THE LEGEND OF KING ARTHUR A research into the cultural relevance of the Legend of King Arthur

1 MEI 2016 MARGIT MEINTEMA + 111112

Noordelijke Hogeschool Leeuwarden

Content Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 2

Historical accuracy and impact ....................................................................................................... 4

Rituals and tradition .................................................................................................................. 4

Attitudes................................................................................................................................... 4

Culture and presence in society ..................................................................................................... 6

The Arthurian Industry............................................................................................................... 7

Nostalgic people? ...................................................................................................................... 7

Attitudes and symbolism ........................................................................................................... 8

Conclusion and discussion ............................................................................................................. 9

References...................................................................................................................................10

YouTube Links ..........................................................................................................................11

Introduction

“Legend, for its active and passive participants, includes no happenings that are ou tside the realm of

‘possibility’ but which may include miracles. Many legends operate within the realm of uncertainty,

never being entirely believed by the participants, but also never being resolutely doubted.”

– Unknown

tory telling is common to every culture, but the Legend of King Arthur is not just any old tale- it

is the most famous legend in Europe. For myths, legends and folktales there is no point trying

to figure out who’s right and who’s wrong. The aim of this paper is to investigate the social

relevance of the Legend of King Arthur in England. Resulting in its main question: ‘How relevant is the

legend of King Arthur for contemporary English society?’. Particularly England, because the origin of

the story seems to lay here- although it is an ongoing battle as to where the Legend exactly

originated. Granting the main focus lies on the social and cultural relevance, a look into the historical

background is relevant as this shows the importance of history vs. cultural history.

The sub questions will focus on the following aspects:

N.B. Culture is an important part of society for the very existence of society. Therefor it is illogical for

this research to deal with the two separately.

What can be said about the historical accuracy and its impact on English culture and society?

In what way has the legend influenced English culture?

o What is the general attitude towards the legend?

o Why the cultural fascination?

o In what way is the legend visible in society?

In order to answer these questions, I have visited places (figure 1 below) associated with the Legend

of King Arthur over the course of 2 months in 2011. I have gone on tours, visited ruins, interviewed

tourists and tour guides and was overwhelmed by the amount of information gathered. Some of

these interviews, after careful selection, have been put on YouTube and will be referred to in the

text. The links can be found under ‘reference’. You will notice people are not mentioned by name as

they have chosen to stay anonymous. All the pictures that are used in this paper have been taken by

myself and therefor no source is mentioned. In addition, I have consulted multiple books,

documentaries, newspapers and websites.

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Figure 1. Places visited in England. Source: http://www.british-towns.net/maps/england-

physical-map

Historical accuracy and impact ccording to Michael Wood (2011) the King Arthur that we know of today is a composite of

layers of different legends, written by different authors at different times. He appears in his

first incarnation in the 'History of the Britons', written in 830 A.D. and attributed to a Welsh

monk and writer called Nennius. Nennius introduced Arthur as a great warrior and commander of

battles who fought amongst kings of Briton. However, this has proved impossible for historians to

verify.

The story of King Arthur is usually depicted as follows: Arthur is an illegitimate child, raised by a

magician called Merlin. The boy becomes king and assembles a loyal following of twelve men known

as the Knights of the Round Table. King Arthur and his knights fight many battles against Saxon

invaders but eventually Arthur is killed. Legend has it Arthur is not truly dead but sleeping, waiting

for a time his kingdom will need him again.

There is not a corner in Britain that does not claim a connection with this historical celebrity.

However, historical facts to support these claims are sparse and often farfetched. Typically, the

guidebook or brochure introducing tourists to an Arthurian site is dominated by the passive voice -

indicating the lack of historical basis. Phrases like ‘according to local legend’ and ‘it was assumed

that’ are prominent. But myths are not necessarily lies; through tales shimmer attitudes, rituals and

tradition.

Rituals and tradition

he tale of King Arthur receiving his sword (Excalibur) from the Lady of the Lake is believed to

be a direct reference to an ancient tradition. In King Arthur’s Britain (2011) Dr. Francis Pryor

says to have discovered ritual traditions in which weapons were disposed of in watery places.

Back in medieval times parts of England were partly under water, creating small islands with

manmade causeways between them. When these parts were drained thousands of pieces of

medieval weaponry were found near these causeways. First it was thought they were dropped

accidentally, but it is now believed it was part of a much larger believe system. This link was found by

David Stocker and Paul Eves (King’s Arthur’s Britain 2011) in Witham Valley, where islands with a

total of 14 ruins of abbeys were found with similar causeways. They believe that people, in return for

safe passage, offered swords and other weaponry to the water. In these times a sword was not just a

weapon but a symbol of authority, given from lord to tenants as a badge of office. Once the tenant

died that sword had to be returned to the lord. Arthur, being King, did not have a lord and therefor

the lady of the Lake -the guardian of Britons- retrieves Excalibur after Arthur’s death.

