyond the borders of the Hexagon (i.e.,France), there are other irregularities:

The flour is sometimes bleached at themill by treatment with benzoylperoxide,4 or even treated with anaddition of potassium bromate, as isdone in the United States, England, andcertain other English-speakingcountries.5 In both of these instances,and especially in the case of benzoylperoxide, the gustatory properties of the

flour are profoundly changed for theworse, and the taste greatlydiminished.6

In many countries the dough used forso-called French bread is enriched withfats. This is often true in Belgium, theUnited States, Latin America, Italy, andthe Scandinavian countries.

In many of these same countries thedough often contains additives of themono- and diglyceride type or variousfatty acids, as is the case in Belgium,Spain, Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil.Potassium bromate is often added as

well, sometimes at excessive levels, asin the United States, England, andArgentina.' Such treatments andadditions affect the taste of "French"bread, degrading and denaturing it,making it atypical and often evenunrecognizable. Such bread has only thename and the vague form of Frenchbread, the shape of the "stick," asFinnish bakers say. This does notexclude the sad fact that bread isbecoming insidiously more soft andpastry-like as a result of intensivemixing and the use of lipoxygenase. Aswe will see further along in the text,

these practices have been combinedwith other assaults on bread to becomenearly as damaging in France as they areelsewhere.

The flavor of French bread results fromthe production process, and afterfermentation, from the baking of a doughthat is elegantly simple in composition.This simplicity is the basis of its qualityand its delicacy; but because of thissimplicity, the flavor of bread is anextremely fragile attribute. It cannotresist the abuses inherent in the use of animproper flour and the addition ofincorrect ingredients, adjuvants, oradditives, all of which tend to unbalance

the delicate aromatic equilibrium that isthe true taste of bread.

THE INFLUENCE OFINGREDIENTS

The Influence of Water

Water plays a basic role in thebreadmaking process: by hydrating theflour, it humidifies the starch granulesand proteins. After these proteins aretransformed into gluten, they serve as thelinking agent to enclose the starchgranules in the gluten matrix, re

sulting in the creation of a dough mass.Furthermore, water creates the humidenvironment appropriate to the

development of enzymatic activity andbread fermentation. Whatever its source,this water must be potable. With veryrare exceptions, it almost never has anyappreciable effect on the taste of bread.

However, when the water is obtainedfrom a municipal water supply, thepurification treatment used should resultin suitable water conditions. If waterpurification includes the addition ofchlorine, it must be added in the properamount. This is important, since anexcess might inhibit yeast activity andthus spoil the taste of the bread.Furthermore, it is necessary to determinethe mineral composition of the water andensure that the degree of hardness is

around 25. For very practical processingreasons, this is often more critical whenusing spring water.8

In the case of water that is too hard, itmay be necessary to soften it somewhat,which will simplify its use at all stagesof processing. One must consider thedesired physical properties of the dough:water that is too soft reducescohesiveness, while water that is toohard reduces extensibility. In either ofthese cases, the quality of the water mayindirectly and negatively affect the tasteof the bread.9

Flour additives encountered in

English-speaking countries

Acceptable for use in production ofauthentic French breads:

vitamins (added to flour as anobligatory enrichment in manyareas)thiamin mononitrite, riboflavin,niacin, folic acid, iron

malt products (aids fermentation andcrust color)-malted barley flour,amylase

ascorbic acid (used as a doughconditioner)-preferably added to flourby the baker, in Professor Calvel's

prescribed amounts, rather than at theflour mill.

Unacceptable for use in production ofauthentic French breads:

benzoyl peroxide (used as a flourbleaching agent)-destroys the carotenoidpigments that Professor Calvelconsiders to be flavor carriers.

potassium bromate (an oxidizingagent)-banned in many countries andlocalities because of health concerns

azodicarbonomide (an oxidizing agent)

fava (faba) bean or soybean flour

dough conditioners added directly bythe baker or at the flour mill as part ofthe milling process-sometimes added bythe baker during dough mixing. They donot generally contain unacceptableingredients, but in any case doughconditioners are unnecessary in thecontext of this book and should beavoided in the production of traditionalbreads.

The Influence of Salt

Salt has a very important role in the

creation of bread taste, both directly andindirectly. It has been only since the endof the 18th century, however, that it hasbeen in common use in the production ofbread in France. In a general sense, itspositive influence is apparent throughoutthe entire production process. Duringmixing, it reinforces the plasticproperties of the dough and improvesboth its cohesiveness and elasticity.

