The Scientific RevolutionThe Scientific Revolution

And the EnlightenmentAnd the Enlightenment

The Geocentric View of the The Geocentric View of the UniverseUniverse

Old AssumptionsOld AssumptionsMedieval philosophers accepted a geocentric Medieval philosophers accepted a geocentric

view that held that the earth was a view that held that the earth was a motionless body located at the center motionless body located at the center of the universe. The sun, moon, and of the universe. The sun, moon, and planets all moved around the earth in planets all moved around the earth in perfect circular paths.perfect circular paths.

Old assumptionsOld assumptionsMedieval philosophers believed that different Medieval philosophers believed that different

physical laws applied to the earth and to the physical laws applied to the earth and to the heavens.heavens.

Traditional authoritiesTraditional authoritiesBoth the Greek philosopher Aristotle and the Both the Greek philosopher Aristotle and the

Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy supported Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy supported the geocentric theorythe geocentric theory

The Church taught that God had deliberately The Church taught that God had deliberately placed the earth at the center of the universe. placed the earth at the center of the universe. Earth was thus a special place on which the Earth was thus a special place on which the great drama of life took place.great drama of life took place.

The Heliocentric View of the The Heliocentric View of the UniverseUniverse

Nicolas Copernicus 1473-1543Nicolas Copernicus 1473-1543A polish clergyman and astronomer. Directly A polish clergyman and astronomer. Directly

challenge the geocentric view in his book challenge the geocentric view in his book On On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies.the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies.

Copernicus presented the heliocentric view in Copernicus presented the heliocentric view in which the earth revolved around which the earth revolved around the sun, which was the center the sun, which was the center of the universe.of the universe.

Johannes Kepler 1571-1630Johannes Kepler 1571-1630Copernicus’s ideas were based on logic and Copernicus’s ideas were based on logic and

not direct observation. In the late 1500’s, not direct observation. In the late 1500’s, Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe, recorded Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe, recorded the movements of each known planet. After the movements of each known planet. After Brahe died in 1601, Kepler continued the Brahe died in 1601, Kepler continued the work.work.

After carefully studying Brahe’s data, Kepler After carefully studying Brahe’s data, Kepler formulated three laws of planetary motion:formulated three laws of planetary motion:The planets revolve around the sun in elliptical The planets revolve around the sun in elliptical

orbitsorbitsPlanets move more rapidly as their orbits approach Planets move more rapidly as their orbits approach

the sunthe sunThe time a planet takes to orbit the sun varies The time a planet takes to orbit the sun varies

proportionately with its distance from the sunproportionately with its distance from the sun

Galileo Galilei 1564-1642Galileo Galilei 1564-1642An Italian scientist who used controlled An Italian scientist who used controlled

experiments to formulate laws of motion and experiments to formulate laws of motion and inertia that were expressed in mathematical inertia that were expressed in mathematical formulasformulas

He was one of the first people to use the He was one of the first people to use the telescope for astronomical observation. His telescope for astronomical observation. His discoveries provided irrefutable support for discoveries provided irrefutable support for the heliocentric view.the heliocentric view.

Pope Urban VII accused Galileo of meddling Pope Urban VII accused Galileo of meddling “with the most important and dangerous “with the most important and dangerous subjects which can be stirred up in these subjects which can be stirred up in these days” In 1633, the pope summoned days” In 1633, the pope summoned Galileo to Rome to stand trial. Under Galileo to Rome to stand trial. Under threat torture, Galileo retracted his threat torture, Galileo retracted his support for the Copernican theory.support for the Copernican theory.

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method Sir Francis 1561-1626 and the Inductive Sir Francis 1561-1626 and the Inductive

MethodMethod contributed to scientific developments contributed to scientific developments

in the 17in the 17thth century by advocating an inductive method century by advocating an inductive method for scientific experimentationfor scientific experimentation

The inductive method begins with direct observation The inductive method begins with direct observation of phenomena. This produces data that is of phenomena. This produces data that is systematically recorded and organized. The data systematically recorded and organized. The data leads to a tentative hypothesis that is retested in leads to a tentative hypothesis that is retested in additional experiments.additional experiments.

argued that this process of controlled argued that this process of controlled

experimentation would lead to the formulation experimentation would lead to the formulation of universal principles and scientific laws.of universal principles and scientific laws.