The story of the Lady of the Lake echoes the ancient tradition of depositing weapons in the water.

Medieval authors who wrote these Arthurian tales indirectly passed these traditions on- integrating

them into folklore. Ensuring, knowingly or not, this tradition would not be forgotten.

Attitudes r. Francis Pryor (2011) expresses the idea that the Legend of Arthur reflects British culture

and attitudes. The idea of a noble knight conflicts with the conventional view of the barbaric

dark ages, a time where the country was thrown into primitive barbarism after the Roman

departure. Instead, it focuses on the resilience of native Britons in the aftermath of Roman rule.

Michael Wood emphasises this idea in his documentary, stating the legend was partly invented to

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restore British pride after the Norman invasion. The first thousand years of British History were a

series of massive invasions, diminishing British pride. In the turmoil of the period following the

Norman invasion in 1066, Celtic literature experienced a flowering (Michael Wood, 2011). The stories

now concerned the Welsh and other Celtic Britons in glorious triumph against their new masters.

These stories needed a protagonist and Arthur, already mentioned in Welsh poetry and Nennius’

history, was a clear contender according to Michael Wood (2011).

Geoffrey of Monmouth, perhaps the best-known Arthurian writer, wrote the first ‘complete’ work of

the life of King Arthur in ‘History of the Kings of Britain’. Starting with Arthur’s birth in Tintagel and

ending with his eventual betrayal and death in Avalon (now said to be Glastonbury). His work was

widely popular in its day and was uncritically credited well into the 16th century and translated in

various other languages from its original Latin (Prof. Leah Shopkow, N.D.). It is now commonly

believed his work is unreliable. Geoffrey claimed to have found a written text with details about King

Arthur’s life but it is almost certain he invented most of the story using details from his own life.

Nevertheless, many authors and screenwriters nowadays use Geoffrey’s work as a reference.

Historian Michael Wood regards Geoffrey’s work as pro-Celtic propaganda, based on a desire to

idealise Britain’s pre-Saxon heritage rather than stating facts.

Capitalising on a legend

n 1184 a great fire destroyed nearly all

buildings and treasures the monks of

Glastonbury Abbey had amassed over the

century. The monks struggled to find funds to

rebuild and realised they needed something to

make the abbey seem significant again. A year

later, the monks let it be known they had

discovered the bones of King Arthur and his

Queen Guinevere. The monks claimed that they

were led to discover the bodies by reading old

books and manuscripts and by visions that

some of the monks had dreamed. With

England hooked on Geoffrey’s tales of

Arthur, people bought the idea and the grave soon became a lucrative attraction. According to a tour

guide at Glastonbury Abbey (see YouTube video #1), the Kings of England of that time were very keen

to have an ancient champion such as Arthur who they could claim descent from because it

legitimised their position as Kings of England.

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Figure 2. King Arthur’s supposed grave at Glastonbury Abbey

Culture and presence in society

he legend of King Arthur is in many ways still visible in society. His name, and names of others

affiliated with the legend, can be found on street signs, pubs, shops, libraries and other

buildings-though often in touristic places associated with the legend (figure 3). The list of

Arthurian based works is endless- google ‘list of media based on Arthurian legend’ and you will get an

immense amount of hits- and It seems that a new rendition is released every few years; with most

recently (February 2016) an interactive play called ‘The legend of King Arthur’ in New Theatre Royal

in Portsmouth and yet to come the film ‘Knights of the Roundtable: King Arthur’ in 2017. The legend

is a source of entertainment but also used for educational purposes, e.g. King Arthur’s Labyrinth. The

Labyrinth’s website claims to provide an “exciting learning environment” with “opportunities to

integrate different areas of the Curriculum at Key Stages 1, 2 and 3(…) especially in the subjects of

History, Geography and English.” (King Arthur’s Labyrinth, 2011) The tale of King Arthur is not

presented as factual, but as part of British folklore in history and used as a teaching tool.

In contemporary England the tale is still, in one way or another, covered by the media. For instance,

documentaries like King Arthur’s Britain (2011), BBC mini-series as Camelot (2011) and articles such

as the 10 best films about King Arthur (The telegraph 2014). When inserting the name King Arthur in

any news website’s search bar you will find multiple hits relating to the topic.

