the motives young malaysians assign for participating in tennis

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The Motives Young MalaysiansAssign for Participating inTennisKwame Ampofo‐Boateng a , Sarina Mohd. Yusof a ,

Mohamad Rahizam Abd. Rahim a & Anuar Suun ba Shah Alam Campus , University TechnologyMARA , Malaysia E-mail:b Shah Alam Campus , University TechnologyMARA , MalaysiaPublished online: 19 Sep 2011.

To cite this article: Kwame Ampofo‐Boateng , Sarina Mohd. Yusof , MohamadRahizam Abd. Rahim & Anuar Suun (2007) The Motives Young Malaysians Assignfor Participating in Tennis, Annals of Leisure Research, 10:2, 196-214, DOI:10.1080/11745398.2007.9686761

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The Motives Young MalaysiansAssign for Participating in Tennis

Kwame Ampofo-Boateng, Sarina Mohd. Yusof, MohamadRahizam Abd. Rahim & Anuar Suun, University TechnologyMARA, Shah Alam Campus, Malaysia

Email: [email protected] or [email protected]

ABSTRACT • One of the most important issues confronting sport psychologistsis to understand the motives that young people assign for participating in sports(Gill, 2000). However, most of the existing research has concentrated onmotives for participation in sport in general (Gill, 2000), rather than in specificsports (Kolt & Capaldi, 2001). The present research attempts to help fill the gapin knowledge regarding motives for specific sports, by investigating the motivesthat young Malaysians gave for participating in the sports of tennis. The aims ofthe present study were twofold: first, to investigate the main reasons that youngMalaysians assign for their participation in tennis; and second, to investigate theinfluence of demographic variables such as gender, age and level of competitionon the motives. The sample comprised of 300 young Malaysian tennis playerswho were selected by means of convenience sampling. A modified version ofGill, Gross and Huddleston’s (1983) Participation Motives Questionnaire(PMQ) was used as the research instrument, and each participant completed thePMQ questionnaire. The data collected was collated and statistically analysedusing SPSS. Principal component analysis of the data revealed seven motives fortaking part in tennis: a) Achievement & Status, b) Skills & Fitness, c)Challenge, Fun & Exercise, d) Teamwork, e) Travel & Tension Release, f) Action& Excitement, and g) Affiliation. Overall, the results also showed the influenceof such demographic variables as gender, age and the level of competition onmotives for participating in tennis. The implications of the results as they relateto the strategies needed to encourage young Malaysians to participate in tennisare discussed, and suggestions are offered for future research.

Key words: motivations, tennis, participation, principal components analysis,Malyasia

196 • THE MOTIVES YOUNG MALAYSIANS ASSIGN FOR PARTICIPATING IN TENNIS

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IntroductionThe importance of children’s participation in sportOne of the most critical areas of youth sport research (Standage, Duda, &Ntoumanis, 2005) is to determine the main reasons that motivate childrenaged from eight to 19 years (also referred to synonymously as youngsters,young people, youth and young Malaysians) participate in sport(Buonamano, Cei, & Mussino, 1995). This is because children’s participationin sport, both in and out of school, is reputed to benefit them physically(Ganley & Sherman, 2000; Standage et al., 2005), psychologically (Standageet al., 2005), and emotionally (Standage et al., 2005; Steptoe & Butler, 1996).Moreover, if participation is pursued continuously from childhood intoadulthood, it can generally help to decrease the risk of disease (Standage etal., 2005), and heart disease in particular (Leeder, 2004). Regular participa-tion in sport and physical activity also contributes to the overall health andwell-being of young people (Wang, Chatzisarantis, Spray, & Biddle, 2002).Therefore it is important to understand the motives that young people haveto encourage them to participate in sport (Kolt & Capaldi, 2001).Furthermore, describing the main reasons that young people have for beingphysically active through sport is a useful starting point for understandingtheir motivation for participation in sport (Biddle, Sallis, & Cavill, 1998).

The main drawback to previous motivational research studies with youngpeople is that they have been mainly atheoretical (Weiss & Chaumeton,1992), and this has limited their contribution to the literature. More recently,a theoretical approach has gained support (Brustad, 1993). These theoreticalstudies have contributed to an understanding of the mechanisms of children’smotivation, and the environmental, social and demographic factors thatinfluence their participation and/or withdrawal from sport (Biddle et al.,1998; Weiss, 1993).