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Rene Descartes 1596-1650 and the Rene Descartes 1596-1650 and the Development of the Deductive MethodDevelopment of the Deductive MethodContributed to scientific developments in the Contributed to scientific developments in the

1717thth Began by doubting all notions based on Began by doubting all notions based on

authority or custom. Instead, he started with a authority or custom. Instead, he started with a self-evident axiom known to be true. He then self-evident axiom known to be true. He then used logical reasoning to deduce various used logical reasoning to deduce various inferencesinferences

Characteristics of the Scientific MethodCharacteristics of the Scientific Method ‘ ‘s inductive and Descartes deductive s inductive and Descartes deductive

methods proved to be complementary part of methods proved to be complementary part of a systematic and logical way of seeking truth a systematic and logical way of seeking truth known as the scientific method.known as the scientific method.

The scientific method includes the following:The scientific method includes the following:Belief in the existence of regular patterns in natureBelief in the existence of regular patterns in natureUse of controlled experiments to systematically Use of controlled experiments to systematically

record facts and verify hypothesesrecord facts and verify hypothesesSearch for mathematical formulas to describe Search for mathematical formulas to describe

natural phenomenanatural phenomena

Scientific SocietiesScientific SocietiesSponsored by governments and monarchs, Sponsored by governments and monarchs,

scientists organized societies to promote scientists organized societies to promote research and spread scientific knowledge.research and spread scientific knowledge.

Founded in 1660, the Royal Society in Founded in 1660, the Royal Society in England enjoyed international prestige. Other England enjoyed international prestige. Other scientific societies were founded in Florence, scientific societies were founded in Florence, Paris and Berlin.Paris and Berlin.

Such societies helped to create an Such societies helped to create an international scientific community.international scientific community.

Sir Isaac NewtonSir Isaac Newton1642-17271642-1727

Newton and the law of GravitationNewton and the law of Gravitation Newton published the Newton published the PrincipiaPrincipia in 1687. This in 1687. This

momentous work combined Kepler’s laws of planetary momentous work combined Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, Galileo’s laws of inertia and falling bodies, motion, Galileo’s laws of inertia and falling bodies, and Newton’s own conception of gravitation into a and Newton’s own conception of gravitation into a single mathematical law of Universal Gravitation.single mathematical law of Universal Gravitation.

Newton’s concise mathematical formula described all Newton’s concise mathematical formula described all forms of celestial and terrestrial motion. forms of celestial and terrestrial motion. Horrible Histories - Royal Society of Scientist - YouTuHorrible Histories - Royal Society of Scientist - YouTubebe

The Newtonian UniverseThe Newtonian UniverseNewton demonstrated that the universe is Newton demonstrated that the universe is

governed by universal laws that can be governed by universal laws that can be expressed in mathematical formulas.expressed in mathematical formulas.

Newton viewed the universe as a vast Newton viewed the universe as a vast machine, created by God but working machine, created by God but working according to universal laws that could be according to universal laws that could be discovered, mastered and utilized to improve discovered, mastered and utilized to improve human life.human life.

Supernatural and miraculous forces played no Supernatural and miraculous forces played no role in Newton’s universe.role in Newton’s universe.

Newton’s mechanistic concept of the universe Newton’s mechanistic concept of the universe dominated Western thought until discoveries dominated Western thought until discoveries of Albert Einstein in the early 20of Albert Einstein in the early 20thth century. century.

Test TipTest Tip The Scientific Revolution is one of the watershed The Scientific Revolution is one of the watershed

events in European intellectual history. AP Euro test events in European intellectual history. AP Euro test writers do not expect you to memorize scientific laws writers do not expect you to memorize scientific laws or mathematical formulas. They do expect you to or mathematical formulas. They do expect you to discuss how pivotal figures such as Galileo, , discuss how pivotal figures such as Galileo, ,

Descartes and Newton adopted a new view of nature Descartes and Newton adopted a new view of nature that challenged long-held views of the relationship that challenged long-held views of the relationship between humanity and the universe.between humanity and the universe.

