the middle eastern experience with imperialism. egypt the once wealthy and great ottoman empire was...

The Middle Eastern Experience The Middle Eastern Experience with Imperialismwith Imperialism

EgyptEgypt The once wealthy The once wealthy

and great Ottoman and great Ottoman Empire was rocked in Empire was rocked in 1798 by Napoleon’s 1798 by Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt. invasion of Egypt.

The French were met The French were met by tens of thousands by tens of thousands of cavalry bent on of cavalry bent on defending the defending the MamlukMamluk regime regime under their leader under their leader Murad.Murad.

EgyptEgypt

Murad, when told of Napoleon’s Murad, when told of Napoleon’s invasion, dismissed the invader as a invasion, dismissed the invader as a “donkey boy” whom he would soon “donkey boy” whom he would soon drive from his lands.drive from his lands.

EgyptEgypt Murad’s contempt for Napoleon and the Murad’s contempt for Napoleon and the

French was symptomatic of the profound French was symptomatic of the profound ignorance of events in Europe that was ignorance of events in Europe that was typical of the Islamic world at the time.typical of the Islamic world at the time.

This ignorance led to a series of crushing This ignorance led to a series of crushing defeats to the French, the most famous defeats to the French, the most famous was fought in the shadows of the great was fought in the shadows of the great pyramids.pyramids.

The Mamluks were clad in medieval armor The Mamluks were clad in medieval armor and used spears against French artillery, and used spears against French artillery, rifles, and disciplined French legions.rifles, and disciplined French legions.

Napoleon’s victory at the Battle of the Napoleon’s victory at the Battle of the Pyramids, July 1798.Pyramids, July 1798.

EgyptEgypt

The defeat of the Mamluks was The defeat of the Mamluks was traumatic for the Ottoman world traumatic for the Ottoman world because they were considered fighters because they were considered fighters of great prowess.of great prowess.

It also showed It also showed how vulnerable the how vulnerable the Muslim world was to European Muslim world was to European aggressionaggression, and how far they had , and how far they had fallen behind Europe in their capacity fallen behind Europe in their capacity to wage war.to wage war.

EgyptEgypt When the French were forced out by When the French were forced out by

the British in 1801, an Ottoman the British in 1801, an Ottoman military officer (of Albanian origin) military officer (of Albanian origin) named named Muhammad Ali Muhammad Ali (r. 1805-1848) (r. 1805-1848) seized control as an independent ruler.seized control as an independent ruler.

Even though he remained nominally Even though he remained nominally subordinate to the Ottoman sultan, by subordinate to the Ottoman sultan, by 1820 he ruled the most powerful land 1820 he ruled the most powerful land in the Muslim world.in the Muslim world.

EgyptEgypt

He even invaded Syria and Anatolia He even invaded Syria and Anatolia (Turkey), threatening to capture (Turkey), threatening to capture Istanbul and topple the Ottoman state.Istanbul and topple the Ottoman state.

The Ottomans survived only because The Ottomans survived only because the British intervened out of fear that the British intervened out of fear that an Ottoman collapse would result in an Ottoman collapse would result in Russian expansion. Russian expansion.

The Ottoman Empire never did regain The Ottoman Empire never did regain control of Egypt. control of Egypt.

Muhammad AliMuhammad Ali AliAli, known as the , known as the

“father of “father of modern Egypt,” modern Egypt,” was the first was the first non-Western non-Western leader in the leader in the Middle East to Middle East to try to modernize try to modernize his society in his society in Western terms.Western terms.

Muhammad AliMuhammad Ali

Ali never visited the Ali never visited the West (like Peter the West (like Peter the Great) but he Great) but he admired Western admired Western achievements and achievements and realized realized he must he must modernize in order modernize in order to stay independent to stay independent of Europe.of Europe.


Impressed by the discipline and weapons Impressed by the discipline and weapons of the French army, Ali began building an of the French army, Ali began building an up-to-date European style military force.up-to-date European style military force.