T Figure 3. Several buildings carrying names affiliated with the legend in Tintagel.

The Arthurian Industry

ue to Geoffrey of Monmouth’s book, History of the Kings of Britain, two places have become

particularly popular: Tintagel in Cornwall and Glastonbury Abbey and Glastonbury Tor in

Somerset. Geoffrey cleverly linked existing ruins to the Legend and as a result these towns

still profit. The legend has especially put a spell on the small town of Tintagel. When strolling through

the main street you will see almost every establishment carries a name associated with the legend

(figure 3). Shops, libraries and museums are all dedicated to the legend. Over 200.000 visitors from

all over the world visit the castle of Tintagel each year (See YouTube video #2), making it one of

England’s biggest heritage spots. The owner of King Arthur’s Great Halls describes what Tintagel is

like during summer, saying people from all over the world come to visit the town because of its

connection to King Arthur (See YouTube video #3).

Nostalgic people? he cultural fascination with King Arthur might be part of a bigger notion known as declinism

(also known as nostalgia) which, according to Robert Tombs (qtd. in King Arthur and Camelot),

started when Britain lost its empire after the Second World War. Tombs states that even

though Britain did not decline economically, panic sat in as American and European economies

accelerated much faster. Whilst the people of Britain were trying to get used to this progress, they

were also mourning past glories. English academic Robert Hewison elaborates on this notion in his

book The Heritage Industry.

The past is the foundation of individual and collective identity, objects from the past are the

source of significance as cultural symbols. Continuity between past and present creates a

sense of sequence out of aleatory chaos and, since change is inevitable, a stable system of

ordered meanings enables us to cope with both innovation and decay. The nostalgic impulse

is an important agency in adjustment to crisis, it is a social emollient and reinforces national

identity when confidence is weakened or threatened. (P 43)

In the face of apparent decline and disintegration, the past seemed a better place and was yearned

for. Robert Hewison argues this nostalgia resulted in the heritage industry- the need to make every

rock and hill into national heritage- and calls this rapid growth in heritage ‘commercialised bogus

history’. Hewison notes that the post-war period in the UK coincided with a period of growth in the

establishment of museums and in a widespread sense of nostalgia, not for the past as it was

experienced but for a sanitised version of the past that was re-imagined through the heritage

industry as a Utopia, in opposition to the perceived problems of the present:

The impulse to preserve the past is part of the impulse to preserve the self. Without knowing

where we have been, it is difficult to know where we are going. The past is the foundation of

individual and collective identity, objects from the past are the source of significance as

cultural symbols. Continuity between past and present creates a sense of sequence out of

aleatory chaos and, since change is inevitable, a stable system of ordered meanings enables

us to cope with both innovation and decay. The nostalgic impulse is an important agency in

adjustment to crisis, it is a social emollient and reinforces national identity when confidence is

weakened or threatened. (P.47)

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Hewison’s perception on the heritage industry corresponds with Dr. Francis Pryor and Michael

Wood’s views on the Legend of King Arthur and the correlation with British culture and attitudes

towards the legend. One could argue that the Arthurian industry eagerly made use of this nostalgia.

This also plays on the minds of Cornish historians. In 2016 a statue of a king was placed on a hill in

Tintagel; it is implied the statue is of King Arthur. Cornish historians say that the King Arthur frenzy

overshadows the true history of Tintagel (Morris, 2016). Others argue that the legend in itself is

history- cultural history. They take pride in such a great legend from English descent and its

symbolism such as chivalry, equality, selflessness and heroism which, according to Jonathan Jones

(2016), results in healthy patriotism.

Attitudes and symbolism he international fellowship of chivalry-now states that the importance of King Arthur is not so

much the historical nature, but the ideals the stories represent. He was invented for people

have an inherent need for what he represents (the cultural values of the story): truth, loyalty,

courtesy, pride, justice, equality etc. The owner of King Arthur’s Great Halls (See YouTube video #3)

in Tintagel explains that the Halls were built to be the centre of an international fellowship. Their

rules were based on the principles of chivalry – set out in the Arthurian legend. He hoped to make a

contribution to reducing the risk of another conflict breaking out after the first World War. The Great

Halls is still frequently visited, which according to the owner ́ testi fies to a desire to keep his [King

Arthur’s] ideals before them’.

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Conclusion and discussion In this research I have tried to find out the relevance of the Legend of King Arthur for contemporary

English society. In doing so I have looked at historical accuracy and its impact on English culture,

different attitudes towards the legend, the cultural fascination and the legend’s visibility in society.