The motives for participation of children in sportResearch has found that a number of motives exist for children’s participationin sport and these include fun, social affiliation and skill development(Biddle et al., 1998). Gill et al. (1983) also assessed the major participationmotives through the use of a Participation Motivation Questionnaire (PMQ).A factor analytic assessment of the PMQ reveals that the factors of achieve-ment/status, team atmosphere, fitness, energy release, skill development,friendship and fun are basic motives for participation in sport (Gill et al.,1983). While motives research has generally contributed to the reasonsassigned by children for taking part in sport (Standage et al., 2005), theextant research has concentrated mostly on sport in general and not on

THE MOTIVES YOUNG MALAYSIANS ASSIGN FOR PARTICIPATING IN TENNIS • 197

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specific sports (Gill et al., 1983; Kolt & Capaldi, 2001; Wang & Wiese-Bjornstal, 1997). The present study aims at reversing this trend by examiningthe motives that young Malaysians gave for participating in a specific sport,namely tennis.

Overall, relatively few studies have investigated the participation motivesof children in specific sports (Kolt & Capaldi, 2001). Some notable excep-tions include gymnastics (Kirkby, Kolt, & Liu, 1999), speed skating (Bakker,De Konig, Van Ingen Schenau, & De Groot, 1993), and swimming (Brodkin,& Weiss, 1990; Woolger & Power, 2000). In regard to participation ingymnastics, it has been found that Australian and Chinese youth who areaged from eight to 15 years, have different motives for participation.Australian gymnasts rated having fun and liking the rewards as more impor-tant than did Chinese respondents. Chinese athletes allocated higher ratingsto being part of a club, having a good body, being interested in winning, andwanting to be popular as their main motives for participation. Overall, bothAustralians and Chinese assigned higher values to the reasons associatedwith improving skills, being fit and having exercise (Kirkby et al., 1999).Ryan, Frederick, Lepes, Rubio and Sheldon (1997) studied participationmotives for two specific sports of aerobics and taekwondo, and the resultsshowed that for taekwondo, the participants reported higher scores forenjoyment and competence and lower for body-related motives than thosewho participated in aerobics. Therefore, it is clear from the above that anassessment of motives for participation in specific sports will enhance ourunderstanding of why children take part in them. Further, it will providebackground information that might serve as a sine qua non for the devising ofstrategies to promote their participation in sport.

A similar study to the present one was conducted in Australia, whichinvestigated young Australian tennis players (aged between 10 and 15 years)motives for participation in tennis (Kolt & Capaldi, 2001). Using the PMQas its research instrument, the study identified the following four participa-tion motives: affiliation, achievement and status, fitness and challenge, andenergy release as the main motives for participation in tennis by youngAustralians (Kolt & Capaldi, 2001). The study also found that age andgender influenced their motives for participation in tennis (Kolt & Capaldi,2001).

Sports participation motives in MalaysiaOverall, there has been a dearth of research on participation motives for sportin Malaysia. Notable exceptions are participation motives for sports ingeneral (Rahim, 1985; Sim, 1994). However, a drawback for these studies is


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that they used student-athletes and not children, limiting their generalisationto children. An exception is the study of Heng (2001), who investigatedyoung Malaysians’ motives for participation in the specific sports of hockey.Heng (2001) assessed the participation motives of Malaysian hockey players’aged between13 and 18 years, using the PMQ (Gill et al., 1983). The studyrevealed that skill development, social and achievement motives were themain motives for participation (Heng, 2001). Furthermore, both boys andgirls cited skill improvement, team spirit and physical fitness as the mainmotives for participation (Heng, 2001). Heng (2001) also found that maleplayers cited the skill development motive as more important than did femaleplayers. Older athletes (16 to 18 years) cited the three motives of energy,friendship and fun as more important than for younger athletes (13 to 15years) (Heng, 2001).

Significance of the studyThis present study examines Malaysian children’s participation in the sportof tennis. Tennis was targeted in this investigation as it is gradually gainingin popularity among youth in Malaysia, as the rapid economic advancementshave made it possible for many Malaysians to gain access to this hitherto elit-ist sports (Hajimolkan, 2006). Furthermore, tennis in Malaysia has neverattracted any attention in the past and research endeavour as emphasised themore illustrious sports of badminton, bowling, hockey, squash and football(Hajimolkan, 2006).