He introduced Western-style conscription He introduced Western-style conscription among the Egyptian peasants, hired among the Egyptian peasants, hired French officers to train his troops, and French officers to train his troops, and imported Western armaments.imported Western armaments.

Ali does what every other country does as Ali does what every other country does as it modernizes—it it modernizes—it first focuses on the first focuses on the militarymilitary..


Ali launched a program of Ali launched a program of industrialization in cotton textiles industrialization in cotton textiles and armaments, and armaments, but he was unable but he was unable to create a European styled industrial to create a European styled industrial society.society.

So Ali concentrated on developing an So Ali concentrated on developing an export market for Egyptian cotton export market for Egyptian cotton (considered by many to be the (considered by many to be the world’s finest), hemp, and indigo.world’s finest), hemp, and indigo.

Muhammad AliMuhammad Ali Ali had many Western Ali had many Western

science and technology science and technology books translated into books translated into Arabic, he hired Arabic, he hired Western teachers, and Western teachers, and he sent Egyptian he sent Egyptian students to study students to study abroad. abroad.

French became an French became an unofficial second unofficial second language next to language next to Arabic.Arabic.


Unfortunately, few Unfortunately, few in Egypt were in Egypt were actually educated actually educated beyond the children beyond the children of the most of the most powerful families.powerful families.

Egyptian society, Egyptian society, for the most part, for the most part, wasn’t wasn’t transformed.transformed.

EgyptEgypt Ali was unable to break Ali was unable to break

the limitations imposed the limitations imposed by Western dominance by Western dominance of the world economy. of the world economy.

Egypt became Egypt became increasingly dependent increasingly dependent on the Western market on the Western market for cottonfor cotton (meaning it (meaning it had to compete on the had to compete on the world market with India world market with India and the southern and the southern United States).United States).

EgyptEgypt Export earnings were Export earnings were

most often insufficient to most often insufficient to pay for machines or pay for machines or military equipment military equipment so so Egypt often went into Egypt often went into debt to Western banks.debt to Western banks.

Egyptians paid a Egyptians paid a whopping 12% interest whopping 12% interest on loans for on loans for improvements while improvements while Europeans paid less than Europeans paid less than 5%.5%.

EgyptEgypt Here was the Here was the tragic irony tragic irony that that

happened in Egypt, the Middle East, happened in Egypt, the Middle East, and many other places in the 19and many other places in the 19thth and and 2020thth centuries: centuries:

Governments want to modernize their Governments want to modernize their countries, they want to buy new countries, they want to buy new armaments and modernize their armaments and modernize their militaries, they want industrial militaries, they want industrial machinery, to build public buildings, machinery, to build public buildings, roads, etc. but these cost a lot of roads, etc. but these cost a lot of money at a time when their economies money at a time when their economies were often sluggish.were often sluggish.

EgyptEgypt Oftentimes, in Oftentimes, in

situations like this, situations like this, nations are tempted nations are tempted to borrow money to borrow money from foreign banks. from foreign banks.

This gives the This gives the foreigners an interest foreigners an interest in protecting their in protecting their loansloans. If a borrower . If a borrower defaulted on the defaulted on the loan, the Western loan, the Western bank would usually bank would usually ask for military ask for military assistanceassistance..

The Suez CanalThe Suez Canal

The Crimean War had shown the major The Crimean War had shown the major powers that the Mediterranean was of powers that the Mediterranean was of pivotal/strategic importance to the pivotal/strategic importance to the Eurocentric system.Eurocentric system.

So the Europeans invested in building So the Europeans invested in building railroads throughout Egypt.railroads throughout Egypt.

The Suez CanalThe Suez Canal Napoleon III of France took Napoleon III of France took

a major interest in building a major interest in building the the Suez Canal Suez Canal (1859-(1859-1869), which would 1869), which would connect the Mediterranean connect the Mediterranean with the Red Sea and the with the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, dramatically Indian Ocean, dramatically shortening the travel time shortening the travel time between Europe, Eastern between Europe, Eastern Africa, and Asia.Africa, and Asia.