The EnlightenmentThe EnlightenmentThe PhilosophesThe Philosophes

The philosophes were a group of thinkers and The philosophes were a group of thinkers and writers who espoused enlightened ideas. writers who espoused enlightened ideas. Taken together, they formed a grand “republic Taken together, they formed a grand “republic of letters”.of letters”.

The philosophes were not abstract The philosophes were not abstract philosophers. Instead, they dedicated philosophers. Instead, they dedicated themselves top exposing social problems and themselves top exposing social problems and proposing reforms based upon implementing proposing reforms based upon implementing natural lawsnatural laws

Although many leading philosophes were Although many leading philosophes were French, they were a cosmopolitan group who French, they were a cosmopolitan group who could be found in the American colonies and could be found in the American colonies and across Europe.across Europe.

Key IdeasKey IdeasReasonReason was the absence of intolerance, was the absence of intolerance,

bigotry, and superstition. Reason meant bigotry, and superstition. Reason meant informed thinking about social problems.informed thinking about social problems.

Humans should rely on reason, not miracles, Humans should rely on reason, not miracles, to improve society.to improve society.

Nature and natural laws regulate both the Nature and natural laws regulate both the universe and human societyuniverse and human society

These laws can be discovered by human These laws can be discovered by human reasonreason

Key Ideas continued…Key Ideas continued…HappinessHappiness, philosophes had little interest in , philosophes had little interest in

the medieval belief that people should accept the medieval belief that people should accept misery in this world to find salvation in the misery in this world to find salvation in the hereafter.hereafter.

Believed that happiness in this world was an Believed that happiness in this world was an inalienable human right.inalienable human right.

ProgressProgress, philosohes were the first to believe , philosohes were the first to believe in social progress.in social progress.

Key Ideas continued…Key Ideas continued… The discovery of laws of economics and government The discovery of laws of economics and government

would improve society and make progress inevitable.would improve society and make progress inevitable. Liberty, philosophes lived in societies that placed Liberty, philosophes lived in societies that placed

restrictions on speech, religion, and trade. They restrictions on speech, religion, and trade. They wanted to remove these limitations on human liberty.wanted to remove these limitations on human liberty.

Believed that intellectual freedom was a natural right. Believed that intellectual freedom was a natural right. Without freedom of expression there could be no Without freedom of expression there could be no progress.progress.

DeismDeism Deists thought of God as a cosmic watchmaker who Deists thought of God as a cosmic watchmaker who

created the universe and then let it run according to created the universe and then let it run according to immutable natural lawsimmutable natural laws

Much of the educated elite in western Europe and Much of the educated elite in western Europe and America embraced deism. However, deism’s reliance America embraced deism. However, deism’s reliance upon reason and its lack of emotion had little appeal upon reason and its lack of emotion had little appeal for many people.for many people.

A new religious movement known as pietism stressed A new religious movement known as pietism stressed faith, emotion and religion of the heart.faith, emotion and religion of the heart.

Voltaire 1694-1778Voltaire 1694-1778Prince of the PhilosophesPrince of the Philosophes

Was the best known and most influential Was the best known and most influential philosophe. philosophe.

He was a prolific writer who popularized He was a prolific writer who popularized Newton’s scientific discoveries, criticized Newton’s scientific discoveries, criticized France’s rigid government, and denounced France’s rigid government, and denounced religious bigotry.religious bigotry.

““Crush the Infamous Thing”Crush the Infamous Thing” Voltaire directed his most stinging barbs at the Voltaire directed his most stinging barbs at the

intolerance of organized Christianity, both Protestant intolerance of organized Christianity, both Protestant and Catholic.and Catholic.

He championed religious tolerance. He often ended He championed religious tolerance. He often ended his letters with the passionate demand to “ecrasez l’ his letters with the passionate demand to “ecrasez l’ infame” (crush the infamous thing). This ringing infame” (crush the infamous thing). This ringing exclamation reminded his readers to continue the exclamation reminded his readers to continue the battelk against the enemies of reason --- bigotry, battelk against the enemies of reason --- bigotry, ignorance and religious fanaticismignorance and religious fanaticism

Denis Diderot 1713-1784Denis Diderot 1713-1784and the Encyclopediaand the Encyclopedia

PurposePurposeDiderot was a French philosophe who Diderot was a French philosophe who

became the chief editor of the Encyclopedia.became the chief editor of the Encyclopedia.Diderot’s goal was to bring together all the Diderot’s goal was to bring together all the

most current and enlightened thinking about most current and enlightened thinking about science, technology, mathematics, art and science, technology, mathematics, art and government. “All things must be examined, government. “All things must be examined, debated, investigated without exception and debated, investigated without exception and without regard for anyone's feelings.” without regard for anyone's feelings.”