Specifically, the present study was conducted for several reasons. Firstly,there has been an overall lack of research concerning the participationmotives for young Malaysians in specific sports, such as tennis. Secondly, thehealth benefits associated with participation in sport require an understand-ing of young people’s motives for involvement in physical activity(Morgantown, 2001), that could be used in future planning, promoting andmaintaining their participation in sport (Ashford, Biddle, & Goudas, 1993).Thirdly, it was considered important to study the influence of such demo-graphic variables as gender, age and level of competition on the motives forparticipation in tennis as they have been found to influence motives for sportparticipation (Kolt & Capaldi, 2001; Vincent, 2002).

Aims of the studyThe aims of the present study were twofold: firstly, it investigated the reasonsthat young Malaysians assign for their participation in sport; and secondly, itexamined the influence of such demographic variables as gender, age andlevel of competition on motives for participation.


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MethodsSample and samplingThe sample consisted of 300 young Malaysian tennis players, aged between8 and 19 years. All participants were recruited on the basis of convenience,sampling from among youth tennis players who competed in a tennis compe-tition organised by the Malaysia Lawn Tennis Association. Parental consentfor the children’s participation in the study was solicited through a letter thatexplained the aims of the research and asked for their written consent. Allparents provided active consent for their children’s participation in the study.

Test instrumentAll the 300 participants completed the PMQ (Gill et al., 1983) to investigatetheir motives for participating in tennis. The PMQ consists of 30 itemsdesigned to assess possible motives people provide for participating in sport.Participants rated the importance they attached to each of the 30 motives ona three-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = not at all important, to 3 =very important. The original purpose of the PMQ was to investigate motivesfor sport participation in general, and as a result the present study was in linewith the suggestions made by Kolt and Capaldi (2001), while several of theitems were modified to make them more appropriate for investigatingmotives for participation in tennis. Minor modifications were made to thewording of some of the items without changing the meaning and substanceof the items to relate them specifically to the sport of tennis. An example ofa modification of an item is shown in the item ‘My parents or close friendswant me to play’ which was changed to ‘My parents or close friends want meto play tennis’. The validity and reliability of PMQ has been established by itsuse to investigate motives in sport in general with different samples in differ-ent cultures (Kolt & Capaldi, 2001), but has had limited application tospecific sports (Kolt & Capaldi, 2001).

ProcedureThe modified PMQ was distributed to the 300 hundred participants during abreak in their tournament by the principal investigator and four researchassistants who collected the completed questionnaires. Their presenceallowed them to explain and clarify any misunderstandings for the partici-pants.

Data analysisAn analysis of the results examining the influence of demographic variableson young Malaysians’ motives for participation in tennis was based on t-tests,


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multivariate analysis, with follow-up univariate comparisons as appropriate(Petrick, Backman, Bixler, & Norman, 2001).

ResultsThe demographic profile of the sampleThe participants’ demographic information is presented in Table 1. It showsthat majority of the respondents were males (67.3%), 15-year-olds and above(44.7%), and Malays (58.3%). Table 1 also shows that the majority of therespondents’ parents earned more than RM2000 a month (59%). Mostrespondents were encouraged by their parents (74.7%) to play tennis andconsidered their skill level in tennis as between moderate (59.3%) and good(32%) (see Table 1). As presented in Table 1, almost half of the sample hadcompeted in tennis at the state level in Malaysia (44%).

Principal component analysis of the PMQThe responses to the questionnaires from the 300 respondents were collatedand analysed using SPSS. Principal component factor analysis was conducted


Gender Age Ethnic Background

Male 67.3 % 9 years old & below

12.3 % Malays 58.3 %

Female 32.7 % 10 – 14 years old 43.0 % Chinese 26.3 %15 years old & above

44.7 % Indians 9.7 %

Others 5.7%

Parental Income Encouragement to participate

Educational Level

RM1000 & below 18.3 % Parents 74.7 % Primary 25.7 %RM1001 – RM2000 22.7 % Siblings 9.0 % Secondary 72.3 %RM2001 – RM3000 24.1 % Friends 8.0 % University 2.0 %RM3001 & above 34.9 % Others 8.3 %