The Suez CanalThe Suez Canal Egypt was now one of the most strategic Egypt was now one of the most strategic

places on earth.places on earth. When the French completed the 102 When the French completed the 102

mile Canal in 1869, Europeans mile Canal in 1869, Europeans developed a craze for everything developed a craze for everything Egyptian…architecture, furniture, Egyptian…architecture, furniture, textiles, art. textiles, art.


By the 1850’s, steamships (and By the 1850’s, steamships (and correspondence) took four months to correspondence) took four months to make the round trip between London make the round trip between London and (Mumbai) Bombay.and (Mumbai) Bombay.

After the opening of the Suez Canal, After the opening of the Suez Canal, steamships (3/4steamships (3/4thsths were British) were British) traveled from Britain to India in less traveled from Britain to India in less than two weeks.than two weeks.


By the 1870’s the Egyptians were so By the 1870’s the Egyptians were so deep in debt, they were forced to sell deep in debt, they were forced to sell their shares (44%) of the Suez their shares (44%) of the Suez Canal…and Britain scooped them up Canal…and Britain scooped them up immediately for the current immediately for the current equivalent of 90 million pounds. equivalent of 90 million pounds.

Controlling the Canal became a key Controlling the Canal became a key objective of the imperial powers objective of the imperial powers (especially Britain).(especially Britain).

The Suez CanalThe Suez Canal Muhammad Ali and other Egyptian rulers Muhammad Ali and other Egyptian rulers

wanted to modernize their army, strengthen wanted to modernize their army, strengthen their economy, and further distance their economy, and further distance themselves from Ottoman authority, but by themselves from Ottoman authority, but by the 1870’s crushing debt forced Egyptian the 1870’s crushing debt forced Egyptian officials to impose high taxes which caused officials to impose high taxes which caused popular unrest and a military rebellion.popular unrest and a military rebellion.

In 1882, it was Egypt’s heavy indebtedness to In 1882, it was Egypt’s heavy indebtedness to British banks that caused the British army to British banks that caused the British army to occupy Egypt to protect British financial occupy Egypt to protect British financial interests and ensure the safety of the Suez interests and ensure the safety of the Suez Canal.Canal.


Britain then Britain then established a established a protectorate over protectorate over the Egyptian the Egyptian government.government.

The British said The British said they were merely they were merely protecting their protecting their investment.investment.

EgyptEgypt Even though Even though Egypt was not formally Egypt was not formally

colonizedcolonized, the British controlled , the British controlled Egyptian finances and foreign affairs, Egyptian finances and foreign affairs, and British troops ensured British and British troops ensured British directives were followed.directives were followed.

The British forced the reshaping of the The British forced the reshaping of the Egyptian economyEgyptian economy from the production from the production of several crops (which maintained self-of several crops (which maintained self-sufficiency) to the production of only a sufficiency) to the production of only a few crops that were useful to European few crops that were useful to European manufacturing (cotton, tobacco, silk, manufacturing (cotton, tobacco, silk, wheat, rice).wheat, rice).

EgyptEgypt This made the British a lot of money but the This made the British a lot of money but the

population of Egypt barely eked out an population of Egypt barely eked out an existence.existence.

While the British controlled Egypt, the While the British controlled Egypt, the French took control of nearby Tunisia and French took control of nearby Tunisia and Algeria.Algeria.

Britain, France and Germany flooded Egypt Britain, France and Germany flooded Egypt and Asia Minor (today’s Middle East) with and Asia Minor (today’s Middle East) with cheap manufactured goods, driving artisans cheap manufactured goods, driving artisans from their trades and into low paying work from their trades and into low paying work (building railroads or processing tobacco).(building railroads or processing tobacco).

Instead of basing wages on gender (like Instead of basing wages on gender (like in Europe), the in Europe), the Europeans used ethnicity Europeans used ethnicity and religionand religion…Muslims were paid less than …Muslims were paid less than Christians, and Arabs less than other Christians, and Arabs less than other ethnic groups.ethnic groups.

This, a hatred for the occupiers, plus a This, a hatred for the occupiers, plus a growing sense of nationalism created the growing sense of nationalism created the seeds for anti-colonial movements.seeds for anti-colonial movements.

