THE PHILOSOPHY OFPUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

A HOLISTIC APPROACH

JSH Gildenhuys

SUB Hamburg

A/530458

AN INTRODUCTION FOR UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS

SUN PRESS

CONTENTS

PREFACE l

PARTI

INTRODUCTION 7

The logic of knowledge progression 10The holistic principle 10The normative principle 14The generic principle 15A multidisciplinary approach 15Possible examination questions 17

Chapter One: THE PUBLIC 19

INTRODUCTION 19

THE INDIVIDUAL 20

Citizenship 20

Refugees and asylum seekers 21

INDIVIDUALISM 21

COMMUNITIES 22

COMMUNALISM 2 5

AFRICAN COMMUNALISM 28

INTEREST GROUPS 31

The nature of the 'public interest' 32POLITICAL PARTIES 33

Political parties in democracies 34Two-party systems 34Multiparty systems 35One-party dictatorships 35

OTHER INTEREST GROUPS 37

ECONOMIC ORGANISATIONS 38Trade and labour unions 39Professional Institutes 42

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL ORGANISATIONS 43Religious and language organisations 44Private sport organisations 45Private welfare organisations 46

NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS 46The four types of NGOs 47The operational strategies of NGOs 48Some serious questions about NGOs 50

SUMMARY 51

Possible examination questions 55

Chapter Two: PUBLIC NEEDS 57

INTRODUCTION 57

SOCIAL NEEDS 60

Need for education and training 60Need for health care 61Need for leisure, relaxation and sport 62Cultural needs 64Language needs 65Religious needs 66The need for art 68

POLITICAL NEEDS 69

ECONOMIC NEEDS 71Household needs 71Needs of the primary production industry 72Needs of the manufacturing industry 72Needs for the construction and building industry 72Needs of the wholesale and retail business 72Needs of the services industry 73The general need for economic infrastructure 73The need for government protection 74

SECURITY AND SAFETY NEEDS 74

SUMMARY 75Possible examination questions 78

Chapter Three: PUBLIC VALUE SYSTEMS 81.

INTRODUCTION 81

CONSTITUTIONAL PRINCIPLES 83

The rule of law 83Separation of constitutional powers 84Constitutional checks and balances 85Civil rights 86

Civil rights as ends 86Civil rights as means 87The human source of values 87The primacy of the individual 87The best test of truth 88Individual human rights 88Natural and positive human rights 88Rights and obligations 89

Equity and justice 89

Equality and inequality 91Natural inequality 91Moral or political inequality 92

Civil liberties 93Civil obligations and civil obedience 93

PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATIVE LAW 94

Authority and power 94Devolution of authority and autonomy 95Delegation of functional and decision making authority 96The purpose of delegation 96The need for delegation 96The meaning of delegation 97The alter ego rule 99The rule delegatus non potest delegare 99Types of delegation 99The mandate or command 100The ministerium 100Deconcentration 100Decentralisation 100Distinction between deconcentration and decentralisation 102

ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES 102Economic freedom 103Private ownership of property 103Free production process 104Privatisation, deregulation and small business 104Less licensing 104International economics 105

POLITICAL PRINCIPLES 105Direct participation and the will of the people 105Participation through representation 106Responsibility and accountability of political representatives 106Government close to the people 106Open-system approach 106Global politics 107

SOCIAL PRINCIPLES 107Non-racialism and non-sexism 107Nationalism and solidarity 108Inclusiveness 108Civic pride, civic responsibility and civic obedience 109

PUBLIC MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES 109

Organisational development 109Open-systems approach 110Value-oriented public management 110

Responsiveness 110

Public participation in decision-making 111Free choice of public services 111Responsibility for programme effectiveness 111Social equity 111

Corporate management 112Economy, efficiency, and effectiveness 112Flexibility and management of change 113Sustainability and consistency 113Accountability, responsibility, and transparency 113

SUMMARY 113Possible examination questions 118

Chapter Four: G O V E R N M E N T ORGANISATIONS 121

INTRODUCTION 121

THE JUDICIAL AUTHORITY 122

Origin and nature of justice 122The naturalistic approach 122The positivistic approach 123

THE LAW 123Sources of law 123

Informal sources of law 123Formal sources of law 124

Constitutions 124Statutes 125Regulations and proclamations 125Judicial precedents 125Treaties and accords 125Codification 126

Types of law 126Civil and criminal law 126Domestic and international law 126

Approaches to the application of law 127Roman-Germanic legal culture 127Common law legal culture 127Natural legal culture 127Socialist legal culture 128

THE JUDICIARY 128

Appointment and dismissal of judges 128Nomination of judges 128Election of judges 129

Functions of the judiciary 130Applying the law 130Revision of legislation 130Commissions of inquiry 131

Independence of the judiciary 131

THE LEGISLATURE 132

Structure of the legislature 133The bicameral system 133The unicameral system 134