Skill Level Level of competition

Very Good 6.0 % District 17.0 %Good 32.0 % State 44.0 %Moderate 59.3 % National 39.0 %Poor 1.7 %Very Poor 1.0 %

Table 1. Demographic profile of the sample (% of the total sample)

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on the responses of the 300 participants to the 30 items contained in thePMQ (Gill et al., 1983). The results of the factor analysis are reported inTable 2. In line with common practice (Tabachnick & Fidell, 1996) onlythose components with an eigenvalues greater than 1.0 were included in theanalysis and subjected to oblique and orthogonal rotations. The eigenvaluesrepresent the relative proportion of variance accounted for by each factor.

The factors or motives for participationThe seven factors that emerged from the principal component analysis aredefined as below and are presented in Table 2.

1. Achievement & Status (7 items)2. Skills & Fitness (4 items) 3. Challenge, Fun & Exercise (3 items) 4. Teamwork (3 items) 5. Travel & Tension Release (3 items) 6. Action & Excitement (3 items) 7. Affiliation (3 items)

Overall, the participants’ ratings for the seven motive-factors from highest tothe lowest were as follows,

• Travel & Tension Release — 1.90 • Affiliation — 1.76• Achievement & Status — 1.72• Action & Excitement — 1.47• Challenge, Fun & Exercise — 1.44• Building Teamwork — 1.39• Skills & Fitness — 1.33.

The seven factors or motives are described below:

Factor 1: Achievement & Status (7 items) — (mean score = 1.72), suggest-ing that participation in tennis would help a participant attain achievementand status. All the items under Factor 1 had the words reward, recognitionand popularity factors in them, confirming the achievement and statusattainment dimension.

Factor 2: Skills & Fitness (4 items) — (mean score = 1.33), suggesting thatparticipation in tennis helped a participant to learn new skills and also servesas a means to be physically fit and healthy.


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Factor 3: Challenge, Fun & Exercise (3 items) — (mean score = 1.44),suggesting that they participated in tennis because they liked the challenge,fun and opportunity for exercise involved in participation.

Factor 4: Building Teamwork (3 items) — (mean score = 1.39), reflectedthose items that indicated that participation in tennis helped to developteamwork.

Factor 5: Travel & Tension Release (3 items) — (mean score = 1.90),suggesting that they participated in tennis because of the enjoyment theyreceived from travel, to get out of the house, and to release tension.

Factor 6: Action & Excitement (3 items) — (mean score = 1.47), incorpo-rated those items that indicated that the quest for action and excitement, aswell as from having something to do, was a motive for participation in tennis.

Factor 7: Affiliation (3 items) — (mean score = 1.76), reflecting that a reasonfor participation in tennis was due to their eagerness to make current andnew friends, and to act on the encouragement they received from parents andclose friends to play tennis.

Table 2 presents the mean scores, standard deviations and Cronbach’s alphacoefficients for each factor or motive assigned by young Malaysians forparticipation in tennis. Internal consistency or reliability for each factor, asmeasured by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, was satisfactory, as the alphavalues ranged from .50 to .75.

Gender differences in motives for participation in tennisamong young MalaysiansTable 3 shows the observed means and standard deviations by gender of theseven motives for participation in tennis. An independent sample t-test wasused to determine whether gender differences existed in the individual sub-scales. The analyses showed no significant effect on six of the subscales andthe respondents’ gender, while a significant difference was found on theBuilding Teamwork subscale t(298) = 1.83, p < 0.05 with males (mean =1.44) selecting this as their main motive for taking part in tennis comparedto females (mean = 1.30).


