the iucn bulletin world conservation...crocodile (wwf-canon/michel roggo), cuban painted tree snail...

The IUCN Bulletin

The species tradeCITES in the new millennium

World Conservation

Number

32002

2 World Conservation 3/2002

The Species TradeCITES in the new millennium

CONTENTS

Cover photograph, centre: a Zulu diviner (isangoma) collecting medicinal tubers inmontane grassland in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa (A.B. Cunningham). Side bands,left from top: feathers of scarlet macaw (WWF-Canon/Anthony B. Rath), Cubancrocodile (WWF-Canon/Michel Roggo), Cuban painted tree snail (WWF-Canon/MichelRoggo), Apollo butterfly (WWF-Canon/Hartmut Jungius), unidentified cactus (WWF-Canon/Anthony B. Rath). Right from top: bark of monkey puzzle tree (WWF-Canon/Edward Parker), hard coral (WWF-Canon/Sylvia Earl), Johnston’s chameleon (WWF-Canon/Martin Harvey), spring adonis (IUCN/Wendy Strahm), African elephant (WWF-Canon/Martin Harvey).

Why CITES?

3 A ‘Magna Carta’ for wildlife YolandaKakabadse

4 Growth and adaptation of aConvention David Brackett

6 A thumbnail guide to CITES AlisonRosser and Sarah Ferris

7 Never a dull moment Interview withWillem Wijnstekers, Secretary-General ofCITES

Making it work

9 Sharpening CITES’ teethTomme Rosanne Young

11 SSC and CITES: change andadaptation David Brackett

13 UNEP-WCMC: for the recordGerardo Fragoso

Wildlife and livelihoods

14 Rural economies: cashing in TeresaMulliken

16 In the soup: the Asian turtle crisisPeter Paul van Dijk

Looking ahead

30 Choosing the best routeSteven Broad

31 Trade tracking in the 21st centuryStephen V. Nash

32 The future of CITES: a personalperspective Jim Armstrong

35 Between mind and heartAchim Steiner

17 Medicinal plants: just what thedoctor ordered! Uwe Schippmann

17 East Asia: a ray of hopeCraig Kirkpatrick

18 From the shop window to thefrying pan, molluscs mean businessMary Seddon

19 Bushmeat: recipe for extinctionRob Barnett

20 Getting your goat: trophy huntingfor mountain ungulatesMarco Festa Bianchet

Marine resourceson the menu

22 Fisheries: finding the right balanceKevern Cochrane

23 The view from Madagascar ClaudineRamiarison and Andrew Cooke

25 Sturgeon make a comebackCaroline Raymakers

26 Pregnant males set a precedentfor CITES Amanda Vincent

Regional perspectives

27 Good management makes goodneighbours Malan Lindeque

28 Regional groupings: the EUexperience Christoph Bail

29 Central America: speaking withone voice Mauricio Castro Salazar

WWF/KLEIN & HUBERTPETER PAUL VAN DIJK EDWARD G. LINES/SHEDD AQUARIUM

WWF-CANON/MARTIN HARVEY

WWF-CANON/HARTMUT JUNGIUS

USFWS/J&K HOLLINGSWORTH

World Conservation

(formerly the IUCN Bulletin)

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Editor: Nikki MeithContributing editor: Peter Hulm

CITES issue was producedin partnership with

Contributing editors:Alison Rosser and Maija Sirola

Executive Editor: Elaine ShaughnessyManaging Editor: Deborah Murith

© 2002 International Unionfor Conservation of Nature

and Natural ResourcesVolume 33, No. 3, 2002

ISSN: 1027-0965Cover concept: L’IV COM Sàrl

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3World Conservation 3/2002

For almost three decades the Convention on InternationalTrade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora hasbeen regulating trade in species of conservation concern,including snakes, butterflies, cactus, seahorses, snails andspiders – as well as the more familiar elephants, rhinos andtigers – whose survival is threatened by international trade.

By most accounts, the treaty has been a resoundingsuccess: it is among the largest conservation agreementsin existence, with 160 Parties to date. Under its protection,such species as the vicuña, the Nile crocodile and thewhite rhino have increased in population.

But the world has changed a great deal since CITES wasadopted, and the Convention continues to evolve to keeppace. The forthcoming 12th meeting of the Conference ofthe Parties (COP) in Santiago, Chile (3–15 November 2002)presents an opportunity to consider the past, present andfuture of CITES, as seen through the eyes of its staff, itsenforcers, and its conservation partners.

A ‘Magna Carta’ for wildlifeYolanda Kakabadse

CITES?Why

The Union considers itself one of the closest partnersof CITES. Much of our work – particularly in the realmof species conservation – is directly or indirectly re-lated to its everyday implementation.

The idea behind CITES originated at the 1963 IUCNGeneral Assembly in Nairobi. IUCN members wereconcerned at the damage that exploitation for inter-national trade was having on wild species, and calledfor an “international convention on regulation of ex-port, transit and import of rare or threatened wildlifespecies or their skins and trophies”.

For the remainder of the decade IUCN’s legal team,led by Wolfgang and Françoise Burhenne, preparedsuccessive drafts and circulated them to governmentsand non-governmental organizations.

Another aspect of IUCN’s work at this time, theRed Data books, influenced the process: the originaltreaty drafts were based on the idea that wildlife tradewould be controlled on the basis of lists of threatenedspecies to be drawn up and regularly updated by ex-perts. However, some of the big wildlife exportingcountries – mainly developing countries but also theUS – objected, saying that each state should have itsown list. A compromise was found and presented to

the 1973 Conference of Plenipotentiaries held at thePentagon in Washington, D.C.

The resulting ‘Washington Convention’, signed by80 countries on 3 March 1973, was called a‘Magna Carta for wildlife’. It entered into force on 1July 1975, and today the number of Parties is 160 andgrowing.

UNEP, freshly created at the 1972 Stockholm Con-ference, contracted IUCN to provide secretariat serv-ices and facilities through 1984, when UNEP took over.

Today the Union’s role in CITES is more scientificthan legal, yet we still take pride in our contribution tothe Convention’s birth.

This special issue of World Conservation will look atCITES as it operates today, and consider how it couldbe better. In it we will see further evidence of howCITES, the Convention on Biological Diversity, IUCN’sown Programme and those of its Commissions, andindeed all the major international agents of environ-mental conservation are beginning to gather on com-mon ground, find common cause, and pursuecommon goals.

Yolanda Kakabadse isPresident of IUCN.

The green tree python Morelia viridis, an arboreal rainforestspecies in Australia, was listed on CITES Appendix II in 1977.

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WHY CITES?

From the largest mammal in existence, the blue whale,to the dainty swallowtail butterfly, from the rarest or-chids on the planet to the mighty mahogany and ramintrees, CITES regulates trade in a great variety of spe-cies. All have one factor in common – the interna-tional community has decided to cooperate to ensuretrade is not detrimental to the survival of species.

Now 27 years old, CITES is one of the older andarguably more successful multilateral environmentalagreements. Although established some time beforecontemporary views on international governance andresource ownership came into vogue, CITES was none-theless far-reaching in outlook.

The Preamble establishes the principle that all na-tional governments have sovereign rights and respon-sibilities over their wild species and equally thatinternational cooperation is essential for effectivemanagement of international trade. In addition toappreciating the beauty of wild species, the draftersalso recognised their increasing value. Perhaps mostimportant in this era of conservation consciousness,when sustainable development and benefit-sharingare pillars of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity, the objective of CITES is to ensure that any

exploitation of wild species for trade is sustainable forgenerations to come.

Hard law, soft law

Species are included in three Appendices to the Con-vention, which provide different levels of protectionfrom trade (see page 6). These are amended at thebiennial meetings of the Conference of the Partiesand result in the most substantive decisions that aretaken, as they are enshrined in ‘hard law’.

In addition to the amendments, the COP also dis-cusses changes to its resolutions and decisions, al-though as ‘soft law’ some discretion can be exercisedin implementing these texts.

CITES has broad global coverage, with 160 Partiesat the last count. With regional representation on com-mittees, the Convention brings together a wide rangeof views on the best approaches to regulating exploi-tation for international trade so that it does not threatenspecies. The Parties overtly recognised the benefits oftrade in 1984, and this approach underpins many ofthe sustainable use programmes that the Conventionhelps to regulate.

Non-detrimental trade

According to the Convention, any trade in AppendixII species (see page 6) should be non-detrimental(see box, page 5), but over the years some Partieshave had to struggle to fulfil this requirement. Conse-quently, a review of trade in Appendix II species wasinstituted to assist Parties in managing tradesustainably. This Significant Trade Review (see box,page 5) allows the Plants and Animals Committees tohighlight specific problems that individual Parties mayhave in trying to determine whether that trade is sus-tainable and thus make targeted recommendationsto particular Parties. These recommendations mayinclude, for instance, limited trade bans or restric-tions in the volume of trade and can be a useful tool tohelp a Party get its trade in a particular taxon onto asustainable footing.

Unforeseen consequences

The ability to use trade restrictions is one of CITES’strengths, by giving it a means to enforce compliance.