EgyptEgypt

Egypt and SudanEgypt and Sudan As Egypt fell under As Egypt fell under

British control, they were British control, they were drawn into conflicts with drawn into conflicts with Egypt’s southern Egypt’s southern neighbor, Sudan.neighbor, Sudan.

Egypt had tried to control Egypt had tried to control Sudan since the 1820’s, Sudan since the 1820’s, and the Sudanese and the Sudanese resisted fiercely.resisted fiercely.

SudanSudan

By the late 1870’s, Egyptian oppression By the late 1870’s, Egyptian oppression and British intervention had aroused deep and British intervention had aroused deep resentment and hostility in Sudan.resentment and hostility in Sudan.

A Sudanese leader arose, known as the A Sudanese leader arose, known as the MahdiMahdi, who claimed to be a descendant of , who claimed to be a descendant of the the Muhammad (he even had a mole on Muhammad (he even had a mole on his right cheek and a cleft between his his right cheek and a cleft between his teeth). teeth).

SudanSudan

The Mahdi called for The Mahdi called for jihadjihad as he promised as he promised to rid the land of the to rid the land of the Egyptian heretics Egyptian heretics and the British and the British infidels.infidels.

SudanSudan

He led his followers on violent assaults He led his followers on violent assaults (usually using guerrilla tactics) on the (usually using guerrilla tactics) on the Egyptians and British.Egyptians and British.

Within a few years, his forces controlled Within a few years, his forces controlled most of Sudan.most of Sudan.

But at the peak of his power, he caught But at the peak of his power, he caught typhus (a parasitic bacteria found in lice typhus (a parasitic bacteria found in lice and fleas/rats) and died (1885).and fleas/rats) and died (1885).

SudanSudan

But rather than collapse after his death, his But rather than collapse after his death, his followers continued to build a strong Islamic followers continued to build a strong Islamic state.state.

They outlawed smoking, alcoholic drink, They outlawed smoking, alcoholic drink, dancing, prostitution, theft and adultery.dancing, prostitution, theft and adultery.

Islamic religious and ritual practices were Islamic religious and ritual practices were strictly enforced.strictly enforced.

SudanSudan

In late 1896, the British, tired of this activity (a In late 1896, the British, tired of this activity (a British general had been killed in 1895), sent British general had been killed in 1895), sent an expeditionary force into Sudan to do battle an expeditionary force into Sudan to do battle with the with the MahdisMahdis and end the most serious and end the most serious threat to European domination of Africa.threat to European domination of Africa.

In September 1898 in central Sudan, near the In September 1898 in central Sudan, near the junction of the White and Blue Nile rivers, one junction of the White and Blue Nile rivers, one of the most famous battles in British history of the most famous battles in British history took place.took place.

SudanSudan

At the At the Battle of Battle of Omdurman, Omdurman, the the spears and magic spears and magic garments of the garments of the MahdisMahdis were no were no match for the match for the modern artillery and modern artillery and forty Maxim guns of forty Maxim guns of the British.the British.

SudanSudan

More than 11,000 More than 11,000 Sudanese Sudanese MahdisMahdis were killed, 16,000 were killed, 16,000 more were wounded more were wounded and 5,000 captured and 5,000 captured compared to less compared to less than 50 British than 50 British soldiers killed.soldiers killed.

SudanSudan A British journalist wrote that “it wasn’t a battle…it A British journalist wrote that “it wasn’t a battle…it

was an execution.”was an execution.” The English left the wounded enemy to die on the The English left the wounded enemy to die on the

plain and later, after triumphantly entering plain and later, after triumphantly entering Khartoum, they looted the city and murdered Khartoum, they looted the city and murdered many of the Khalifa’s leading followers. many of the Khalifa’s leading followers.

They also had the Mahdi’s bones exhumed and They also had the Mahdi’s bones exhumed and thrown into the Nile (rumor had it that the thrown into the Nile (rumor had it that the commanding general had the Mahdi’s skull made commanding general had the Mahdi’s skull made into a drinking cup).into a drinking cup).