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1 2 3 4 5 6 7

I want to be popular .77I want to get rid of energy .68I want to gain status or recognition .67

I like to feel important .63I like the coaches or instructors .48I like to win .45I like the rewards .44I want to go to a higher level .75I want to learn new skills .66I like to do something I’m good at .59I want to be physically �t .47I like the challenge .72I like to have fun .68I like to get exercise .54I like the team spirit .76I like the teamwork .59I like being in a team .50I like to travel .65I like to get out of the house .65I want to release tension .56I like the action .74I like to have something to do .62I like the excitement .60I want to be with my friends .60I like to meet new friends .58My parents or close friends want me to play tennis .44

Initial Eigenvalues 6.50 2.34 1.77 1.45 1.24 1.12 1.01% of Variance 21.6 7.81 5.89 4.84 4.14 3.95 3.73Cumulative % of Variance 21.66 29.47 35.36 40.20 44.34 48.29 52.02Mean 1.72 1.33 1.44 1.39 1.90 1.47 1.76Alpha .75 .61 .60 .63 .50 .59 .54

Table 2. Principal component analysis of the motives for participation in tennisamong young Malaysian

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Age differences in motives for participation in tennis amongyoung Malaysians For the purpose of comparing tennis participation motives relating to age,the 300 sample population was divided into three age groups comprising 9years and below (n = 37, young children), 10 to 14 years (n = 129, older chil-dren), and 15 years old and above (n = 134, young adults). Table 4 shows theobserved means and standard deviations by age of the seven motives forparticipation in tennis. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to deter-mine whether age differences existed between the motives assigned by youngMalaysians for participating in tennis. Scheffe’s post-hoc test was alsoconducted to determine if the differences were significant by age. It wasobserved that significant effects emerged in five of the seven subscales.

In regard to the Achievement & Status subscale, significant age differ-ences were observed (F(2, 296) = 3.85, p < 0.025). A post-hoc Scheffe testindicated that respondents’ who were aged 10 to 14 years selected this motiveas their main motive for participating in tennis compared to those aged nineyears and younger (p < 0.05); and those aged 15 years and older (p < 0.05).With regard to the Skills & Fitness motive, significant age effects were alsoobserved (F(2, 296) = 4.19, p < 0.025), with differences observed betweenrespondents aged 9 years and younger, and the other two age groups of 10 to14 years and 15 years and older (see Table 4). This was confirmed by a post-hoc Scheffe test of (p < 0.05) for both comparisons.


Male (n=202) Female (n=98)

Factor 1—Achievement & Statust(298) = 0.67, ns 1.73 (0.74) 1.69 (0.73)

Factor 2—Skills & Fitnesst(298) = 0.93, ns 1.34 (0.56) 1.30 (0.55)

Factor 3—Challenge, Fun & Exerciset(298) = 0.69, ns 1.45 (0.61) 1.40 (0.59)

Factor 4—Building Teamworkt(298) = 1.83, p < 0.05 1.44 (0.61) 1.30 (0.57)

Factor 5—Travel & Tension Releaset(298) = 0.90, ns 1.92 (0.79) 1.84 (0.77)

Factor 6—Action & Excitementt(298) = 0.62, ns 1.47 (0.62) 1.46 (0.63)

Factor 7—A�liationt(298) = 1.06, ns 1.78 (0.71) 1.73 (0.71)

Table 3. Observed means and standard deviations by gender on youngMalaysians motives for participation in tennis

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Significant age effects was also recorded with the Travel & TensionRelease motive (F(2, 296) = 3.70, p < 0.025). The post-hoc Scheffe testrevealed significant differences between respondents aged between 10 and 14years and those aged 15 years and older (p < 0.05), with the former choos-ing this motive more than the latter (see Table 4). Respondents agedbetween10 and 14 years also selected this motive more than respondentsaged 9 years and younger (p < 0.05). In regard to the Action & Excitementmotive, significant age effects were recorded (F(2, 296) = 3.62, p < 0.05).Post-hoc Scheffe tests indicated that 10-to-14-year-olds selected this motivefor participation in tennis more than those respondents aged 9 years andyounger (p < 0.05) and those aged 15 years and older (p < 0.05) (see Table4). The Affiliation motive, revealed significant differences by age (F(2, 296)= 4.10, p < 0.025). Post-hoc Scheffe test showed that respondents’ agedbetween10 and 14 years selected this motive for their participation in tennismore than respondents aged 9 years and below (p < 0.01). The differences inthe other two factors Challenge, Fun & Exercise, and Building Teamwork byage failed to reach statistical significance.