But some trade restrictions have had unforeseenconsequences, as when trade has switched to a simi-lar taxon or to specimens from a different range state,or when it encouraged ex situ captive breeding/artifi-cial propagation that did not provide benefits to therange states. After 10 years of operation, a review ofthe effectiveness of this process would help to make iteven better at helping Parties meet their obligations.

Inclusion in Appendix I has been a mixed successfor a number of species, and in cases where demand

Growth and adaptation of a ConventionDavid Brackett

A mixed record

Spix’s macaw Cyanopsitta spixii was declared extinct in the wild in1999, despite being fully protected by CITES since 1975. Over thisperiod, more than 60 birds have been successfully bred in captivityunder CITES coordination. The tiger is teetering on the brink withsuccessive resolutions urging Parties to take further measures. Rhinopoaching remained high for a decade after all species were includedin Appendix I, but for the last 8–10 years the combination of AppendixI listings and investment in small rhino sanctuaries has prevented theresurgence of high levels of poaching. Populations of white rhino haveincreased substantially.

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is high, inclusion in Appendix I may be too slow tostop the downward trend of populations. However,in general we can only speculate about what mighthave happened if CITES were not in place.

A major drawback of Appendix I is that once a spe-cies has been included in Appendix I there is no proc-ess under the Convention to review the management ofthat species. The reasoning is that by protecting thespecies from international trade its status will at leastremain stable if not improve. But many species, evenif not affected by illegal international trade, are useddomestically as a source of food, medicine, etc., andso their status may well continue to decline.

Collaborative management

In recent years CITES has encouraged more collabo-rative management, first through the elephant andhawksbill turtles Dialogue Processes (see box)through which range states have been drawn togetherto discuss trade in particular taxa. A second examplearose from responses to the significant trade review:caviar-producing Caspian range states committed toa joint management plan for the shared resources ofthe Caspian Sea (see page 25).

A third example has been the convening of work-shops on species which, although not yet listed in theAppendices, are causing concern to CITES Parties.These include species as diverse as birdsnest soupswiftlets, sharks, seahorses, Asian turtles, and animalshunted for bushmeat.

Thus CITES is evolving to meet 21st century re-quirements for more collaborative management atthe ecosystem level, and is addressing the issue ofsustainability more proactively than before.

David Brackett is Chair of theIUCN Species Survival Commission.

Non-detriment Findings by CITES Scientific Authorities arerequired before export permits can be issued for Appendix IIspecies. This process is meant to ensure that trade in thesespecies is non-detrimental to their survival and, by implica-tion, sustainable.

The Significant Trade Review is a detailed technical reviewof Appendix II species for which trade levels may be a problem.The review includes conservation status, management andthreats; monitoring and reporting of trade; and the effects ofCITES implementation. It is followed by the development ofrecommendations for remedial action.

The CITES Dialogue Process provides governments thatare range states for a particular CITES-listed species with theopportunity to exchange views in a meeting free from exter-nal pressure. With the close involvement of IUCN/SSC per-sonnel, Specialist Groups, and TRAFFIC, the dialoguemeetings are held to review the most current information avail-able on key trade issues, find compromise and consensus,and communicate the results clearly to the CITES Parties.

Some success stories

Under CITES protection white rhinos Ceratotherium simum have increasedfrom a few hundred individuals to more than 10,000.

International trade in lemurs is strictly regulated byCITES. Today they are relatively safe from hunters,although deforestation remains a serious threat.Pictured: Verreaux’s sifaka Propithecus verreauxi inMadagascar’s Berenty Reserve.

Before snowdrops Galanthus spp. were listed in 1989there was a large unsustainable trade. Today there ismuch-improved monitoring and regulation, especially inthe main source country, Turkey. Pictured: Galanthuselwesii from Turkey’s Taurus Mountains.

WHY CITES?

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A thumbnail guide to CITESAlison Rosser and Sarah Ferris

CITES is administered by a Secretariat based in Geneva, Switzerland. The Secretariat plays a coordinating,advisory and servicing role in the working of the Convention. Its staff carry out the duties assigned to them bythe text of the Convention, and the resolutions and decisions of the Conference of the Parties. There are threetechnical committees:ä The Animals and Plants Committees deal with scientific matters referred to them by the COP and the

Standing Committee.ä The Nomenclature Committee rules on issues of CITES taxonomy.

National arrangements

Within each Party, CITES is administered by a national Management Authority responsible for issuing permitsand certificates, and for ensuring compliance with the provisions of the Convention. A national ScientificAuthority in each country advises the Management Authority on technical matters relating to the sustainabilityof trade in particular species.

The Appendices

The Convention’s three Appendices lie at the heart of CITES opera-tions, by naming the species under its protection.

Appendix I species are those threatened with extinction and are pro-hibited from commercial international trade, although captive bred orartificially propagated specimens and personal effects have specificexemptions/provisions.

Appendix II species are not necessarily threatened with extinction,but may become so unless subject to strict regulation and monitor-ing. It includes the majority of listed species. It also helps ensure thattrade in these species is sustainable. Before trade can be sanctionedby the exporting Management Authority, the Scientific Authority mustdetermine that the trade will not be detrimental to the survival of thespecies (Non-detriment Findings: see page 5).

Appendix III species are those that national jurisdictions wish tosafeguard, and for which they require the assistance of other CITESParties to monitor trade. The inclusion of mahogany in 1998 hasshown that Appendix III can be very useful in terms of monitoringtrade, provided that Parties comply with its provisions.

Meetings of the Conference of Parties (COP)The purpose of the COP is several-fold and includes:ä amending the Appendices of the Convention;ä reviewing implementation of the Convention; andä considering any reports or recommendations of the Secretariat or any other Party.

The COPs are held approximately every 2½ years and last for 10 working days, with the 12th COP scheduledfor Chile in November 2002. Observers include intergovernmental organizations, United Nations bodies,representatives of other international agreements, non-governmental organizations and countries not yet partyto the Convention.

Before being dealt with by the Parties, most issues are first dealt with by Committees. Committee I dealswith all amendment proposals and other biological issues. Committee II deals particularly with issues relatingto implementation and enforcement.

Amendments to the Appendices may involve the addition or removal of a species from the Appendices or thetransfer of species between the Appendices. Amendment proposals can themselves be amended during theCOP to clarify the intent or to restrict the scope of the proposal. Parties credentials must be accepted for theirvote to count and a 2/3 majority of Parties voting is required. Votes may be taken by show of hands, roll call orsecret ballot.

A Resolution by the COP essentially provides guidance in interpreting the text of the Convention and aims toimprove and strengthen the Convention. Resolutions are usually quite long-lasting. There are currently 77Resolutions in force. A Decision tends to be more short-term and reflects the working programmes of thevarious Committees or Parties between the COPs.

Alison Rosser is IUCN/SSC Wildlife Trade Programme Officer.Sarah Ferris is IUCN/SSC Wildlife Trade Programme Intern.

The cycads are an ancient group of seed plants. While onceabundant, they are now all listed on the CITES Appendices.Pictured: a cycad in flower, Northern Territories, Australia.

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WHY CITES?

Never a dull momentAn interview with Willem Wijnstekers,Secretary-General of CITES

Question: What is the most outstanding feature ofthe Convention, and what have been its greatest suc-cesses?

Willem Wijnstekers: What has always surprised mehas been the ability of CITES to adapt to changes inthe way people think about conservation, to chang-ing conservation needs of the species it covers, tonew trade patterns, and the many other develop-ments since it was signed now almost thirty yearsago.

As for its successes, my top choice is the Conven-tion itself: CITES is the international legal frameworkthat would need to be invented today if it had notexisted already. Many wildlife consumer nationswould have taken the most disparate measures torestrict imports, and you can just imagine the addednumber of bilateral trade issues the World TradeOrganization would have to address.

CITES provides the platform for its 160 Parties toagree democratically on internationally applicabletrade measures. It has been enormously productiveand efficient in that respect. There are something like500,000 trade transactions annually under CITES pro-visions which lay down standard requirements, con-ditions and procedures for international trade in theinterest of the conservation of no less than 5000 ani-mal species and some 25,000 plant species.

How has the relationship between TRAFFIC, IUCN,SSC and CITES changed over the years?

IUCN, its Species Survival Commission and TRAF-FIC have from the very early days of CITES been itsclosest partners. Through the years our relationshiphas strengthened and matured. It is very importantfor an agreement such as CITES to be able to rely onobjective, scientific advice and supportive research.

What is the most exciting thing to happen in the Con-vention’s history?

First of all, a growing number of Parties are interact-ing continuously for the conservation of so many ani-mal and plant species. Of course these interactionsare highest during our two-week meetings of the Con-ference of the Parties (COP), the next one of which isimminent. These meetings, believe me, are very ex-citing. I have been to quite a few boring internationalmeetings over the last 25 years, but at a CITES COPthere is never a dull moment!

Another exciting feature is the enormous interestof civil society and very active participation of non-governmental organizations from all over the worldand with the most diverse areas of interest you can

imagine. It is surprising that in spite of big differencesof opinion between countries and among NGOs andin spite of sometimes heated and emotional debates,CITES meetings take place in a great atmosphere.