Historical facts about King Arthur are almost zilch, but this does not mean it did not have an impact

on English society. The tale idealised a large part of English history, which is a reflection of how

writers chose to present darker times in English history and how people choose to look at English

history and heritage. Writers such as Geoffrey of Monmouth told it so well that even today some

people believe that King Arthur was a real king and that some events truly happened. However,

veracity is irrelevant, more important is the grip it has on collective imagination. The cultural

fascination and presence of the legend of King Arthur in society is evident, his name is engrained in

place names and culture of Britain. The story is ‘recycled’ repeatedly and tourism thrives in places

connected to the legend. What stands out the most are the nostalgic feelings towards the legend and

the sense of pride, as Arthur captures so many good qualities the English want to identify with.

In conclusion, even though there is little factual about the Legend of King Arthur (hence legend), this

does not alter the fact that the tale is still relevant for contemporary England. As Jonathan Jones

(2016) said:

“The British may have invented Arthur, but Arthur in turn legitimated the idea of Britain as a great

nation”.

References Ashe, G. (N.D.) Arthur. Land and Legend. Printed in Great Britain by Short Run Press Ltd.

Billson, A. (2014) The Telegraph. The 10 best films about King Arthur. Consulted on 14-05-2016.

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/10610096/The-10-best-films-about-King-Arthur.html

Flower, D. (2015) Tintagelweb. Places to visit. Consulted in 2011.

http://www.tintagelweb.co.uk/placestovisit.htm

Godwin, M. (N.D.) One Man’s Dream. The story of King Arthur’s Great Halls, Tintagel, Cornwall,

England. Sword in the Stone Ltd.

Jones, J. (2016) The Guardian. King Arthur forged our Britain – English heritage is right to celebrate

him. Consulted on 13-05-2016.

https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/jonathanjonesblog/2016/mar/23/king-arthur-tintagel-

english-heritage

Kelly, K.C. (2013) Academia. The ECO-Tourist, the Heritage Industry, and Arthurian Legend. Consulted

on 02-01-2016. https://www.academia.edu/8894191/_The_Eco-

Tourist_the_Heritage_Industry_and_Arthurian_Legend._Arthuriana_23.1_2013_21-

39?auto=download

Kelly, J (2011) BBC News Magazine. King Arthur and Camelot: Why the cultural fascination?

Consulted on 29-04-2016. http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-13696160

King Arthur. (2010) Hampshire: Pitkin Publishing.

King Arthur’s Labyrinth. National Curriculum (England). Consulted on 13-05-2016.

http://www.kingarthurslabyrinth.co.uk/schools-national-curriculum-england/

Knights of the Round Table. (2009) Hampshire: Pitkin Publishing.

Morris, S. (2016) The guardian. Kingly statue plunges sword into Tintagel's Arthurian row. Consulted

on 13-05-2016. http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/apr/24/kingly-statue-plunges-sword-

into-tintagels-arthurian-row

Newitz, A. (2016) Medieval monks invented King Arthur’s grave as an attraction to raise money.

Consulted 13-05-2016. http://arstechnica.com/science/2016/03/medieval-monks-used-king-arthurs-

grave-as-an-attraction-to-raise-money/

New Theatre Royal. (N.D.) The legend of King Arthur. Consulted 13-05-2016.

http://www.newtheatreroyal.com/event/the-legend-of-king-arthur/

Open University, the. (2016) Open learn. What is heritage? Consulted on 02-01-2016.

http://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/heritage/what-heritage/content-section-0

Pryor, Francis (2011) Britain AD King Arthur’s Britain. Consulted on 24-04-2016.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aQAtlrCpGQ

Shopkow, L Prof. (N.D.) Introduction and notes on History of the Kings of Britain: Arthur. By Geoffrey

of Monmouth. Consulted on 29-04-2016. http://www.indiana.edu/~dmdhist/arthur_gm.htm

White, P. (2008) King Arthur’s Footsteps. Launceston: Bossiney Books.

Wood, M (2011) Article: King Arthur, ‘Once and Future King’. The BBC. Consulted on 25-04-2016.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/anglo_saxons/arthur_01.shtml.

Wood, M (2007) BBC Documentary. King Arthur, ‘Once and Future King’. Consulted on 24-04-2016.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQaI4yzGeRw

YouTube Links

#1 Interview – Tour Guide Glastonburty Abbey https://youtu.be/HV1foyJzGDg

#2 Interview – Tour Guide Tintagel Castle https://youtu.be/hg-ROUH3K4o

#3 Interview – Owner King Arthur’s Great Halls https://youtu.be/RYPFD0xl1qg