9 years & below (n=37)

10–14 (n=129)

15 years & above (n=134)

Factor 1—Achievement & StatusF(2, 296) = 3.85, p < 0.025

1.50 (0.68) 1.83 (0.76) 1.67 (0.71)

Factor 2—Skills & FitnessF(2, 296) = 4.19, p < 0.025

1.43 (0.66) 1.31 (0.53) 1.31 (0.55)

Factor 3—Challenge, Fun & TeamworkF(2, 296) = 1.01, ns

1.44 (0.59) 1.45 (0.61) 1.42 (0.60)

Factor 4—Building TeamworkF(2, 296) = 2.023.91, ns

1.42 (0.58) 1.40 (0.61) 1.38 (0.58)

Factor 5—Travel & Tension ReleaseF(2, 296)—3.70, p < 0.025

1.90 (0.77) 2.02 (0.77) 1.78 (0.78)

Factor 6—Action & ExcitementF(2, 296) = 3.62, p < 0.05

1.33 (0.56) 1.56 (0.67) 1.42 (0.59)

Factor 7—A�liationF(2, 296) = 4.10, p < 0.025

1.50 (0.69) 1.84 (0.72) 1.76 (0.68)

Table 4. Observed means and standard deviations (in parentheses) by age ofyoung Malaysians motives for participation in tennis

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Level of competition differences on motives for participationin tennis among young MalaysiansAn ANOVA was used to determine whether competition level differencesimpacted on respondents’ motives for participation in tennis. The ANOVAshowed that significant effect emerged on only one of the seven factor, theBuilding Teamwork motive F(2, 296) = 3.80, p < 0.025.

A post-hoc Scheffe test revealed that respondents who had competed atdistrict level selected the Building Teamwork motive for participation intennis more than respondents who had competed at state (p < 0.05) andnational levels (p < 0.05). The level of competition differences on the othersix motives was found to be insignificant (see Table 5).

Discussion and implications for practiceThe main purpose of this study was to examine the nature of motives thatinfluence young Malaysians’ participation in tennis. Further, it analysed theimpact of the demographic variables of age, gender, and level of competitiondifferences on their motives for participation.


District (n=51)

State (n=132)

National (n=117)

Factor 1—Achievement & StatusF(2, 296) = 2.26, ns

1.84 (0.75) 1.70 (0.74) 1.69 (0.72)

Factor 2—Skills & FitnessF(2, 296) = 2.02, ns

1.39 (0.56) 1.30 (0.55) 1.32 (0.57)

Factor 3—Challenge, Fun & Exercise F(2, 296) = 2.39, ns

1.42 (0.58) 1.45 (0.61) 1.43 (0.60)

Factor 4—Building TeamworkF(2, 296) = 3.80, p < 0.025

1.59 (0.61) 1.34 (0.59) 1.36 (0.58)

Factor 5—Travel & Tension ReleaseF(2, 296) = 1.93, ns

1.88 (0.77) 1.97 (0.80) 1.82 (0.76)

Factor 6—Action & Excitement F(2, 296) = 0.95, ns

1.46 (0.60) 1.50 (0.64) 1.43 (0.62)

Factor 7—A�liationF(2, 296) = 1.55, ns

1.75 (0.75) 1.78 (0.70) 1.75 (0.69)

Table 5. Observed means and standard deviations (in parentheses) by level oftennis competition and young Malaysians motives for participation in tennis

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The motives young Malaysians’ assign for participation intennisThe results of the principal component analysis indicated there were sevenmain motives that influenced young Malaysians participation in tennis:Achievement & Status; Skills & Fitness; Challenge, Fun & Exercise; BuildingTeamwork; Travel & Tension Release; Action & Excitement; and Affiliation.

These findings were comparable to those previously obtained fromstudents in the United States by Gill et al. (1983), which also used the PMQ,to identify eight equivalent motives of Achievement Status, Team Orientated,Fitness Orientated, Energy Release, Situational Factors, Skill Development,Friendships, and Fun, albeit for sport in general. The results of the presentstudy were also comparable to those found by other Malaysian studies. Forexample, Salman (1997) identified the major motives given by student-athletes for participation in sports, which included a sense of achievementand a desire to socialize.

A further study with University Putra Malaysia students by Sim (1994)found motives that included physical fitness, teamwork, learning new skills,and challenges; while Rahim (1985) found motives that also included social-isation. The only caveat that should be issued here concerning thecomparability of the results of the present study, and those of earlier ones, isthat the present study focused on motives assigned for participation in thespecific sport of tennis, while all the previous studies used student athletesand assessed general motives for participation in sport.