SudanSudan

Within a year, the Mahdist state Within a year, the Mahdist state collapsed, and British power advanced collapsed, and British power advanced into the interior of Africa and sealed into the interior of Africa and sealed British control of the Nile.British control of the Nile.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire


After Suleyman died in the late 16After Suleyman died in the late 16thth century, the Ottoman Empire began a century, the Ottoman Empire began a slow and prolonged death rattle.slow and prolonged death rattle.

A long succession of weak or inept A long succession of weak or inept sultans caused destructive power sultans caused destructive power struggles within various factions, all struggles within various factions, all vying for power.vying for power.


No longer able to afford the enormous No longer able to afford the enormous expense of maintaining a far-flung expense of maintaining a far-flung empire, and consistent losers in empire, and consistent losers in battle, several surrounding states battle, several surrounding states began chipping away at the edges of began chipping away at the edges of territory controlled by the Ottomans.territory controlled by the Ottomans.


By the early 18By the early 18thth century, the Austrians century, the Austrians and the Russians had removed the and the Russians had removed the Ottomans from control of the northern Ottomans from control of the northern Black Sea region, from Hungary, and Black Sea region, from Hungary, and from the northern Balkans.from the northern Balkans.

By the early 19By the early 19thth century, revolts in century, revolts in Serbia (eventually put down) and Serbia (eventually put down) and Greece (gained independence 1830) Greece (gained independence 1830) showed an empire in collapse. showed an empire in collapse.


For the empire to survive, reform For the empire to survive, reform initiatives had to be performed from initiatives had to be performed from within the government.within the government.

Unfortunately, many initiatives were Unfortunately, many initiatives were met with resistance from those met with resistance from those factions that stood to lose power or factions that stood to lose power or prestige from their implementation. prestige from their implementation.


For example, Sultan For example, Sultan Selim III (r. Selim III (r. 1789-1807) 1789-1807) understood the understood the need to make his need to make his government more government more efficient and to build efficient and to build a new army and a new army and navy.navy.


The powerful The powerful Janissary corps Janissary corps felt threatened by felt threatened by this and staged a this and staged a revolt, killing the revolt, killing the new troops and new troops and locking up the locking up the sultan. sultan.


When Selim’s successor When Selim’s successor tried to revive the new tried to revive the new military force, rampaging military force, rampaging Janissaries killed all male Janissaries killed all male members of the dynasty members of the dynasty except one, Selim’s cousin except one, Selim’s cousin Mahmud II, who became Mahmud II, who became sultan (r. 1808-1839).sultan (r. 1808-1839).


Mahmud II secretly built a small, elite, Mahmud II secretly built a small, elite, private army with European help.private army with European help.

In 1826, he incited the Janissaries to In 1826, he incited the Janissaries to mutiny, then had them slaughtered by mutiny, then had them slaughtered by his private army. his private army.

Mahmud II now felt able to enact Mahmud II now felt able to enact reforms. reforms.


While religious leaders and While religious leaders and traditionalists wanted a return to past traditionalists wanted a return to past models, Mahmud II pushed for models, Mahmud II pushed for Western styled reforms.Western styled reforms.

European military advisors were hired European military advisors were hired to modernize and Westernize the to modernize and Westernize the army and navy (armaments and army and navy (armaments and training).training).


Mahmud II also established a Mahmud II also established a Western styled diplomatic corps and Western styled diplomatic corps and exchanged ambassadors with the exchanged ambassadors with the European powers. European powers.

But Mahmud’s modest reforms were But Mahmud’s modest reforms were not enough to strengthen the not enough to strengthen the Ottoman military to the point where it Ottoman military to the point where it could repel the European powers.could repel the European powers.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire Britain, France, Britain, France,

Germany, and Italy Germany, and Italy snatched Northern snatched Northern Africa from the Africa from the Ottomans who were Ottomans who were so weak by the so weak by the middle of the 19middle of the 19thth century, the once century, the once great empire was great empire was known as the “known as the “sick sick man of Europeman of Europe.”.”