ImportanceImportanceThe encyclopedia disseminated enlightened The encyclopedia disseminated enlightened

thinking across Europe and North America.thinking across Europe and North America. It undermined established authority by It undermined established authority by

including articles about controversial political including articles about controversial political and religious subjects.and religious subjects.

Who was it that said Faith and Reason can co-exist?Who was it that said Faith and Reason can co-exist?

Baron de Montesquieu Baron de Montesquieu 1689-17551689-1755

The Spirit of the LawsThe Spirit of the LawsWas a French nobleman and attorney who Was a French nobleman and attorney who

wanted to limit the abuses of royal absolutism.wanted to limit the abuses of royal absolutism.The Spirit of the Laws The Spirit of the Laws represented an attempt represented an attempt

to create a “social science” by applying the to create a “social science” by applying the methods of natural sciences to the study of methods of natural sciences to the study of government.government.

Separation of PowersSeparation of PowersHe concluded that the ideal government He concluded that the ideal government

separated powers among executive, separated powers among executive, legislative and judicial branches. legislative and judicial branches.

This system of divided authority would protect This system of divided authority would protect the rights of individuals by preventing one the rights of individuals by preventing one branch from gaining unrestricted control over branch from gaining unrestricted control over the entire society.the entire society.

His ideas had significant influence on the His ideas had significant influence on the writers of the American Constitutionwriters of the American Constitution

Jean-Jacques RousseauJean-Jacques Rousseau1712-17781712-1778

Natural EducationNatural EducationPresented ideas of education in a novel called Presented ideas of education in a novel called

EmileEmileNatural education should replace the rigid Natural education should replace the rigid

form of education. Key forms of natural ed:form of education. Key forms of natural ed:Children are naturally good and are entitled to an Children are naturally good and are entitled to an

education the emphasizes freedom and happinesseducation the emphasizes freedom and happinessPeople develop in stages, education must be People develop in stages, education must be

individualized since “every mind has its own form”individualized since “every mind has its own form”Children should be allowed to draw their own Children should be allowed to draw their own

conclusions. This is discovery education today.conclusions. This is discovery education today.

The General WillThe General Will The Social Contract, The Social Contract, Rousseau’s treatise on politics Rousseau’s treatise on politics

and government, is one of the most influential books and government, is one of the most influential books on political theory in European history.on political theory in European history.

Hobbes and Locke argued that individuals entered a Hobbes and Locke argued that individuals entered a social contract with their rulers. In contrast, Rousseau social contract with their rulers. In contrast, Rousseau argued that individuals entered into a social contract argued that individuals entered into a social contract with one another. This created a community or with one another. This created a community or organized civil society.organized civil society.

The sovereign power in a state does not lie in The sovereign power in a state does not lie in a ruler. Instead, it relies in the general will of a ruler. Instead, it relies in the general will of community as a whole. The general will or community as a whole. The general will or “public spirit” is defined as any action that is “public spirit” is defined as any action that is right and good for all.right and good for all.

Rulers are servants of the community. If they Rulers are servants of the community. If they fail to carry out the peoples will, they should fail to carry out the peoples will, they should be removed. be removed.

Rousseau’s concept of the general will and Rousseau’s concept of the general will and the sovereignty of the people influenced the sovereignty of the people influenced leaders of both the French and American leaders of both the French and American revolutions. It is also important to note that revolutions. It is also important to note that twentieth-century dictators justified their rule twentieth-century dictators justified their rule by claiming to embody their nations general by claiming to embody their nations general will.will.

Rousseau and the EnlightenmentRousseau and the EnlightenmentLike other philosophes, Rousseau was Like other philosophes, Rousseau was

committed to defending individual freedom committed to defending individual freedom and changing the existing social order.and changing the existing social order.

