the skeleton. 206 bones dynamic & living structure live tissue capable of growth &...
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The Skeleton
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• 206 Bones
• Dynamic & living structure live tissue
• Capable of growth & regeneration
• Able to adapt to various environmental demands
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6 Basic Functions
1. Supportive framework & soft body tissues2. Protection of vital organs3. Production of red blood cells4. Provides system of levers allowing movement5. Provides shape to the body6. Maintains homeostasis (Balance calcium)
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Histology Of Bone
• Histology: study of tissue as a thin slice
• What is bone?
- Live connective tissue- Matrix of intercellular materials network of crystalized minerals and salts-25% water; 25% Protein fibres; 50% crystalized mineral salts
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Wolff’s Law
Bone is laid down (built up) where it is needed and resorbed (broken down) where it is not
needed
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Bone cellsOsteoblasts:Bone building cellsSynthesize & secrete collagen & other organic compounds to build up bone matrix
Function: initiates calcification
Osteocytes:Mature bone cellsDerived from osteoblasts that have become trapped in the matrix
Function: maintain daily cellular activities (exchange nutrients & wastes with blood)
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Osteoclasts:Cells originating from the fusion of numerous white blood cells concentrated in the endosteum
Function: resorption (destruction of bone matrix)
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CLASSIFICATION OF BONE
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Classification of Bone
• Bones vary in shape and size
• The unique shape of each bone fulfills a particular need
• Bones are classified by their shape as long, short, flat, or irregular bone
• Bones differ in the distribution of compact and spongy osseous tissues
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Classification of Bones
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Classification:Long Bone
• Long bones have a long shaft and two distinct ends
• Classification is based on shape not size
• Compact bone on exterior with spongy inner bone marrow
• E.g. Humerus, femur
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Classification:Short Bones
• Short bones are roughly cubelike
• Thin compact bone layer surrounding spongy bone mass
• E.g. Carpals in hands, tarsals in feet
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Classification:Flat Bones
• Flat bones are thin, flattened and usually curved
• Parallel layer of compact bone with spongy bone layer between
• E.g. Skull, sternum, ribs, scapula
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Classification:Irregular Bone
• Irregular bones don’t fit into the previous categories
• Complicated shapes
• Consist of spongy bone with a thin layer of compact
• E.g. hip bones, facial bones & vertabrae
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Classification:Sesamoid Bone
• Develop in some tendons where there is substantial friction, tension & physical stress
• Protect tendons from excessive wear & tear
• Not completely ossified
• Patella, bones in sole of feet, palm of hands
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Classification:Sutural Bone
• Classified by location
• Also known as Wormian bones
• Small bones located within joints
• E.g. Certain Cranial bones
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BONE STRUCTURE
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Gross Anatomy• Landmarks
on a typical long bone– Diaphysis – Epiphysis– Membranes
• Membranes– Periosteum– Endosteum
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Diaphysis
• Long tubular diaphysis is the shaft of the bone
• Collar of compact bone surrounds a central medullary or marrow cavity
• In adults, cavity contains fat
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Epiphysis
• The epiphyses are the ends of the bone
• The joint surface of the epiphysis is covered with articular cartilage
• Epiphyseal line separate diaphysis and epiphysis
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Blood Vessels
• Unlike cartilage bone is well vascularized
• Nutrient arteries serve the diaphysis
• The nutrient artery runs inward to supply the bone marrow and the spongy bony
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Medullary cavity
• The interior of all bones consists largely of spongy bone
• The very center of the bone is an open cavity or marrow cavity
• The cavity is filled with yellow bone marrow
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Membranes• Periosteum covers outer
bone surface
• Consists of dense irregular connective tissue & osteoblasts
• Contain nerve fiber blood and lymph vessels secured by Sharpey’s fibers
• Endosteum covers internal bone surfaces
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Compact Bone• Compact bone appears very dense
• It contains canals and passageways that provide access for nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatic ducts
• The structural unit of compact bone is the osteon or Haversian system
• Each osteon is an elongated cylinder running parallel to the long axis of the bone
• Structurally each osteon represents a weight bearing pillar
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Compact bone
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An Osteon • Each osteon is a
group of hollow tubes of bone matrix
• Each matrix tube is a lamella
• Collagen fibers in each layer run in opposite directions
• Resists torsion stresses
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An Osteon • Running through
the core of each osteon is the central or Haversian canal