Many CITES decisions are exciting because of theirdirect impact on conservation and trade policies: theprohibition of commercial trade in wildlife commodi-ties, the restriction of international trade under quotasystems, or – unfortunately less frequent – the re-laxation of such restrictions because the conserva-tion status of a species has much improved.

What species survive today that would not have, hadit not been for CITES?

That’s very hard to say, because CITES is only part ofthe picture – sometimes small, sometimes big – sinceit addresses only international trade aspects. It can dolittle for species that are not commercially traded,but threatened as a result, for example, of habitatloss.

There are so many factors that influence the con-servation of species that no single organization canclaim success or be blamed for failure. But it is cer-tainly true to say that for species subject to high vol-umes of legal and/or illegal international trade, CITESis beneficial and in many cases a determining con-servation tool.

Where has CITES failed to deliver its promises andwhat can be done about it?

I don’t think CITES has ever made any promises. It is atool like any other, and you do not become a greattennis player just because you buy yourself a fineracket.

What I find disappointing, however, is the lack ofpolitical commitment in many countries that are a

The provisions for ranching of crocodilians is regarded as one of thegreat successes of the Convention. Pictured: researcher measuring acrocodile at a farm in Venezuela.

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Party to CITES. This leads to administrations unableto properly use the tool handed to them when theyjoined CITES. The human and financial resources madeavailable are insufficient, and not only in developingcountries. This affects negatively the legislative proc-ess and the capacity to implement and enforce theprovisions of the Convention, both from a technicaland a scientific point of view.

A directly related problem is the lack of financialresources that would allow the CITES Secretariat, to-gether with partners such as IUCN and TRAFFIC, tocarry out the many tasks it has been given by the Par-ties, and that have been made subject to the avail-ability of external funding rather than provided for inthe Convention’s budget. This creates false expecta-tions and frustration, in developing countries in par-ticular.

What are the burning issues CITES faces today?

The number and shape of burning issues has differedgreatly over the years. The most publicized andlonger-term issues come to mind first, such as rhi-nos, elephants, whales, sea turtles, tigers and stur-geon. These and other issues differ greatly from theproblems that led the 1963 IUCN General Assemblyto call for the adoption of an international conven-tion on trade in rare or threatened species or theirskins and trophies.

What has not been tackled so far, or tackled insuf-ficiently, is how CITES can be used in relation tointernational trade in species of high economic value– for example, the timber trade and commercial fish-eries. Where the latter is concerned, I am glad we havemade excellent progress concerning the conservationof sturgeon and the reduction of illegal trade in caviar.This clearly shows how CITES can have a positive effect,and I hope this success will reduce the suspicion

and doubts of people involved in similar large-scalecommercial activities.

What about CITES has surprised you?

What surprises me is that no matter what develop-ments in international trade in wild animals or plantshave occurred, CITES has always found a way to ad-dress them in a practical way. But what surprises memost – in the light of what I said earlier about theneed for increased political commitment – is the levelof dedication of so many people all over the worldinvolved in protecting wildlife in very difficult andoften dangerous circumstances.

What do you find most difficult in implementing theConvention?

Probably having to determine when a certain level ofinternational trade has a negative effect on the con-servation of a species. For most species there is aserious lack of scientific information, and that is thearea where CITES depends most on partners such asIUCN.

What do you see in your crystal ball? Where willCITES be in 10 years?

In 10 years time CITES will probably have full globalmembership and will not have lost any of its relevancefor species conservation. Again, CITES is very flex-ible and adaptable to emerging issues and it will cer-tainly be able to cope with future developments. Theopportunities offered by the continuously develop-ing electronic and multimedia technologies may yethave a lot in store for us, in terms of streamliningand simplifying the permit-based CITES control sys-tems.

Two years ago the Parties to CITES adopted a Stra-tegic Vision through 2005, and I hope that most of itsobjectives will have been achieved by then, or at leastby 10 years from now. That, however, requires farmore resources than are currently made available atboth national and international levels.

If you were granted a single wish relating to thefuture of CITES, what would it be?

International trade may just be one item on the longlist of environmental issues with which individualcountries and the international community have tocope, but if I could have one wish, CITES would finallyget the high priority it deserves. �

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On the CITES horizon is the question of how it can be used in relation tointernational trade in species of high economic value, such as timber. Pictured:logging camp in a mahogany forest on the Peru-Bolivian border.

Contact CITESVisit http://www.cites.org or write to:

The CITES Secretariat15 chemin des Anémones, 1219 Châtelaine

Geneva, Switzerland

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Making it

In its first quarter-century of operation, CITEShas demonstrated some real success atcontrolling a major catalyst of speciesdestruction: international trade in wildlife, partsand products. This success is founded in largemeasure on strong and effective monitoring,enforcement and oversight at all levels. Thenext quarter-century, however, already presentsnew challenges especially with regard toenforcement. This article examines some ofCITES’ enforcement successes to date, and thenature of the future challenges to be faced.

Sharpening CITES’ teethTomme Rosanne Young

arising both organically (within the Convention itself)and externally.

Listing explosion

Dealing with more than 30,000 species of plants andanimals in Appendix I and II clearly places an extra-ordinary demand on each country’s effort to imple-ment the Convention. Even with whole specimens, itis often difficult to equip officials with the know-howto recognise whether it is a listed species. Where in-ternational trade involves a “part, product or deriva-tive” of such a specimen, capacity to identify it becomeseven more complex and demanding.

Yet trade continues, and can be greatly disadvan-taged by delays. Clearly enforcing officers need ac-cess to experts, databases, identification techniquesand equipment, as well as training in the various CITESprocesses and permit systems.

Focus on controlled trade

Over 90% of CITES species are listed in Appendix II,and as a result, CITES is increasingly focused on con-trolled sustainable trade rather than prohibition.

It is always more complicated and costly (in bothhuman and financial terms) to ‘control’ somethingthan to prohibit it. Implementing officials in receivingcountries must evaluate the legitimacy of export per-mits presented, as well as the factors underlying thatpermit’s issuance. Each Party must maintain con-stant awareness of species numbers and status, andof the various side-effects of species trade, in order to

CITES provides a ‘double-edged sword’ to combat il-legal or destructive wildlife trade. Its mandatory con-trols on trade are imposed both when the specimenor product leaves the country of origin and when itarrives at an interim or final destination.

In practice, this approach is a major contributor toCITES’ success. Very promptly after the Convention’sentry into force, several major importer-countriesimposed strict import controls. Their action and itsimplementation had an immediate impact on theamount of trade, even though many of the exportingcountries were much slower in implementing theConvention.

A second reason for CITES’ effectiveness has beenits Conference of the Parties (COP), which has notonly continuously reviewed the lists of species andthe procedures of the Convention, but has stood as aguardian of the Convention’s process, censuring Par-ties that do not comply with their CITES obligations.CITES-related trade with such parties may be restrictedand, perhaps worse, the Party’s reputation amongecotourists, donors, and others may be negatively af-fected. The value of censure as CITES’ primary en-forcement tool, sometimes disparaged, has provenquite significant.

CITES was adopted in 1973 as a matter of urgency.A perilous situation faced many rare, important, andvaluable species. Three decades later, however, theConvention must evolve and address the ongoing, non-urgent but still important, issues of the times – to liveup to its potential as a ‘sustainable development’ con-vention. The forces mandating this evolution are

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Confiscated elephant tusks and rhino horn at the customs of SchipholAirport, Amsterdam.

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participate effectively in setting and implementing in-ternational quotas.

Demand for the rare

Demand for the rare is a major challenge facing CITES,whether it involves trophy hunting of species facingextinction in the wild or harvesting of products whoseappeal is their perceived rarity.

Examples of the latter include ivory and tortoise-shell, which were originally in demand for their physi-cal characteristics of carvability and plasticity. Fewsubstances could be worked artistically and still pos-sess the hardness, colour and resilience of ivory. Simi-larly tortoiseshell could be worked and moulded intomany items of value (adornments, dressing table items,etc.). However, progress has eliminated this value,and modern plastics have become the chief competi-tors of tortoiseshell. Today’s demand for ivory andtortoiseshell appears to be exclusively a function oftheir rarity.

Economic principles recognise that the harder it isto fulfil demand, the higher the price. Where supply iscontrolled or curtailed, the price will continue to spiralas long as demand exceeds supply. And therein liesthe seeds of one of the most important challenges forCITES.

The new criminality

In recent years, an alarming shift has becomeapparent – smugglers and criminals who have, inthe past, focused on commodities such as drugs andstolen artworks are turning instead to trade in listed

animals and plants. Sometimes, the black-marketvalue of these commodities is astounding; but evenwhere it is not, the profits of this trade can besubstantial.

The pernicious inducement to criminals to trade inspecies arises because the penalties involved are of-ten very low. In a recent, non-systematic evaluationof CITES violations in the EU, it was found that theincidence of capture of repeat offenders carryingcommercial quantities of specimens (in some caseshundreds of live or preserved amphibians or birds) isincreasing.