Representation 135Geographical representation 135Proportional representation 136The Hare system 136The list system 137The party list 137Controversy over the proportional system 137Functional representation 139

Representatives 139Qualifications 140Disqualifications 140Role of elected representatives 140

Power-authority relationship between voters and the legislature 141Meaning of power 141Meaning of authority 141Voters and the legislature 141Organised interest groups and the legislature 142

Role of the legislature 143

THE EXECUTIVE AUTHORITY 145

Nature and function of the modern executive authority 145Types of executive leadership 146

Inheritance 146Elected heads of state 147Indirect election 147Nominated heads of state 147

The structure and organisation of the executive authority 148Parliamentary or cabinet system of executive authority 148Advantages of the cabinet system 150Disadvantages of the cabinet system 150The extra-parliamentary system of executive authority 151The basic characteristics of the presidential system 151Advantages of the presidential system 152Disadvantages of the presidential system 152

THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION 153

Portfolios and government departments 154The public service 154Public administration in civic cultures 154

Merit system in the public service 155The spoils system in the public service 155Public administration in classic cultures (bureaucracy) 156

PARASTATALS 156Creation of parastatals 157

Government investment in the economy 157Government as a political agent 158Government as a political-economic agent 158Government as economic entrepreneur 158

Classification of parastatals 159Public business and industrial enterprises 159Regulatory bodies 161Benefactor agencies 162Advisory and investigating organisations 162Judicial bodies 163Localised and co-ordinating government bodies 163Educational and research bodies 163

Founding parastatals 163The founding act 164The appointment of a managing body 164Provision of capital 164

Control of parastatals 165

SUMMARY 166

Possible examination questions 169

Chapter Five: THE MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS 173

INTRODUCTION 173

DECISION MAKING 174

The decision making process 174Personal qualities for decision making 176Decision making power 177

Preconditions for successful delegation of decision making power 177Principles for delegation of decision making power 179

What should be delegated? 180The high or legislative level 181The middle or executive level 181The lower or administrative level 181

Control over delegated decision making power 183

POLICY MAKING 186Policy analysis 187Policy levels 188

Political party level 188The legislative level 188The executive level 189The administrative level 189

The policy making process 190Initiation phase 190

Research and analysis phase 191The policy formulation phase 193The policy approval phase 193The implementation phase 194

PROGRAMMING 194

ORGANISING 197Organising principles 198Process of structuring the organisation 199Delegation of operational authority 200

CO-ORDINATING 201The need for co-ordination 202Horizontal co-ordination 202

The macro-level 202The micro-level 203

Vertical co-ordination 203

COMMUNICATION 204Formal channels of communication 204The internal communication process 204Barriers to effective communication 205Importance of feedback 206Informal communication - the grapevine 207Positive informal communication 208Communication methods 208

Verbal communication 208Written commumcation 208Audio-visual communication 209

Public communication 209First level of contact 210Second level of contact 210

CONTROL 210The purpose of control 211The framework for control 212The control process 213The need for a comprehensive control system 216

Input control 216Output control 216

PLANNING 217

Approaches to planning 219Statist approach to planning 220Democratic approach to planning 220Planning styles 220

The imperative style 220The indicative style 221

The planning process 221

EXERTING LEADERSHIP 222Requirements for constructive leadership 223

The leader 223The leadership team 228The organisational factors affecting leadership 229

Methodology of leadership 231Leadership styles 231

SUMMARY 233

Possible examination questions 238

PART II

Chapter Six: PUBLIC RESOURCES MANAGEMENT 243

INTRODUCTION 243FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 244

The need for money 244Authority to impose tax and allocate funds 244Imposition of tax 245Government revenue 246Tax rates 248Characteristics of taxation 248Ethics and taxation 249

Horizontal equity 250Vertical equity 250Ability-to-pay principle 250The benefit-received principle 251

Income taxation 251Defining income 252

The Haig-Simons definition 252The production-flow concept 253Taxable net income 253Deductions 253Exemptions 254

Goals of income taxation 255Personal income tax 256Corporate income tax 256Tax base of corporate taxation 257Classical system 257Imputation system 258Two-rate system 258Integrated system 258Wealth taxation 258Goals of wealth taxation 259Property tax 260Consumption taxation 262

User charges and consumer tariffs 264Government expenditure 264Government budgets 265Features of a budget 266Functions of a public budget 268

The budget as a policy statement 269Redistribution-of-wealth function 270Economic regulation function 273The budget as an operating programme 276The budget as a source of information 279The budget as an integrating and co-ordinating instrument 280The budget as a control instrument 281

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT 283Equal employment opportunity and affirmative action 283Ethics and personnel management 286The meaning of ethics 286

Metaethics 287Normative ethics 287Religious ethics 287Social ethics 287Personal ethics 288Professional ethics 288