The European powers could have taken The European powers could have taken whatever they wanted from the Ottomans but whatever they wanted from the Ottomans but these powers could not decide who got what, these powers could not decide who got what, so they left the center of the Ottoman Empire so they left the center of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey-Asia Minor) intact.(Turkey-Asia Minor) intact.

The Middle East remained socially and The Middle East remained socially and politically independent as they were not politically independent as they were not directly occupied or ruled by the Europeansdirectly occupied or ruled by the Europeans..

But they lost their economic independence as But they lost their economic independence as they were drawn into the European dominated they were drawn into the European dominated world economy.world economy.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire ““Be my ally, or I’ll give you the worst Be my ally, or I’ll give you the worst

thrashing you ever had in your life.”thrashing you ever had in your life.”


The Crimean War (1853-56) was an The Crimean War (1853-56) was an example of Ottoman weakness.example of Ottoman weakness.

The Russians pressed against Ottoman The Russians pressed against Ottoman territory and had it not been for the aid of territory and had it not been for the aid of the British and French, the Russians might the British and French, the Russians might have been successful in dismembering the have been successful in dismembering the empire. empire.

The British didn’t want the Russians The British didn’t want the Russians controlling the eastern Mediterranean.controlling the eastern Mediterranean.


After the Crimean War, the Ottoman After the Crimean War, the Ottoman Empire continued to lose territory as Empire continued to lose territory as Russia pushed down from the north and Russia pushed down from the north and eventually took all lands to the north and eventually took all lands to the north and east of the Black Sea.east of the Black Sea.

By 1912, Eastern European Christian By 1912, Eastern European Christian governments (Romania, Bulgaria, governments (Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia—the Balkans) had driven the Yugoslavia—the Balkans) had driven the remaining Ottoman Turks out.remaining Ottoman Turks out.


Starting after the reign of Mahmud II, Starting after the reign of Mahmud II, Western influence became even more Western influence became even more pronounced in what became known as the pronounced in what became known as the Tanzimat reformsTanzimat reforms (1839-1876).(1839-1876).

Tanzimat means Tanzimat means reorganizationreorganization or or reformreform in Turkish.in Turkish.


Reforms tried to encourage Reforms tried to encourage OttomanismOttomanism among the many ethnic groups that lived among the many ethnic groups that lived in the Ottoman Empire and to prevent the in the Ottoman Empire and to prevent the slow decline of the empire. slow decline of the empire.

The reforms attempted, but failed, to The reforms attempted, but failed, to integrate non-Muslims and non-Turks integrate non-Muslims and non-Turks more thoroughly into the Ottoman society more thoroughly into the Ottoman society through civil liberties and regulations. through civil liberties and regulations.


The initial The initial Tanzimat reformsTanzimat reforms included:included: Western styled university educations;Western styled university educations; Training in European sciences and Training in European sciences and

mathematics;mathematics; Establishing a state-run postal service Establishing a state-run postal service

and telegraph service;and telegraph service; Railroad construction (1860s);Railroad construction (1860s); Establishing newspapers in major Establishing newspapers in major

cities and extensive legal reforms.cities and extensive legal reforms.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire In 1856, the Ottoman government under sultan In 1856, the Ottoman government under sultan

Abdulmecid I Abdulmecid I (r. 1849-1861), issued the (r. 1849-1861), issued the Hatt-i Hatt-i Humayun,Humayun, the most far-reaching reform of the the most far-reaching reform of the century. century.

It abolished the civil authority of religious leaders.It abolished the civil authority of religious leaders. Equality before the law was guaranteed.Equality before the law was guaranteed. Open eligibility for public office without regard of Open eligibility for public office without regard of

one’s religion.one’s religion. The army was opened to Muslims and Christians.The army was opened to Muslims and Christians. Newspapers were founded. The ideas of Newspapers were founded. The ideas of

Montesquieu and Rousseau were translated.Montesquieu and Rousseau were translated.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire Sultan Sultan Abdul Mecid IAbdul Mecid I sent 52 volumes of Ottoman sent 52 volumes of Ottoman

literature, mathematics, poetry, history, and logic to literature, mathematics, poetry, history, and logic to the new School of Oriental Languages in Boston.the new School of Oriental Languages in Boston.