Only a small percentage of these offenders are im-prisoned, and the financial penalties imposed are usu-ally less than the value of specimens involved. Bycomparison with the treatment accorded other typesof offenders this slap on the wrist is almost laughable.

The heightened demand for wildlife products con-tributes to spiralling increases in their value, so thatmany smugglers can afford a level of technology thatis unavailable to officials combating wildlife crime.

Looking for answers

In the long run, the solutions for CITES’ new chal-lenges will not be simple. Simply tightening the con-trols on species movements and increasing penaltieswill not be enough. The most proactive and inde-pendent judges will rarely assess high penalty levels,even when the law allows it, unless the majority of thelocal, law-abiding citizenry feels that the offence‘deserves’ them. Priority must be given to developingmore effective means of influencing public opinion,both to affect demand, and to support the impositionof appropriate penalty levels, particularly in import-ing countries.

Sharpening both edges

Ultimately, more than this is needed. Both edges ofthe CITES sword must be sharpened. On the exportside, Convention processes are already giving in-creased attention to the sustainable use of AppendixII species as a national resource. Once legal marketsdevelop at rational levels, the spiralling inflationcaused by unfulfilled demand may reach a ‘steadystate’, which can begin to remove the incentive forcriminal trading, at least to a level that it can be prop-erly policed.

These efforts complement, and are complementedby, CITES’ recognition of the relationship betweenspecies listing and the conservation of non-listed spe-cies and their habitats (through, for example, the CITESlisting criteria and the Significant Trade processes).

Beyond this, CITES can be viewed within the con-text of many global and regional conventions thataddress habitat and species issues. Together they willhelp create a rational world market for wildlife prod-ucts – and give CITES its proper position as the pre-eminent ‘sustainable use convention’.

Tomme Rosanne Young is Senior Legal Officer at theIUCN Environmental Law Centre.

The permit system

Appendix II listing does not bar international trade in a species, butto trade in them the exporter must secure a government-issued per-mit which certifies that the specimens to be traded were legally ob-tained, and that exporting them will not be detrimental to the survivalof the species.

Mongolian nomad ‘ger’ or tent in an Ulaan Baatar museum, covered by morethan one hundred snow leopard skins. Although pelts are no longer used forthis purpose, illegal hunting remains a significant factor contributing to thecritical status of this and other indigenous species.

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MAKING IT WORK

SSC and CITES: change and adaptation

David Brackett

The IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) hascontributed to the success of CITES since the veryinception of the Convention, by providing informa-tion on the status of species listed in the Appendicesor threatened by international trade.

In 1987, the first reviews of the amendment pro-posals appeared, now known as the IUCN Analysesfor short. These are currently produced by the IUCN/SSC Wildlife Trade Programme (see below), collect-ing biological inputs from SSC experts and others, andthe TRAFFIC Network (see box, page 12), collectinginformation on trade related aspects.

The Trade Specialist Group (TSG), which laterevolved into the Wildlife Trade Programme, startedthis review process in 1987 for COP6. An independ-ent review of the Analyses after COP11 concluded thatthey are highly valued by the Parties. In particular, thereputation of IUCN and TRAFFIC for producing ob-jective work is important in ensuring the credibility ofthe Analyses.

In response to requests from the Parties, the Wild-life Trade Programme also continues to update andpublish CITES: a Conservation Tool, a guide to theprocess of listing species in the Appendices that isnow in its seventh edition.

Expert advice

Many Specialist Group experts attend the COPs toprovide advice and expertise, either through the IUCNdelegation, or in many cases as members of Partydelegations. Over the years, these have included PeterJackson, former Chair of the Cat Specialist Group,well-known in CITES tiger negotiations, and HollyDublin of the African Elephant Specialist Group, whobrought scientific rigour to the CITES Elephant Dia-logues. Who can forget Harry Messel’s commandingpresence and his group’s innovative approach tocrocodilian conservation, tirelessly carried forwardby Perran Ross as the group’s Executive Officer; orJack Musick and Sarah Fowler’s contributions to plac-ing sharks on the CITES radar screen; Graeme Webb’sand Jon Hutton’s insistence that CITES address theneed for conservation and sustainable development?The Medicinal Plant Specialist Group, although a rela-tive newcomer, has made its presence felt through itsfirst Chair, Uwe Schippmann. Bertrand von Arx, Chairof the Carnivorous Plants Specialist Group, Vice Chairof the CITES Plants Committee, and member of theSSC Plant Conservation Committee, epitomizes theclose relationship of many SSC members to CITES.

The new criteria

In 1994, in line with SSC’s efforts to bring science intoCITES’ decision-making, SSC members from a rangeof taxonomic Specialist Groups, led by Simon Stuart

and Georgina Mace, helped begin the development ofobjective and transparent Criteria for the listing ofspecies in the CITES Appendices. While the Partieseventually adopted criteria that were only loosely basedon the advice of IUCN, the change marked a majorstep towards more rigorous decision-making. Thesecriteria are now due for review at COP 12. It is impor-tant that Parties consider the impacts of furtherchanges on the entire range of species that have to beassessed.

Wildlife Trade Programme

The IUCN/SSC Wildlife Trade Programme was set up over 12 yearsago to improve SSC’s scientific input to CITES. In recent years itsfocus has broadened to encompass a wide range of trade issues.

The programme has worked with SSC Specialist Groups to iden-tify species threatened by trade and to recommend actions to ad-dress these threats. This information is relayed to decision-makerswithin the international conservation community.

The Programme works in collaboration with its partner organiza-tion TRAFFIC.

Non-detrimentfindings

In 1998, recognising theimportance of makingnon-detriment findings(see page 5), the WildlifeTrade Programme in col-laboration with the CITESSecretariat drew togetherSSC experts, and scientificauthority staff from arange of Parties for aworkshop to developguidance on reachingsuch findings. The result-ing Checklist is now being

Stars of species conservation: (above) Bertrandvon Arx, Chair of the IUCN/SSC CarnivorousPlants Specialist Group and (below) HollyDublin, Chair of the African Elephant SpecialistGroup, with a Kenyan elephant researcher,Mr Kennedy.

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tested as part of a training package developed by theCITES Secretariat.

Changing priorities

CITES does need to change to adapt to the 21st cen-tury. More attention should be paid to evaluating theimpact of trade regulation on people’s livelihoods, andto the consequences of trade restrictions in channel-ling trade from South to North.

Unfortunately, enforcement of regulations is oftenlow on the list of national priorities for many coun-tries. Given these circumstances, it may be time foran evaluation of the impacts of various CITES proc-esses and an exploration of the use of incentives as amore creative way forward.

That said, much of CITES’ strength lies in the coop-erative ability of Parties to encourage better manage-ment, either through regional collaboration in themanagement of shared resources such as the Caspiansturgeon stocks, or national management by impos-ing trade restrictions when necessary. Working withthe Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), CITEScan begin to encourage a more holistic approach toensure that international trade is non-detrimental tothe survival of species. The recent adoption by CBDof its Global Plant Strategy recognises the role of CITESin this regard.

Up-to-the-minute data

IUCN/SSC is entering a new era through developmentof our Species Information Service, an electronic in-formation management system to assist SpecialistGroups collect and disseminate up-to-the-minute sta-tus information. Collaborating with TRAFFIC, we aimto develop a trade module to supplement the biologi-cal status information.

With these scientific tools SSC can continue to con-tribute to CITES’ efforts to gauge the effectiveness ofits monitoring and enforcement activities.

David Brackett is Chair of the IUCN Species SurvivalCommission. Visit http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/

TRAFFIC

TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network,works to ensure that trade in wild plants andanimals is not a threat to the conservation ofnature. TRAFFIC is a joint programme of WWFand IUCN.

It was founded in the mid-1970s to gatherand analyse wildlife trade data and identify il-legal trade and assist in the implementation ofCITES. John A. Burton, its first Chair, was in-strumental in laying the foundations of the or-ganization, raising funds and assembling staff.Since then, TRAFFIC has developed its role inaddressing wildlife trade issues in a wider con-text, including major commercial sectors suchas fisheries and timber trade and a wide rangeof regional and local issues.

Over a quarter of a century, TRAFFIC hasdeveloped from a single office into a global net-work of 23 offices in eight regional programmesaround the world.

SSC formally recognises TRAFFIC as its pri-mary source of expertise on trade data, andTRAFFIC recognises SSC as its primary sourceof expertise on the biological status of speciesin trade. By combining the data produced bythe two organizations, the impact of trade onwild species can be assessed.

For more on the history of TRAFFIC network,visit http://www.traffic.org/25/network1.htm

The second edition of Crocodiles. Status Survey andConservation Action Plan (1998) is now available fromthe World Conservation Bookstore.

CITES: a Conservation Tool, edited by Alison Rosser,Mandy Haywood and Donna Harris, is a guide to theprocess of listing species in the Appendices. Theseventh edition (2001) is now available from the WorldConservation Bookstore.

For a full list of IUCN/SSC Action Plans and informationabout the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, visithttp://www. iucn.org/themes/ssc/

A TRAFFIC officer inspects confiscated goods in Amsterdam.