It must also be pointed out that identical research was conducted inAustralia, which investigated young Australians (aged 10 to 15 years) andtheir motives for participating in tennis (Kolt & Capaldi, 2001) Thesemotives were found to be comparable to the motives identified with thisstudy. The motives identified by the Australian study found four: Affiliation,Achievement and Status, Fitness and Challenge, and Energy Release (Kolt &Capaldi, 2001). In comparison, young people in Malaysia also shared thesefour motives as well as the motives of Affiliation, Achievement and Status,Challenge, Fun and Exercise, and Travel and Tension Release. The compara-tive findings between the two studies indicate that young people, irrespectiveof culture and national idiosyncrasies, participate in tennis for the followingmotives: Affiliation, Achievement and Status, Fitness and Challenge, andEnergy Release (Australian findings) and/or Affiliation, Achievement andStatus, Challenge, Fun and Exercise, and Travel and Tension Release(Malaysian findings).

Young people in both studies emphasised the importance of keeping fit,having fun, gaining exercise, and being challenged. This was significant,


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since it was also consistent with the findings obtained by Kolt et al. (1999).Based on these findings, it is suggested that programmes to encourage youthparticipation in tennis in Malaysia should focus on developing these motives,to enhance their level of enjoyment and increase participation rates.

As previously discussed, the motives for participation in tennis were simi-lar for both the Australian and Malaysian participants. Malaysian children,however, selected three further motives of Skills & Fitness, Action &Excitement, and Building Teamwork, which selection may have been influ-enced by their unique cultural background and/or tennis participationopportunities. For example, it may be that the Skills and Fitness motive waschosen because young Malaysians are requesting to take the opportunity toparticipate in tennis to acquire the requisite performance standards (or skills)in this once elitist sport, probably with the hope of excelling in it and/or turn-ing professional, and hence their additional emphasis on skill acquisition.

The Action & Excitement motive indicated in the present study wasabsent in the Australian study (Kolt & Capaldi, 2001). This may be becauseof the newness or novelty enjoyed by young Malaysian tennis players’ partic-ipating in tennis for the first time. This might also have contributed to theplayers seeing their participation as an opportunity to be active, and to theirexcitement at the chance to participate in this previously elite sport. This wasnot case in the Australian sample, where tennis is more easily accessible tothe public and consequently may not evoke the same sentiments for actionand excitement for Australian youth in comparison to youngsters inMalaysia.

The Building Teamwork motive that was identified in the present studymay be a reflection of Malaysia as a collective society where communal well-being overrides individual aspirations that are reminiscent of individualisticcultures in countries such as Australia. In Australia the achievement of indi-vidual goals and aspirations takes precedence over those of the group andcommunal welfare (Myers, 1996).

The present study found only one significant gender effect for theBuilding Teamwork motive, with males more than females choosing this astheir main motive for participating in tennis. This finding might be due tocultural and/or religious mores in Malaysia that promote building teamworkas part of the male experience while curtailing this in regard to female partic-ipation in tennis. This finding appears to fit gender differences inopportunities for participation in sport in Malaysia, and in particular amongthe Malays, the predominant race, who are also Muslims. While females inMalaysia are not prevented from taking part in sports, culture and/or reli-gious practices mean that they have to be properly dressed before doing so.


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For example, men are encouraged to wear long trousers in the presence ofwomen, but are not required to cover most of their bodies. However, Muslimwomen are encouraged to wear clothes that cover most parts of their bodies,and in particular, their hair, arms and legs in any sport, social, leisure andrecreation-related activities taking place in public (Coakley, 2003; Ismail &Azahan, 2000). It can be argued here that this has contributed to the genderdifferences in the Building Teamwork in tennis factor. This finding alsosuggests that tennis coaches who work with young boys should emphasiseteamwork that incorporates team spirit, cooperation and team togethernessas a means of motivating them to participate in tennis.

These results contrast with the findings from the Australian study wherefemales, like males in the present study participate for the motives of teamspirit and meeting new friends through participation (Kolt & Capaldi, 2001).Australian males, however, participate because they want to be noticed forwhat they do, to be popular and feel important, and they like to obtainextrinsic rewards (Kolt & Capaldi, 2001). This may be attributed to culturaldifferences between both countries that allow females in Australia to partic-ipate without restrictions, allow them to be motivated by team factors similarto males in Malaysia, who unlike their female counterparts have few culturalrestrictions.