The first sultan to travel to Europe, The first sultan to travel to Europe, Abdul Aziz Abdul Aziz (r. 1861-1876)(r. 1861-1876),, visited Vienna, London, and Paris in visited Vienna, London, and Paris in 1867.1867.


But the reforms also lifted trade barriers But the reforms also lifted trade barriers which hurt the artisans, whose position which hurt the artisans, whose position was weakened now that they were was weakened now that they were unprotected against the competition of the unprotected against the competition of the West. West.

Reforms concerning women (education, Reforms concerning women (education, ending seclusion and the veil, and ending seclusion and the veil, and polygamy) were debated, but few, if any, polygamy) were debated, but few, if any, were actually enacted.were actually enacted.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire In 1876 the new sultan, In 1876 the new sultan,

Abdul Hamid II Abdul Hamid II (r.1876-(r.1876-1909)1909),, declared the Empire declared the Empire would promote personal would promote personal liberty, freedom of liberty, freedom of education, freedom of the education, freedom of the press, and a parliamentary press, and a parliamentary government. government.

But within two years, he But within two years, he threw out the constitution threw out the constitution and dissolved the and dissolved the parliament.parliament.


Abdul Hamid IIAbdul Hamid II became became increasingly fearful of increasingly fearful of anything Western. anything Western.

For example, new For example, new chemistry books for the chemistry books for the university were university were considered seditious considered seditious because their chemical because their chemical symbols were thought symbols were thought to be secret codes.to be secret codes.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire However, Abdul Hamid continued to push However, Abdul Hamid continued to push

for westernizing his military (he hired for westernizing his military (he hired German military advisors).German military advisors).

He also extended telegraph/communication He also extended telegraph/communication lines between cities and railway lines lines between cities and railway lines (including the Orient Express and the Berlin (including the Orient Express and the Berlin to Baghdad line).to Baghdad line).


Financial mismanagement and Financial mismanagement and incompetence, along with national revolts incompetence, along with national revolts in the Balkans and eastern Anatolia, the in the Balkans and eastern Anatolia, the French occupation of Algeria and Tunisia, French occupation of Algeria and Tunisia, the takeover by the British in Egypt and the takeover by the British in Egypt and the Italians in Libya, threatened to end the the Italians in Libya, threatened to end the very existence of the Empire, let alone its very existence of the Empire, let alone its reforms. reforms.


Europe valued innovation, industry, and Europe valued innovation, industry, and technological progress. These things were technological progress. These things were spurned by the Ottomans.spurned by the Ottomans.

The economy of the Ottoman Turks The economy of the Ottoman Turks declined with the trade shift to the declined with the trade shift to the Eurocentric system. Eurocentric system.

The economic decline was hastened by the The economic decline was hastened by the flood of cheaper, machine (factory) made flood of cheaper, machine (factory) made goods which virtually destroyed Ottoman goods which virtually destroyed Ottoman industry.industry.


As it grew poorer and poorer, the Ottoman As it grew poorer and poorer, the Ottoman Empire borrowed money from Europe to make Empire borrowed money from Europe to make ends meet. ends meet.

When it could not even pay on the interest (in When it could not even pay on the interest (in 1879 the Empire declared bankruptcy) European 1879 the Empire declared bankruptcy) European banks took control of Ottoman finances to make banks took control of Ottoman finances to make sure it paid on its debt.sure it paid on its debt.

The Empire now had no control over its The Empire now had no control over its economic life…it was controlled by Europe.economic life…it was controlled by Europe.


European diplomacy focused on the so-called European diplomacy focused on the so-called ““Eastern QuestionEastern Question” of how to dispose of the ” of how to dispose of the “Sick Man's” territories without upsetting the “Sick Man's” territories without upsetting the European balance of power. European balance of power.

As it grew poorer, frustration with non-Turkish As it grew poorer, frustration with non-Turkish subjects increased. subjects increased.