Available from IUCN:

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The UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre(UNEP-WCMC) has more than 25 years’ experiencein monitoring trade in endangered species of wildlife.

Under an agreement with the CITES Secretariat,the Centre keeps trade records of CITES-listed spe-cies reported by the Parties in their annual reports.Information is also received in the form of copies ofexport permits sent to the CITES Secretariat for veri-fication.

The resulting computer database is unique andcurrently holds over 4.7 million records on trade inwildlife species and their derivative products.

The information dates from 1975, when a mere 148trade records were reported, to the present, and isconstantly being updated as further annual reportsare received. Since 1986 more than 200,000 traderecords have been reported annually. In addition tothe trade records themselves, the database holds some40,000 scientific names and synonyms.

As well as basic trade monitoring, UNEP-WCMCcarries out analyses of the data for the CITES Techni-cal Committees and for countries preparing propos-als to amend the CITES Appendices. Much work isalso done for the European Commission, includingthe provision of reports for its Scientific Review Group.

Species data

UNEP-WCMC also maintains a more general SpeciesConservation Database of information on specieslisted by CITES as well as by other internationalinstruments, part of which is common to The IUCNRed List of Threatened Species (see www.redlist.org).

From this database, the Centre provides supportto the CITES Nomenclature Committee and producesan updated checklist of CITES species and an anno-tated history of the CITES Appendices following eachConference of the Parties.

Ecosystem approach

Increasingly, Parties to CITES recognise the need toexchange data with neighbouring countries for theappropriate management of common resources. Arecent example of the need for this ecosystem approachto species monitoring emerged from the discussionsat COP11 on the hawksbill turtle Eretmochelysimbricata in the Wider Caribbean Region.

UNEP-WCMC was subsequently entrusted with theestablishment of a Data Sharing Facility to assist themonitoring of turtle populations in the region. ThisFacility is now bringing together more than 70 expertorganizations to produce its on-line database.

There are several other initiatives of this naturerelevant to CITES and implemented by UNEP-WCMCin collaboration with other members of the UNEPfamily. These include: the World Digital Atlas of

Marine Mammals and the Atlas of Great Apes, bothwith the UNEP Division of Environmental Conventions,and the Marine Turtle Interactive Mapping System forthe Indian Ocean and South Pacific Regions, with theConvention on Migratory Species.

Gerardo Fragoso is Head of theSpecies Programme at UNEP-WCMC.

Visit http://www.unep-wcmc.org/

UNEP-WCMC: for the record

Gerardo Fragoso

Monitoring elephants: MIKE and ETIS

Given the polarity of opinion among the CITES Parties on the sub-ject of elephants, it is crucial that their decisions on elephant issuesbe based on the best possible information.

MIKE and ETIS are monitoring tools used by CITES in the com-plex business of assessing policies for trade in elephant products.MIKE stands for Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants and ETISfor Elephant Trade Information System.

MIKE represents a milestone in species conservation: for the firsttime samples of representative populations will be monitoredthroughout the range of the species by means of a cooperativeeffort of the range states concerned.

These systems emerged after the 10th meeting of the Confer-ence of the Parties as expert systems to provide information to theParties on illegal activities involving elephants.

Visit http://www.cites.org/eng/programme/mike_etis.shtml

This shipment of about 700 ricefield terrapins Malayemys subtrijuga wasconfiscated on 15 March 2000 at Ninh Binh, Viet Nam, en route to northern VietNam and allegedly onwards to food markets in southern China. Data from suchconfiscations are recorded in the UNEP-WCMC trade database.

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Wildlife

Many rural households in developing countries de-pend on wildlife resources, both plants and animals,as a source of products for subsistence and sale togenerate a cash income. Most of the wildlife har-vested for sale is sold within the country where it origi-nates. Markets from small villages to major urbancentres teem with wildlife products including fruits,honey, wild meat and fish, medicinal plants, baskets,furniture and construction materials, fuelwood, and

in some cases live animals. For species such as theCITES-listed African elephant Loxodonta africanaand the South African aloe Aloe ferox, however, asignificant share of products traded are destined forforeign markets.

Trade and trade controls: the human factor

CITES was developed with the clear mandate to pro-tect wild species from over-exploitation for interna-tional trade. Little attention was paid to how CITEStrade controls might impact on the lives of peoplewho depended on the trade in CITES-listed species.The report, Making a Killing or Making a Living:Wildlife Trade, Trade Controls and Rural Livelihoodsby the International Institute for Environment andDevelopment (IIED) and TRAFFIC examines this ques-tion through a literature review and a case study inTanzania’s East Usambara Mountains.

The study found that despite making an importantcontribution to rural livelihoods, the internationalwildlife trade is poorly documented. Information onthe trade in CITES-listed species is somewhat better,though not when it comes to its economic benefits forrural communities. Nevertheless, some preliminary

The wildlife business

The international wildlife trade, both legal andillegal, is a major commercial activity. It is esti-mated to be worth a minimum of 10 billion to 20billion dollars annually and to involve millions ofwild plants and animals every year. According tothe CITES trade database maintained by UNEP-WCMC, 19 million bulbs were exported from Tur-key and 360,000 rainsticks were exported fromChile and Peru during 1999. From 1995–1999legal international trade in CITES-listed speciesinvolved over 250,000 (Appendix II) and1,250,000 (Appendix III) live birds, 640,000 livereptiles, about three million reptile skins, 150,000furs, almost 300 tonnes of caviar, over 1 millionpieces of coral, and 21,000 hunting trophies.(Source: European Commission, DG Environment)

Wildlife trade ranges from live animals andplants to a vast array of products derived fromthem, from food, timber and leather goods tomusical instruments, souvenirs andmedicines. Trade, combined with factors suchas habitat loss, can deplete species to levelsclose to extinction, and remove the naturalresources on which innumerable humanlivelihoods depend.

Rural economies: cashing inTeresa Mulliken

LIVELIHOODSand

According to the UNEP-WCMC trade database, 19 million bulbs wereexported from Turkey in 1999.

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Making a Killing or Makinga Living: Wildlife Trade,Trade Controls and RuralLivelihoods examines theimpacts of CITES andother wildlife tradecontrols on rurallivelihoods. It results froma project carried out bythe International Institutefor Environment andDevelopment (IIED) andTRAFFIC and funded bythe UK Department forInternational Development.

Largest consumers

The US is the world’s largest consumer of wildlife products. Everyyear it imports as many as 10,000 primates, several million orchids,250,000 live birds, two million reptiles and 200 million tropical fish,along with millions of wildlife products found in items such as cloth-ing, jewelry, and medicines (Source: Wildlife for sale, WWF-US, 2000).

The EU is the second largest market for CITES species estimatedto represent one third of the world market. Legal EU CITES imports inrecent years are estimated annually at 7000 primates (30% of globaltrade), 850,000 live birds (65% of global trade), 55,000 live reptiles(15% of global trade), 800,000 plants (75% of global trade), 150 tonnesof caviar (50% of global trade) (Source: European Commission).

conclusions could be drawn regarding the trade, tradecontrols and rural livelihoods.

Income from the export of wild specimens such asAloe ferox from South Africa continues to be impor-tant to the rural poor. In some cases increased CITEStrade controls can have a major impact on rural in-comes with little conservation benefit, as seems to bethe case for the Appendix I listing of Goffin’s cockatooCacatua goffini.

In others, CITES can help bring trade back withinsustainable levels, supporting conservation andlivelihoods, as has been shown for vicuña Vicugnavicugna.

CITES does not operate in isolation, however. Na-tional restrictions on access to resources and marketsare often more important in shaping trade and ben-efit flows, as are shifts in markets. These are ofteninfluenced by CITES debates and decisions, as has beenthe case for African elephants.

Captive breeding and artificial production of manywild species is increasing, including species used forthe pet trade, medicinal and ornamental plants. Thisis likely to reduce the incomes of rural harvesters,who are often the poorest members of theircommunities.

A tool for development

CITES is increasing its attention to development is-sues, and can and should be a powerful tool to helppeoples and governments achieve both developmentand conservation objectives. The CITES community,industry and consumers will need to increase theirappreciation of the importance of wildlife trade torural livelihoods. Further, CITES decision-makingprocesses will need to change, so that socio-economicas well as biological information is considered, andtake account of lessons learned from projects aimedat community-based wildlife management and non-timber forest product development. This will requiremore effective partnerships with the developmentcommunity and better links with the Convention onBiological Diversity.

Teresa Mulliken is Research andPolicy Coordinator for TRAFFIC.

Visit http://www.traffic.org/

Millions of orchids areimported by the US and

Europe each year.Right: Cypripedium

flavum from Betahei inChina. Below: orchidhouse in Jersey, UK.

Out on a limbtogether: red andgreen macaw Arachloroptrus andcommon squirrelmonkey Saimirisciureus in Brazil.European Unionimports account for65% of the globaltrade in live birds and30% of the globaltrade in primates.

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WILDLIFE AND LIVELIHOODS

Among the many conservation challenges facingAsia, the turtle crisis stands out as being particularlyserious.