• The canal contains small blood vessels that supply the cells of the osteon
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Perforating (Volkmann’s) Canal
• Canals lie at right angles to long axis of bone
• Connect the vascular supply of the periosteum to those of the central canal and medullary cavity
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Compact Bone
• Osteocytes occupy small cavities or lacunae at the junctions of lamellae
• Fine canals called canaliculi connect the lacunae to each other and to the central canal
• Canaliculi tie all the osteocytes in an osteon together
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Spongy Bone
• Consisting of trabeculae
• Trabeculae align along lines of stress
• Function as struts of bone
• Trabeculae contain irregularly arranged lamallae and osteo-cytes interconnected by canaliculi
• No osteons present
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Bone Markings
• Bones are shaped by the tissues that act upon and around them
• Bones display bulges, depressions and holes which serve as sites of muscle, ligament and tendon attachment, points of articulation, or as conduits for blood vessels and nerves
• Projections from the bone surface include heads, trochanters, spines, and others
• Depressions include fossae, sinuses, foramina, and grooves
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Bone Markings• Tuberosity - a large
rounded projection which may be roughened– tibial tuberosity
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Bone Markings
• Crest - A narrow ridge of bone; usually prominent– Crest of the ilium
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Bone Markings• Trochanter - A very
large, blunt, irregularly shaped process– Greater trochanter
of femur
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Bone Markings• Tubercle - Small
rounded projection or process– adductor tubercle
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Bone Markings• Epicondyle - raised
area on or above a condyle– medial epicondyle
of the humerous
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Bone Markings• Spine - A sharp,
slender, often pointed projection– Spinous process of
vertebrae
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Bone Markings• Head - Bony
expansion carried on a narrow neck– head of the
humerus
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Bone Markings• Facet - Smooth, nearly flat articular surface– facet on transverse process of thoracic vertebrae
Facet
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Bone Markings• Condyle - Rounded
articular projection– lateral condyle of
femur
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Bone Markings• Ramus - Armlike
bar of bone– ramus of the pubis
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Bone Markings• Fossa - Shallow,
basinlike depression in a bone often serving as an articular surface– Olecranon fossa
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Bone Markings
• Foramen - Round or oval opeing through a bone– Foramen magnum
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Bone Anatomy and Stress• Wolff’s law: a bone
grows or remodels in response to the forces which act upon it
• Changes in bone density in response to stress & exercise
• Tension and compression forces must balance
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Healing of a Bone Fracture
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SKELETAL CARTILAGE
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Skeletal Cartilages
• Initially skeleton is made up of cartilages and fibrous membranes
• Gradually skeletal cartilages are replaced by bone
• Upon reaching adulthood the skeleton becomes almost fully ossified
• Only a few cartilages remain in the adult skeleton
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Basic structure, type & location
• A skeletal cartilage is made of some variety of cartilage tissue
• Each type contains a high proportion of water which makes them resilient
• Cartilage has no nerves or blood supply
• It is surrounded by a dense tissue membrane called a perichondrium
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Basic structure, type & location
• There are three types of cartilage tissue: hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage
• Each contains a matrix of jellylike ground substance and fibers
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Cartilages
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Hyaline cartilages
• The most prevalent type of cartilage
• Its high proportion of collagen fibers give it flexibility and resilience while providing support
• The tissue appears white, frosted, and smooth
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Hyaline cartilage locations
• Articular - covers the end of bones
• Costal - connect ribs to breastbone
• Laryngeal - skeleton of larynx
• Tracheal & bronchial - reinforce the respiratory passages
• Nasal - support the external nose
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Elastic cartilage
• Elastic cartilage is similar to hyaline cartilage but with more elastic fibers
• Its elastic fibers enable it to withstand repeated bending
• Found only in the external ear and the epiglottis
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Fibrocartilage
• The tissue contains parallel rows chondrocytes alternating with collagen fibers
• Tissue is highly compressible and has great tensile strength
• Found in thick pad-like structures like the menisci of the knee or the discs of the vertebral column
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Growth of cartilage
• Cartilage grows in two ways
• Appositional growth occurs when cells in the surrounding perichondrium secrete new matrix next to existing cartilage tissue (growth from the outside)
• Interstitial growth occurs when the chondrocytes within the cartilage divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage (growth from within)