The influence of age on young Malaysians’ motives for participation intennis found that for respondents who were aged between 10 and14 years,tennis participation was designed to satisfy the motives of Achievement &Status, Travel & Tension Release, Action and Excitement, and Affiliation,compared to the other age groups of 9 years and younger and 15 years oldand older. With young children aged 9 years and younger, their predominantmotive for participation in tennis was Skills & Fitness, and they selected thismotive more than the age groups of 10 to14 years and 15 years and older.

It is clear from these findings that youth between 10 and 14 years, partic-ipation in tennis is seen as a means of achievement and to enjoy the socialstatus that goes with it. Participation is also seen as a means of providingthem with the opportunity to travel and to release tension, as well as to enjoythe action and excitement that accompanies participation. These motivesshould be emphasised in programmes that encourage participation amongthis age group. Further, it is recommended that programmes to encouragechildren aged 9 years and younger should incorporate skills and fitnessthemes to encourage them to go to a higher level of performance, the learn-ing of new skills, and to provide opportunities to do things that they are goodat, and to be physically fit. In a study of motives for participation in tennisamong the youth of Australia, Kolt and Capaldi (2001) also found that age


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was an important variable that influenced young Australians’ participation intennis. Specifically, younger Australian tennis players (10 to 12 years)regarded Affiliation and Achievement/Status as being more important thandid their older counterparts (13 to 15 years).

Respondents who had competed at the district level in Malaysia weremore likely to choose the Building Teamwork motive for participation intennis, than respondents who had competed at state and national levels. Thismay be because those who had competed at the district level are still seekingto break into state teams, and ultimately the national team and they see thatbuilding teamwork as important in helping them to achieve their goals.Therefore it is important that nurturing of team building and teamwork beincluded in the tennis coaching experiences of young tennis players inMalaysia who have competed at the district level (Vincent, 2002).

The reliability of PMQ for use in investigating young Malaysians’ partici-pation in tennis was found to be appropriate as the internal consistency orreliability for each of the motive factors, as measured by the Cronbach’s alphacoefficient was satisfactory, with alpha values ranging from.50 to.75. Thus,the present findings established the efficacy of PMQ as an appropriate instru-ment for investigating motives for participation with samples from differentcultures and have supported previous findings (Kolt et al., 1999).

ConclusionA number of the research studies involving young people’s motives forgeneral participation in sports (Gill, 2000) and in tennis specifically (Kolt &Capaldi, 2001) have all consistently identified the motives of Achievementand Status, Travel and Tension Release, Action and Excitement, andAffiliation, which were also identified in the present study. This has led to thesuggestion that an overall combination of these motives contribute to youngpeoples’ enjoyment in sport (Kolt & Capaldi, 2001). It is recommended thatany future strategy to increase the rate of tennis participation among youngMalaysians should take into account the core motives for participation iden-tified by the present study so as to contribute to greater enjoyment and funfor young tennis players (Petlichkoff, 1996).

The present study also focused largely on school children’s motives forparticipation in tennis, while all the earlier studies in Malaysia have focusedon sport motives in general and used respondents who were universitystudents. Since there are major differences in the experience, skills and levelsof sophistication of university students in comparison with our sample, it isconjectured that they also have different motives for participation in tennis.It is therefore recommended that future research should focus on university-


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level tennis players’ motives for playing tennis in Malaysia. Further, it isanticipated that university students will have different motives for participa-tion in tennis, and the nature of these motives and the factors influencingthem is worth examining. In making this recommendation, we foundsupport with similar recommendations by Kolt et al. (1999) that researchshould not only target other groups within the community that would bene-fit from increased activity levels (e.g., older people and those not currentlyinvolved in sport or physical activity), but also less heterogeneous popula-tions. This would encourage an increase in participation rates in specificareas of physical activity and sport, as well as participation in tennis byuniversity student tennis players in Malaysia.

Another interesting area for future research is changes in an individual’smotives for participation in tennis at different stages of the life cycle. Thiscould be achieved through a longitudinal study of the same individuals overthe duration of their tennis careers.

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the motives young malaysians assign for participating in tennis

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