In the past decade, the already severe habitat im-pacts were joined by an even bigger threat to the sur-vival of Asia’s tortoises and freshwater turtles: massdemand for turtles for consumption in East Asia. In-tensive collection of turtles of all sizes in several coun-tries has led to depleted populations, after which newsources were developed in other places, depletingmore populations and species. As a result, 67 species– more than two-thirds of Asia’s 90 species of tor-toises and freshwater turtles – are now consideredthreatened with extinction and included in the IUCNRed List.

Gathering our forces

Many individuals and organizations are cooperatingto deal with the Asian turtle crisis. A major workshopheld in December 1999 defined the scope and extentof the problems, while another in January 2001 or-ganized isolated efforts to breed threatened speciesin captivity into a comprehensive strategy involvingrange states and volunteer efforts across the world.

In April 2000, CITES Parties agreed to include all 10species of the Asian box turtle genus Cuora in Appen-dix II, in an attempt to bring one of the most obvi-ously over-exploited turtle groups within sustainabletrade levels. In addition, several countries, notably thePeople’s Republic of China, Viet Nam and Cambodia,significantly strengthened their species protection andtrade regulation controls. The farming of one par-ticular species, the Chinese soft-shelled turtlePelodiscus sinensis, has met a significant part of mar-ket demand for turtle meat with a reliable supply ofsustainably produced turtles. This seems to have re-duced exploitation pressures on remaining wild popu-lations of this and other freshwater turtle species.

Finding solutions

In the clearest statement yet to show that CITES Par-ties are concerned about Asian turtles, even thoughmost species are not included in the CITES Appendi-ces, the Parties instructed the CITES Secretariat toorganize a workshop to develop ways to cope withthe crisis. This workshop was held in Kunming, China,in March 2002, and brought together government rep-resentatives from 12 Asian countries and regions.

The participants discussed a wide range of issuesand considered a variety of measures that will con-tribute to solving the crisis. These measures includedfarming of turtles, making non-detrimental findingsfor trade in CITES-regulated species, improving traderegulation by including additional species in the CITESAppendices, improving national legislation and en-forcement, developing solutions for the disposal ofconfiscated animals, and increasing awareness of au-thorities, traders, consumers and other stakeholders.Facilitated by the workshop, twelve proposals for theinclusion of Asian freshwater turtle genera and spe-cies were submitted to the CITES Secretariat for de-liberation at the next Conference of Parties.

There remain great challenges to ensure that Asia’stortoises and freshwater turtles survive in the wild,but the progress made in the past few years is impres-sive and gives much hope for the future.

Peter Paul van Dijk is a Deputy Chair of theIUCN/SSC Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle

Specialist Group.Visit http://www.chelonian.org

In the soup: the Asian turtle crisisPeter Paul van Dijk

Available from TRAFFIC:Available from TRAFFIC:Available from TRAFFIC:Available from TRAFFIC:Available from TRAFFIC:Asian Turtle Trade: Proceedings of a Workshop onConservation and Trade of Freshwater Turtles andTortoises in Asia. Chelonian ResearchMonographs Number 2. Edited by Peter Paul vanDijk, Bryan L. Stuart, and Anders G.J. Rhodin.Chelonian Research Foundation. 2000.http://www.traffic.org/publications/pubs_tesa.html

In 2000 all ten species of Asian box turtle including Cuora galbifrons (pictured)were added to Appendix II.

Shells of butchered turtles are broken up and sold asingredients in traditional oriental medicinal preparationsin the market of Guangzhou, China.

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The past two decades have seen an in-creased global interest in herbal medi-cines, but only recently has CITES openedup to the issues of medicinal plant over-utilization.

In its early days, CITES’ focus on plantswas limited to ornamental groups like or-chids and cacti, where the internationaltrade challenge is unscrupulous collec-tors trying to get hold of novelties or thelast remaining specimens of diminishingpopulations.

In the 1990s attention shifted towardscommodity trade issues – primarily fortimber, but also for medicinal plants. Themajority of the 17 medicinal plant spe-cies now included in the CITES Appendi-ces were added after 1989.

Since its creation in 1994, the Medici-nal Plant Specialist Group (MPSG) hasprovided the expertise of its worldwidemembership to the CITES listing processwhich unrolls before every meeting ofthe Conference of Parties.

Establishing long-term and sustain-able use of medicinal plant resources is one of themajor objectives of the MPSG. With the exception ofSaussurea costus, which is listed on Appendix I, allmedicinal plant species included in CITES are listed inAppendix II. This means that trade from wild sourcesis possible but has to be carefully monitored by CITESAuthorities, and consignments must be accompaniedby the appropriate documentation.

Including a species in Appendix II does not im-prove the situation without proper implementation.The CITES Significant Trade Review process is de-signed to identify gaps and deficits and to make CITESmore effective. From 1996 to 1999 a cross-cuttingstudy was carried out by the German CITES ScientificAuthority to carefully review all CITES medicinalplants. Throughout this process, many members ofthe MPSG contributed data and assessments.

Uwe Schippmann is Head of theCITES Scientific Authority for Plants,

Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Bonn, Germany.The CITES Medicinal Plants Significant Trade Study can

be obtained from [email protected]

Medicinal plants: just what the doctor ordered!Uwe Schippmann

East Asia: a ray of hopeCraig Kirkpatrick

People will stop using endangered species as medi-cine if given proven alternatives. This clear messagecame from a TRAFFIC survey of traditional medicinedoctors in Korea carried out in 2001. These doctorsstill prescribe some endangered species because theyknow of no substitutes. However, most of these doc-tors would immediately prescribe substitutes if proveneffective.

An additional ray of hope comes from the TRAFFICsurvey, Attitudes of Hong Kong Chinese Toward Wild-life Conservation and the Use of Wildlife as Medicineand Food. Most people will not use traditional medi-cines if it threatens a species with extinction. Manypeople who take traditional medicines are unaware oflaws prohibiting the use of endangered species suchas tiger and rhinoceros. They will stop if they learn itis against the law.

TRAFFIC’s surveys show clear avenues for conser-vation action. Research is also needed to prove theefficacy of alternatives to medicines currently madewith endangered species. TRAFFIC East Asia is com-mitted to the conservation of traditional medicinesthrough education and research such as this.

Craig Kirkpatrick is Regional Director,TRAFFIC East Asia.

Available from IUCN: Available from IUCN: Available from IUCN: Available from IUCN: Available from IUCN: The Medicinal PlantConservation Bibliography, produced by the MPSG ,collects information on the distribution, life history,biology, population status, levels of extraction andtrade, and resource management of medicinal planttaxa. Volume 1 covers 1990 to 1996, Volume 2, 1997to 2000.

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At the last COP the spring adonis Adonis vernalis was included in Appendix II. Found inEurope and Siberia, this attractive flowering herb is used in homeopathy and folk medicine.It has become threatened in many European countries due to collection and habitat loss.


Molluscs are the second most diverse group of fauna,with an estimated 135,000 species in the world. Themain ones that are exploited are bivalves (freshwaterand marine), gastropods (mainly marine) andcephalopods (squid, octopus and cuttlefish). The levelof exploitation is high, and the profits can be signifi-cant.

CITES is an excellent tool for monitoring and regu-lating shell and shellfish industries which might other-wise unsustainably exploit the resource. However,the species listed were mainly proposed in the firstdecades of CITES.

Clams and conchs

Nine species of giant clams (Family Tridacnidae) wereincluded in CITES Appendix II in 1983 and 1985, someof which are range-restricted and more threatenedthan others. The main threat lies in uncontrolled ex-ploitation, which has already led to localized extinc-tions in some countries. Clams are mainly used fortheir meat, with the major exports going to East Asia.In many countries their shells are used for decorativearts and in the aquarium trade. Some of the traffic isillegal, due in part to ignorance of the requirementsfor import and export licences.

In addition, more than 60,000 live animals are tradedinternationally each year, and in 1997 over 70% weredestined for the US. Since successful ex-situ breedingprogrammes now exist, a higher proportion of theclams imported are now captive reared.

The queen conch Strombus gigas, in great demandfor its succulent meat, was listed on CITES AppendixII in 1992. It has since been reviewed under the

From the shop window to the frying pan,molluscs mean businessMary Seddon

Significant Trade processes in 1992 and 2001 (see page5). In the second half of the 1990s this Caribbeanconch was one of the most traded CITES species, withan annual trade of at least 50 million individuals rep-resenting US$60 million, mainly to the US and EU. Itsshells are also used for decorative arts, although thelabelling will often indicate that the shell is a by-prod-uct of a sustainable shellfish industry.

To improve the management of these fisheries,more uniformity between management practices(e.g., periods with closed seasons), establishment ofagreed ‘no-take zones’, and a greater degree of stockmonitoring are needed.

Mussels in demand

In the US, during the late 1800s and early 1900s,manufacturing pearl buttons was an important com-mercial freshwater industry – at least until the ad-vent of plastic buttons in the 1940s. Today thecommercially-harvested shells are exported to Asiafor the production of beads which are inserted intoother shellfish to produce pearls. Japanese demandfor the high-quality US mussel shells is high, and ex-ports peaked in 1991 at more than 9000 tonnesalthough it has now levelled off to about 4500 tonnes.