However, he distrusted reason and science. However, he distrusted reason and science. He trusted emotions and spontaneous feeling He trusted emotions and spontaneous feeling more than cold logic. As a result, he more than cold logic. As a result, he foreshadowed the romantic reaction to the foreshadowed the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment.Enlightenment.

Test Tip:Test Tip:Textbooks contain long lists devoted to Textbooks contain long lists devoted to

discussing the contributions of leading discussing the contributions of leading philosophes. Voltaire and Rousseau philosophes. Voltaire and Rousseau generate by far the most questions. Be sure generate by far the most questions. Be sure you know that Voltaire supported religious you know that Voltaire supported religious toleration and opposed superstition and toleration and opposed superstition and ignorance. Test items on Rousseau stress his ignorance. Test items on Rousseau stress his concept of the general will and his views of concept of the general will and his views of education as presented in the novel education as presented in the novel EmileEmile

The New EconomicsThe New EconomicsThe French PhysiocratsThe French Physiocrats

French economic reformers called physiocrats French economic reformers called physiocrats were first to question mercantilist principleswere first to question mercantilist principles

Led by Francois Quesnay, the physiocrats Led by Francois Quesnay, the physiocrats argued that economic activities should be argued that economic activities should be freed from artificial restrictions. Governments freed from artificial restrictions. Governments should follow a laissez-faire policy of should follow a laissez-faire policy of noninterference with the economynoninterference with the economy

Adam Smith 1723-1790Adam Smith 1723-1790Was the most influential advocate of of Was the most influential advocate of of

laissez-faire economicslaissez-faire economicsLike Newton, he combined the thought of his Like Newton, he combined the thought of his

predecessors into a single system based predecessors into a single system based upon the study and application of natural upon the study and application of natural laws.laws.

Published in 1776, Published in 1776, The wealth of NationsThe wealth of Nations is a is a land mark book that gave birth to classical land mark book that gave birth to classical economic thought.economic thought.

Key Ideas in Key Ideas in The wealth of NationsThe wealth of NationsGovernments must not interfere with the free Governments must not interfere with the free

functioning of marketsfunctioning of marketsGovernments should limit their role to Governments should limit their role to

defending the state against foreign invasion, defending the state against foreign invasion, protecting property and enforcing contractsprotecting property and enforcing contracts

In a free market, the economic laws of supply In a free market, the economic laws of supply and demand will create a self-regulating and demand will create a self-regulating economic systemeconomic system

Regulations such as tariffs hinder free trade Regulations such as tariffs hinder free trade and should be abolished.and should be abolished.

Self interest and the invisible hand, Smith Self interest and the invisible hand, Smith maintained that every individual is motivated maintained that every individual is motivated by self-interest.by self-interest.

Competition and self-interest are socially Competition and self-interest are socially beneficial: Self-interest drives people to action beneficial: Self-interest drives people to action and the Invisible hand of competition acts as and the Invisible hand of competition acts as an automatic regulator so that the market will an automatic regulator so that the market will generate wealth for a nation.generate wealth for a nation.

Making comparisons: The economic policies Making comparisons: The economic policies of Jean Baptiste Colbert and Adam Smithof Jean Baptiste Colbert and Adam Smith

ColbertColbert Believed that mercantilist policies offered the best Believed that mercantilist policies offered the best

way to increase French power and wealthway to increase French power and wealth Followed economic policies designed to give France a Followed economic policies designed to give France a

favorable balance of trade. Colbert promoted favorable balance of trade. Colbert promoted Caribbean sugar plantations, established slaving Caribbean sugar plantations, established slaving stations in Africa, and encouraged colonies in Canada stations in Africa, and encouraged colonies in Canada ayeaye

Subsidized French industry by granting monopolies Subsidized French industry by granting monopolies and enforcing high tariffsand enforcing high tariffs

Adam SmithAdam SmithUrged governments to abandon regulatory Urged governments to abandon regulatory

policies such as tariffs, trading monopolies policies such as tariffs, trading monopolies and navigation actsand navigation acts

Advocated a policy of free trade and minimal Advocated a policy of free trade and minimal government interference in the economygovernment interference in the economy

Believed that self-interested individuals Believed that self-interested individuals working in a free market would increase working in a free market would increase production and wealthproduction and wealth