As nationalism increased among the Bulgars, As nationalism increased among the Bulgars, Macedonians, Armenians, and others, the Macedonians, Armenians, and others, the Ottomans dealt with them very harshly.Ottomans dealt with them very harshly.


The Ottomans The Ottomans massacred Bulgarian massacred Bulgarian peasants in 1876 and peasants in 1876 and Armenians in 1894.Armenians in 1894.

Europeans were Europeans were shocked by this shocked by this violence and wanted violence and wanted to find ways to to find ways to dissolve the Empire.dissolve the Empire.


Abdul Hamid’s despotism caused several Abdul Hamid’s despotism caused several intellectuals and political opponents to move intellectuals and political opponents to move to Paris.to Paris.

There, they formed the There, they formed the Ottoman Society for Ottoman Society for Union and ProgressUnion and Progress (1889)(1889), , more commonly more commonly known as theknown as the Young TurksYoung Turks..

The Young Turks wanted to restore the The Young Turks wanted to restore the 1876 constitution and continue the reforms 1876 constitution and continue the reforms they felt necessary for the empire to survive.they felt necessary for the empire to survive.

The Young TurksThe Young Turks In 1908, a revolution In 1908, a revolution

(coup d’etat) led by (coup d’etat) led by the the Young Turks Young Turks put put military officers in military officers in charge of the charge of the government and government and forced Abdul Hamit to forced Abdul Hamit to restore the restore the parliament and parliament and constitution. constitution.

The Young TurksThe Young Turks

They restored freedoms of the press.They restored freedoms of the press. Educational reforms and reforms for Educational reforms and reforms for

women were promised.women were promised. The sultan was not killed, but he was The sultan was not killed, but he was

reduced to merely being a political reduced to merely being a political figurehead and the religious leader of figurehead and the religious leader of Islam.Islam.

The Young TurksThe Young Turks Rapid modernization continued during the Rapid modernization continued during the

Young Turk Young Turk era (1908-18), era (1908-18), with particular with particular attention given to urbanization, agriculture, attention given to urbanization, agriculture, industry, communications, secularization of industry, communications, secularization of the state and the emancipation of women.the state and the emancipation of women.

The Young TurksThe Young Turks

But the Young Turks didn’t fare much But the Young Turks didn’t fare much better than the sultans, as they lost wars in better than the sultans, as they lost wars in the Balkans (1912) and they lost Libya the Balkans (1912) and they lost Libya (their last possession in North Africa) to (their last possession in North Africa) to Italy.Italy.

Only by playing the European powers Only by playing the European powers against each other did the Ottoman against each other did the Ottoman Empire survive (but barely).Empire survive (but barely).


The empire was involved in World The empire was involved in World War I and took sides with Germany War I and took sides with Germany and Austria-Hungary. and Austria-Hungary.

The defeat of the Central Powers led The defeat of the Central Powers led to the breakup, foreign occupation, to the breakup, foreign occupation, and final demise of the Ottoman and final demise of the Ottoman Empire.Empire.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire This was how the Ottoman Empire reacted to This was how the Ottoman Empire reacted to

European economic imperialism:European economic imperialism: Ottoman rulers tried to modernize and Westernize.Ottoman rulers tried to modernize and Westernize. Like Peter the Great’s reforms in Russia, the reform of Like Peter the Great’s reforms in Russia, the reform of

the Ottomans was severe. the Ottomans was severe. Western hair styles and clothes were adopted.Western hair styles and clothes were adopted. Western teachers and textbooks were imported.Western teachers and textbooks were imported. Western style schools replaced religious schools.Western style schools replaced religious schools. Western military officers designed tactics and trained Western military officers designed tactics and trained

soldiers.soldiers. The Sharia (the Koran’s code of laws) was abandoned The Sharia (the Koran’s code of laws) was abandoned

and replaced with Swiss and Belgian legal codes.and replaced with Swiss and Belgian legal codes.

the middle eastern experience with imperialism. egypt the once wealthy and great ottoman empire was...

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