Breeding farm for giant clams Tridacna spp. in Palau, Micronesia.

The shell trade for tourists is a serious threat toMadagascar’s marine resources.

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As a result of this harvesting, there are 29 freshwatermolluscs on CITES Appendix I or II.

Extending CITES’ mantle of protection

Many industries in Asia and the Indo-Pacific use shellsfor ornamental craftwork, button-making and pearlproduction. In some countries there is already legis-lation to regulate catch levels and export trade. How-ever, declines in harvesting levels have been reportedfor species such as chanks Turbinella spp., thin-shelledcapiz Placuna spp., and abalone Haliotus spp.

The use of taxa such as Nautilius in the aquariumtrade has also attracted some attention recently. Be-cause these species are slow breeders there was con-cern at the level of harvest in some countries. Similarly,little work has been done to evaluate levels of trade inmore widespread species of cephalopod, although thereis a significant volume of trade in these species.

Bushmeat: recipe for extinctionRob Barnett

The African continent faces a serious crisis due to anincreasing demand for the meat of wild animals foran ever-growing human population. This crisis is welldocumented in West and Central Africa, where manypopulations of threatened species of antelopes andprimates are becoming endangered by their use andtrade as food.

Research shows that wildlife, traditionally viewedas a dietary supplement, has also become a keysource of food and legal tender in Eastern andSouthern Africa. Moreover, there is growing evidencethat this crisis is not just an African issue, but of para-mount importance in other regions such as SouthAmerica, East Asia and South East Asia.

Throughout the world, wildlife populations withinand outside protected areas are being greatly af-fected by the illegal killing of wildlife for meat – theso-called use and trade of ‘bushmeat’. Bushmeat isnow believed to constitute one of the largest singlefactors adversely affecting wildlife populations inmany regions of the world.

In the Congo basin of Central Africa alone, thebushmeat trade involves some 2.5 million tonnes ofmeat each year, while the trade in such West Africancountries as Ghana is about 385,000 metric tonnesper year – representing a significant contribution tothe countries’ Gross Domestic Product. In the South-ern African country of Mozambique, the trade ofbushmeat in just one city – the capital Maputo – isabout 604 tonnes per year.

In South East Asia, the trade in freshwater turtles(see page 16), reptiles and pangolins for their meat isalso reaching alarming levels, as is the meat-motivatedtrade in peccaries in South America.

Consequently, the bushmeat trade is of immediateconcern to the conservation community as well as

those engaged in rural development and food secu-rity issues. Without bushmeat the well-being of largesectors of society is in jeopardy. However, efforts toprovide a social solution are necessarily long-term,whereas the scale of the current problem also requiresimmediate remedial action.

Practical solutions

Following a period gathering baseline information onthe dynamics of bushmeat use, TRAFFIC – the wild-life trade monitoring arm of WWF and IUCN – is seek-ing to implement practical solutions that address boththese short and long-term issues.


In some parts of the world shells are ground up foruse in the manufacture of perfume and incense. Phar-maceutical industries also use molluscs to derivebioluminescent dyes and for antibiotics. In many casesthe volume and type of shells used for these purposesand for traditional medicines are not known.

Much work will be required to review those spe-cies that might be affected by increasing levels of tradeand of commercial fishing and harvesting in recentdecades. We need ever-more effective mechanismsto protect molluscs in trade from becoming threat-ened, and CITES listing should be among them.

Mary Seddon is co-Chair of theIUCN/SSC Mollusc Specialist Group

and Head of the Mollusca National Museum of Wales.Visit http://bama.ua.edu/~clydeard/

IUCN-SSC_html/index.htm

Bushmeat takes its place among other natural products at a market in BeninCity, Nigeria.

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First, a project funded by WWF Netherlands is be-ing implemented in the East Africa region to help avertthe short-term loss of threatened species in the re-gion. This will be done by establishing the capacity ofwildlife authorities to identify meat samples to thespecies level, thereby providing more effective en-forcement of national wildlife legislation and CITESregulations.

A second but no less important aim of TRAFFIC isto address some of the more fundamental social fac-tors that have led to the bushmeat crisis. TRAFFIC’spast and ongoing work on the dynamics of the illegaltrade in bushmeat has led to the conclusion that solu-tions must involve a community-based approach thattackles the fundamental social demand for bushmeatamong rural and urban poor. Such an approach islikely to be based on the replacement of illegalbushmeat with legally derived sources of game meat.

While solutions to the bushmeat issue are now be-ginning to be implemented, greater effort needs to bemade now by the conservation community and thoseengaged in rural development and food security is-sues. Landowners and those holding rights over com-munal land need to get a tangible benefit from thesustainable management of the bushmeat resource.

Only when benefits accrue to landholders and otherstakeholders can wildlife play a truly sustainable rolein community development, and by doing so, ensureits own continued survival.

Rob Barnett is Senior Programme Officer atTRAFFIC East/Southern Africa.

Getting your goat:trophy hunting for mountain ungulatesMarco Festa Bianchet

are much sought after by trophy hunters. Hunts forCaprinae can cost from US$8000 to $40,000. The mainfocus of the substantial and expanding trade in wildsheep and goats is the hunting of mature males (‘trade’is defined by CITES as the movement of a commodityacross international borders). Though internationaltrophy hunters cross borders with the head and capeof harvested animals, they actually buy the opportu-nity to hunt live animals in their natural habitat.

To produce mature males with trophy-size horns,populations require good habitat and little or nopoaching. Consequently, the IUCN/SSC CaprinaeSpecialist Group (CSG) has long been interested inpartnerships with hunting groups to ensure thattrophy hunting is used to foster conservation. Because

Wild sheep and goats, or Caprinae as they are collec-tively termed, have always awakened a sense of awein people, because they live in inhospitable, spec-tacular and often remote mountains. Geographicisolation has led to the evolution of several distinctsub-species. In many areas, wild Caprinae are threat-ened by over-grazing by domestic livestock, exoticdiseases, habitat destruction and illegal hunting. Sev-eral species are protected from the impact of interna-tional trade through inclusion in CITES Appendix I orII. A novel conservation approach involving trophyhunting, however, appears to be paying dividends incertain areas.

Caprinae are majestic animals, and getting to theirhabitat is physically challenging. Consequently, they

Available from IUCN: Links between biodiversityconservation, livelihoods and food security: thesustainable use of wild species for meat, a jointpublication of IUCN/SSC, FAO and TRAFFIC. Seehttp://www.iucn.org/bookstore

Available from TRAFFIC: Food for Thought: TheUtilization of Wild Meat in Eastern and Southern Africa.Edited by Rob Barnett, TRAFFIC East/Southern Africa,2000. See http://www.traffic.org/publications/pubs_tesa.html

Tangible benefits: in Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of Congo,tourists collect around mountain gorillas Gorilla beringei beringei, increasinglyendangered by the bushmeat trade.

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population monitoring and species identi-fication are vital to any management re-gime that aims to ensure the long-termsurvival of the population, the CSG has beenworking with partners to develop the ap-propriate knowledge base.

CSG members are involved in field-work and research in several countriesin Central Asia, assisting in the collectionof information on the status of species tofulfill the requirements of the CITES non-detriment finding. For instance, Drs BillWall and Andrey Subbotin, supported bythe Safari Club International Foundation,including the Conseil International de laChasse, helped finance a survey of argaliOvis ammon in Mongolia, and are advis-ing that country on developing a nation-wide management strategy.

In February 2002, in cooperation withthe WWF-Central Asian Biodiversity Pro-gramme, they surveyed argali in thePamirs of Tajikistan. In April, in conjunc-tion with the CITES Secretariat, the USFish & Wildlife Service and TRAFFIC, theyhosted a workshop in Bishkek,Kyrgyzstan, to explain international regulations suchas CITES and to stimulate the implementation of Con-servation Hunting Programmes in Tajikistan,Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Mongolia, Uzbekistanand Turkmenistan.

Pros and cons of trophy hunting

Clearly, reliable species identification is vital to theimplementation of CITES. Species identification is anobstacle to conservation of Caprinae, particularly inAsia because experts disagree on taxonomy and fewpeople can identify subspecies. The CSG thereforeheld a workshop on Caprinae taxonomy in Ankara,Turkey, in 2000.

Can trophy hunting foster conservation of moun-tain ungulates? We can point to some successes, forexample in the Torghar area of Pakistan, where trophy

hunting of both markhor Capra falconeri and urialOvis vignei produced revenues for hiring more than60 local people as game wardens. The hunting rev-enue may be instrumental in reducing the impact oflivestock grazing on wildlife habitat. Populations ofboth species have substantially increased since theimplementation of the programme, which enjoysstrong support from local people. Consequently, theCSG has supported the yearly export ofup to six trophies of markhor, a CITESAppendix I species.

In other cases, however, there is littleor no evidence that funds from trophyhunting are used for conservation. Tro-phy hunting of mountain ungulates pro-duces large revenues. If well regulated, itis sustainable because it is aimed only atmature males.