What ethics is not about 288The importance of ethics to public administrators 290Professionalism 292Requirements and characteristics of professionalism 293

Requirements 293Characteristics 293

Tenets of professionalism 294Roles of public administrators 295Role of politics in public administration 295Responsibility of public administrators 295

The value base of public administration 296Professional administration and efficiency 296Professional administration and democracy 297

Public service systems and models 297Criteria for an acceptable public service 297Alternative systems and models 298

The autocratic system 299The democratic system 299The spoils system 299British example 299American example 299American reforms 300The merit system 301The closed career system 301

The open competitive system 302Public management models 301

Political activist model 302Non-militant political activists 303Militant political activists 303The scientific bureaucratic model 304Professional public manager model 305

Leading and motivating personnel 306Motivation 307Goal achievement 307Some early motivation theories 308

Maslow's needs hierarchy theory 308McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y 308McClelland's achievement, affiliations and power motives 309Herzberg's motivation hygiene theory 310Vroom' s expectancy theory 311

Rational motivation 313

INFORMATION MANAGEMENT 314The need for information 314Social information 314Political information 315Economic information 316Safety and security information 319Collecting information 320Information processing and interpretation 321

INVENTORY MANAGEMENT 322

Procurement of stock 322Centralised purchasing 323Joint purchasing 324Tenders and tender procedures 325Calling for tenders and contracting 325Opening and awarding of tenders 326Acquisition and storage of stock 327Issuing of stock 327Record keeping and control 328Stocktaking 328

MANAGEMENT OF ACCOMMODATION 329

Policy choice for providing accommodation 329Financing 329Maintenance and risk management 330Responsible organisation 330Control of government property 330

SUMMARY 331Possible examination questions 336

Chapter Seven: GOVERNMENT FUNCTIONS 341

INTRODUCTION 341

The nature of government functions 342Types of government functions 343

Line functions 343Order and protection functions ' 343Social welfare functions 344Economic welfare functions 345

Staff functions 346Financial function 346Personnel function 347Office and secretarial function 347Legal advisory function 347Organisation and work-study function 347Procurement function 347Accounting and auditing function 347

SUMMARY 348Possible examination questions 349

Chapter Eight: PUBLIC SERVICES 350

INTRODUCTION 350Nature of public services 350Collective services 351Particular services 352Quasi-collective services 352

NATIONALISATION VERSUS PRIVATISATION 354

Nationalisation 354Arguments in favour of nationalisation 355

Monopoly control 355Economic planning and development 355Power and influence 356Defence and military strategy 356Efficiency and effectiveness 357

Arguments against nationalisation 357Anti-government monopoly 357Centralisation 357Inefficiency and ineffectiveness 358Interfering with private rights 358

Privatisation 359Strategy for privatisation 359

Role of government in a free-market system 360Services suitable for privatisation 360Ways and means of privatisation 361

Denationalisation 361Depoliticising 362

Withdrawal or suspension 362Outsourcing 362Deregulation 362

Obstacles in the way of privatisation 363

SUMMARY 364

Possible examination questions 367

Chapter Nine: GOVERNMENT GOALS AND OBJECTTVES 369

INTRODUCTION 369

ORIGINAL GOALS 370

The origin and meaning of laissez-faire 370Laissez-faire as an ideology 371Goals of the laissez-faire system 371

SOCIAL WELFARE GOALS 372Meaning of socialism 372Socialism as an ideology 372Social welfare state 374Meaning of the social welfare state 374Social welfare state as an ideology 375Objectives of the social welfare state 376

ECONOMIC WELFARE GOALS 377Economic welfare state 378Meaning of the economic welfare state 379Economic welfare state as an ideology 379Objectives of the economic welfare state 380

GOALS OF THE MODERN CIVILISED STATE 381

A good quality of life for all 383

SUMMARY 383

Possible examination questions 385

Chapter Ten: INDIVIDUAL SATISFACTION AND FEEDBACK 387

INTRODUCTION 387Satisfaction of individual needs 387Serving the individual 387Service-delivery principles 389

Consultation 389Service standards 390Access 390Courtesy 390Information 390Correcting mistakes and redressing failures 391

The feedback loop 391Ways and problems of communicating dissatisfaction 391

Oral complaints 391Written complaints 392Letters to the news media 392Lodging complaints through political representatives 392Lodging complaints through interest groups or NGOs 393Complaints to an ombudsman 393Approaching the courts 393

The need for proactive administration 394

SUMMARY 394

Possible examination questions 396

EPILOGUE 397

BIBLIOGRAPHY 399

INDEX 408

FIGURESFigure 1: The holistic approach 12Figure 2: The holistic approach 16Figure 3: Needs hierarchy for developing societies 58Figure 4: Needs hierarchy for affluent societies 59Figure 5: The administrative or lower level 183Figure 6: The political-economic spectrum 219Figure 7: Classification of property 261Figure 8: The elements of job analysis 284