Having understood salt's role as anantioxidant, too many bakers since the1960s have adopted the practice ofdelaying the addition of fine table salt-which dissolves quickly-until 5 minutesbefore the end of mixing. This is donewith the intensive mixing method in

order to encourage the maximum levelsof oxidation and bleaching. This delayedsalt method tends to facilitate theforming of gluten bonds during doughformation and results in a slightimprovement in dough strength.However, there is also such a greatdecline in the quality of the taste ofbread produced by this method that itmight be considered a general disaster.This practice has the effect of "washingout" the dough.

It would be wise, whatever the lengthand intensity of the mixing method used,to add the salt at the start of the mixingstage, or at the latest, 3 minutes afterbeginning the operation, just as was

done up until the 19605.10

In addition, it should also be noted that

salt also facilitates the development ofcrust color, which tends to improve thetaste. In the absence of salt, the crustwill remain pale.

salt improves the flavor and odor ofbread.

due to its hygroscopic properties, saltinfluences the shelf life of bread.

in dry weather, salt maintains keepingqualities by slowing down desiccation

or drying.

in damp weather, salt causes a declinein shelf life by increasing crustsoftening. Thus, it is advisable in thefirst instance to protect the bread fromdrafts, and in the second to allow someexposure to air.

The amount of salt added to the doughhas been affected by intensive mixingand the washing effect that results fromit. The unnatural, white, and insipidappearance of the bread crumb hascaused bakers to increase the saltcontent in an effort to find a means ofcompensating for lost color and taste,

but at the risk of committing a nutritionalblunder. Before 1956-1960,

the salt content of most bread was from1.8% to a maximum of 2.0%.11 At thepresent time, the usual amount of saltadded is 2.2% and sometimes evenhigher. The growth in percentage isabout 15%, which is considerable.

The medical profession certainlysuggests that a lower salt content ishealthier. It would seem reasonable, inorder to no longer wash out the dough(and to comply with modern medicalguidelines) to return to the former 1.8%added salt level.

The Influence of Yeast

Baker's Yeast

Baker's yeast is a fermentation agentthat belongs to the Saccharomycescerevisiae species and is actually amember of the mushroom family. It is abiological leavening agent thatpossesses the basic attributes of allliving things, which are respiration andreproduction. Its role in breadmaking isto create the panary fermentationprocess, which produces carbon dioxidegas. At the same time, yeast is the"artisan" who creates the internalcellular structure of dough and causes itto rise. Yeast fermentation is also

involved in the maturation of the doughand contributes greatly to the productionof bread taste.

Baker's yeast is a natural biologicalproduct that is produced industrially. InFrance, it is grown on a molassessubstrate. This is a byproduct of sugarproduction that still contains between40% and 50% sugar and constitutes thebasic food necessary to yeastproduction. Traditional yeast, known as"fresh yeast," is a somewhat firm andhomogeneous paste-like product, with acreamy or ivory tint. It is composed ofround or oval cells about 1 / 100 of amillimeter in diameter, weighing about 8to 10 billion to the gram. It is packaged

in rectangular blocks of 500 g each.Fresh yeast has a very high watercontent-around 70%-and only a limitedshelf life: 10 to 15 days at 15C (59F),or 30 days at 0C (32F). When it isstored at 20C (68F), it is advisable touse it as soon as possible.

This commercially produced yeast(Figure 2-2) is generally of uniformlygood quality. The taste of bread madethrough the use of this "biological"baker's yeast is relatively low in acidand is dominated by the taste and aromaderived from wheat flour. Theseelements are combined with flavorcomponents produced by alcoholicfermentation of the dough and as a result

of the baking process. 12 In Frenchbread, the taste of yeast is notdiscernible until the usage level reaches2.5%. Beyond that level its presencebecomes more and more noticeable asthe usage level increases. Without beingreally disagreeable in itself, this is anatypical taste that seems undesirable inbread.

Dry Yeasts

Two types of dry yeast are obtainedfrom fresh yeast by subjecting it to low-temperature drying processes. Incomparison to fresh yeast, dried yeastshave the advantages of being less bulkyfor shipping and handling and also have

a very long shelf life when hermeticallypackaged.

The older of these two types isavailable in the form of small granulescontaining only 7% humidity. The yeastcells, which are in a latent state, must bereactivated in advance in order to beused as an active leavening agent. Thisis done by rehydrating the yeast in fivetimes its weight of water at atemperature of 38C (100.4F), alongwith a little sugar. After 15 to 20 minutesof rest, the reconstituted yeast may beput to use.

This yeast gives excellent results whenused at a level equivalent to half that of

fresh yeast. However,

at higher usage levels, it has the sameunfortunate tendency as fresh yeast totransmit to the dough-and thus to thebread-a more pronounced yeast taste,which is atypical of good bread as wellas unpleasant.

The second dry yeast type, morerecently developed, is a so-called"instant" yeast with a 4% moisturecontent that is available in the form ofsmall rodshaped pieces, similar tovermicelli in shape. When premixedwith flour during the mixing stage, thistype has the advantage of functioningmuch as fresh yeast. When used at a

level of one-third that of fresh yeast, italso gives excellent results. It is moresubtle than fresh yeast as far as taste isconcerned, and especially more so thangranulated dry yeast. Even at a usagelevel of 2% or above, its aroma is notevident. This instant yeast seems toaccord more importance to the influenceof the taste of wheat flour (natural andpure), to alcoholic fermentation, and tothe effects of baking, which areparticularly beneficial to the taste ofbread.

In summary, bread fermentationresulting from the use of yeast at areasonable level yields doughs that arecharacterized by active fermentation.

This process produces bread with acharacteristically delicate taste, whichowes as much to the influence of flourand to the baking process as to theprocess of alcoholic fermentation itself.

Figure 2-2 Yeast Production. Courtesyof Lallemend Inc., Montreal, Canada.

Figure 2-3 Commercially AvailableCulture. Courtesy of LesaffreIngredients, Marcq-en-Baroeul, France.

A recent development in both Europeand North America has been theintroduction of commercially availablepowdered sourdough cultures (Figure 2-3). There are two basic types: activecultures are prepared from the powderedbase one day in advance of use, are usedjust as "home grown" cultures, and yieldacceptable results. Dried deactivatedcultures do not ferment and constitute aneffort to give sourdough flavor andacidity to yeast doughs. Connoisseurs ofreal sourdough are not deceived.

Still another development is theintroduction of liquid sourdoughequipment, which is generally used inconjunction with commercial activecultures. These are practical and showpromise but could lead to the use ofliquid levain in almost every recipe(including those where sourdough is nota usual ingredient) with monotonousresults.

The Influence of Starters

Fermentation and breadmaking with anatural sponge starter or levain have as abeginning fer

mented cultures based on yeasts and

bacteria that are found in the atmosphereand that might be termed "ambientyeasts."13 In the opinion of somespecialists, these yeasts belong to theSaccharomyces minor family. Accordingto the majority of other scientists,however, these cultures or sponges aremade up of rather poorly definedfermenting agents and are sometimesreferred to under the general term of"wild yeasts." A culture of these yeastsmay form naturally on a piece of doughexposed to the open air, provided thatsurrounding environment remainstemperate or even slightly warm andhumid. This will result in the beginningsof an alcoholic fermentation, which after

a period of several days will befollowed by an acid fermentation. Thismethod of leavening doughs made fromcereals suitable for breadmaking datesfrom far back in the night of time: itsplace of appearance is generallyconsidered to be on the banks of theNile, about the time of Moses.

According to the legend, a piece ofdough made from flour and water issupposed to have been forgotten throughcarelessness, and the dough wasnaturally inoculated by wild yeasts fromthe surrounding environment. Because ofthe effects of alcoholic fermentation, thedough would have increased in volume,and the idea of mixing it into an inert

dough must have sprung into the mind ofsome anonymous housewife. It is thusthat breadmaking fermentation was born.

The warm and humid climate of theNile Valley14 appears to constitute anideal location for natural inoculation,and this inclines me to accept as likelythat which the legend presents.

One can verify this hypothesis eventoday, without any problem. A present-day example of this phenomenon may beobserved in summer, during stormy orwarm and humid weather, in thelaboratory of mills equipped with aChopin alveograph. During the trialswith this apparatus, the scraps of dough

used in the course of tests are throwninto a wastecan. (This dough contains noadded yeast.) Whenever one forgets toempty the scrap dough from the wastecanat the end of the week, it will be full onMonday morning, even though it wasonly one-third full on Friday. A naturalinoculation by ambient yeasts has takenplace, followed by production of carbondioxide gas and rising of the dough.15 Itwould suffice to take 500 g of doughfrom this beginning state and cultivate itby adding flour and water several timesto produce, 48 hours later, a lightlyacetic fermentation. This is the"building" of a natural sponge, suitablefor leavening a dough with which to

produce a naturally leavened bread.

This example is especially significantin that there is very little probability orrisk of a dough being inoculated by aculture of natural baker's yeast.Furthermore, the atmosphere of a flourmill is highly charged with ambientyeasts and bacteria suitable forinoculation of a dough based on wheator rye flour because of the presence ofwheat and milling dusts.

Breadmaking from a natural sponge(often called a sourdough in the UnitedStates) persisted in France and in muchof the rest of the world until the dawn of

the 20th century. This was (and is) aproduction method by which the bakermake