The key for conservation lies in ensur-ing that revenues from hunting pro-grammes produce tangible conservationbenefits in the local area. Continuedcooperation between the IUCN CSG,hunting groups, various levels ofgovernment and internationalconservation agencies is crucial to ensurethe future of mountain ungulates.

Marco Festa Bianchet is Chair of theIUCN/SSC Caprinae Specialist Group and a researcher

at the Département de biologie,Université de Sherbrooke, Québec, Canada.

For the report of the taxonomy workshop seehttp://callisto.si.usherb.ca:8080/caprinae/taxo.htmA game guard keeps watch over the Khyber Pass.

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Wild Sheep and Goats and theirRelatives (1997) is available fromthe World Conservation Bookstore.

Hunting of markhor Capra falconeri for their trophies is extremely lucrative, bringing benefitsto local people, incentives to protect habitat, and enough revenue to hire about 64 gameguards. For this reason, the export of a small number of trophies is allowed from the Torgharregion of Pakistan in spite of Appendix I listing.


Global trade threatens marine species around the world, as over-exploitationcombines with climate change and habitat destruction to deplete essentialresources. According to FAO, some 75% of the world’s fish stocks are fully orover-exploited. Accordingly, at the recent Earth Summit in Johannesburg theworld community committed themselves to restoring fisheries to their maximumsustainable yield levels by 2015. From sharks to sturgeon to seahorses, marinespecies are rising higher on the international agenda.

Fisheries: finding the right balance

Kevern Cochrane

With a few exceptions, CITES has so far had littleimpact on commercial fisheries around the world.There are signs that this could change, however, andthis has led to concern among some member coun-tries of the Food and Agriculture Organization ofthe United Nations (FAO) that the CITES listing cri-teria might not be appropriate to deal with exploitedand managed fishery resources. They brought theseconcerns to a meeting of the FAO Committee onFisheries (COFI) Sub-Committee on Fish Trade inBremen, Germany in June 1998.

This was the start of a long and productive scien-tific review by FAO of the CITES criteria and listingprocess as applied to commercially-exploited aquaticspecies.

Dissenting views

In spite of progress, there is still disagreement amongFAO members as to the role and function of CITESin relation to commercially exploited aquatic spe-cies. Some countries have reservations about CITESinvolvement in resources exploited by fisheries, be-lieving that FAO and the mandated regional fisher-ies management organizations (RFMOs) are theappropriate international bodies on fisheries andfisheries management.

However, other countries see a useful role forCITES in fisheries management as a supplement to,but not a replacement for, traditional fisheries man-agement.

This dissent reflects similar disparities at the na-tional level and the FAO process has highlighted theneed in many countries for improved communica-tion between the fisheries authorities and those re-sponsible for CITES-related matters.

Call for change

At a meeting in 2002, the COFI Sub-Committee agreedthat there is a need for important changes in the

FAO’s shark plan: good intentions, little progress

Modern fishing technology and improved access to world markets havetogether caused an increase in fishing effort and catches of sharks,skates and rays. More than 100 countries report shark landings toFAO each year, with 18 reporting annual landings of more than 10,000tonnes/yr.

Recognising the need for international cooperation to manage sharkfisheries, in February 1999 FAO adopted the International Plan of Ac-tion for the Conservation and Management of Sharks, as endorsed bythe FAO Committee on Fisheries.

Today, more than three years later, only 29 states have reported anyprogress implementing the plan. Of these, just five states have SharkAssessment Reports (SAR) or National Plans of Action (NPOA) avail-able for public consultation and review. All of the national plans reviewedfail to meet some of the standards recommended by FAO.

– Alison RosserVisit http://www.fao.org/fi/ipa/manage1.asp

Marine resourcesON THE MENU

Shark fins drying for market in the Philippines.

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CITES criteria and evaluation process if the Conven-tion is to play a constructive role in conserving aquaticendangered species subject to commercialexploitation.

FAO has forwarded to CITES a series of generalrecommendations, including (1) the best scientific in-formation available must be used in considering anypopulation for listing or de-listing, (2) each proposalneeds to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis througha strengthened scientific process and (3) that nationaland regional fisheries agencies need to be more in-volved in formulating and evaluating proposals. Morespecific recommendations address the criteria them-selves.

FAO members also plan to explore the implica-tions of the CITES listings, especially in relation to thelook-alike clause (whereby species are listed in Ap-pendix II when the specimens in trade look like thoseof species listed for conservation reasons); split-list-ing (listing on more than one Appendix); listed speciesproduced through aquaculture; and the administra-tive and socio-economic implications of listing anddown-listing.

A long way to go

Clearly, there is much work to be done before agree-ment can be reached among the national representa-tives to FAO about an appropriate role and mechanismfor CITES for commercially-exploited aquatic species.

Nevertheless, good progress has been made. TheFAO process has improved awareness and knowledgeof CITES among fishery agencies and has resulted ina good working relationship between the twoSecretariats.

Kevern Cochrane is a Senior Fishery ResourcesOfficer, Marine Resources Service (FIRM), FAO.

See http://www.fao.org/

The view from MadagascarClaudine Ramiarison and Andrew Cooke

Madagascar possesses one of the richest assemblagesof marine resources in the Western Indian Ocean.Dugong, dolphins, sea turtles, tuna, sharks, sawfish,sea cucumbers, shrimp, crayfish and gastropods areamong many high-value species exploited for localconsumption or international trade.

This exploitation is of considerable importanceto the livelihoods of coastal communities, and isregulated by a patchwork of traditional, legislativeand international controls rarely enforced in prac-tice.

Since Madagascar ratified CITES in 1975 it hashad difficulty managing its international trade forsustainability, particularly of reptiles. This led to arecent ministerial order suspending all cross-bor-der trade in CITES-listed species.

However, systems being developed for commu-nity-based management of natural resourcescould help to manage resource exploitation at thelocal level.

Patterns of exploitation

There are essentially two types of fishery in Madagas-car. The industrial, based from ships: it targets off-shore tuna, bill-fish and sharks (as bycatch) andnear-shore penaeid shrimp.

The traditional form is carried out from dugoutcanoes. It embraces virtually every edible or saleableresource including marine mammals, bird eggs, seaturtles, fish, sharks and rays, echinoderms, molluscs,crustaceans and sea weeds. Non-edible resources suchas aquarium fish, corals and sponges are occasionallycollected. In addition, a semi-industrial fishery for seacucumber is growing, illegally using SCUBA to reachdeeper species.

Madagascar is rich in marine resources, some of which are exploited for bothlocal consumption and international trade. Pictured: bringing in the day’scatch at Anakao near Toliara, south-west Madagascar.

MARINE RESOURCES

Although some marine species are listed on variousAppendices, such as queen conch, hard corals, andgiant clams, debate continues as to whether or notmarine fish should be listed. Pictured: hard and softcorals for sale in Limbe Town, Cameroon.

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Domestically protected and CITES-listed species,such as dolphins, dugong and sea turtles, do not escape.All are to some extent hunted for meat, which is soldor bartered locally, while the sale of turtle shell stilloccurs openly in tourism centres.

Several non-protected, non-CITES listed, high valuemarine species are intensively hunted. Of these, sharkstocks are reportedly locally in decline, with a declinein fin exports since 1992. Sea cucumber exports rosefrom 1991–1994, but have since declined and similarlylobster yields have also declined. The ornamental shelltrade is substantial, but inadequately monitored.

Involving communities

In response to these problems, Madagascar is cur-rently piloting various forms of community-basedmanagement of marine resources.

Thus communities near Anakao, the Great Reef ofToliara, and at Tolagnaro are working variously in con-sultation with local authorities, the Ministry of Fisher-ies and local tourism operators to limit excessiveofftake and reduce conflict. Strategies include estab-lishing no-take zones and gear restrictions as well asre-investing income from tourism into conservationand social projects. Static resources such as sea cu-cumber, lobster and ornamental shells are the mostsusceptible to these management systems. Mobileresources such as shark pose greater challenges!

Needed: a ‘whole system’ approach

The case of Madagascar illustrates a discrepancy be-tween the management of international trade throughCITES and in-country management of marineresources.

First, local management fails to prevent domestic ex-ploitation of CITES Appendix I species where theirprime local importance is as food (turtles, dolphin,dugong) rather than for trade.

Second, CITES provides no controls over non-listedspecies that are intensively exploited and importantfor trade (sea cucumbers, sharks and crayfish) whilelocal management offers some prospect for rationalexploitation.

It follows that there needs to be an integration ofinternational trade controls and local managementinto a ‘whole system’ approach to effect managementalong an entire product stream from collection to enduser.

Adding value

Currently, pilot programmes of reptile managementare seeking to integrate local communities as part-ners in the commercialization of species, adding valueat the collection stage. This should contribute to betterconservation of resources.

The recently formed Western Indian Ocean Sus-tainable Use Specialist Group and the new Madagas-car Sharks Group (which is linked to the SSC SharkSpecialist Group) are now seeking to develop collabo-ration between the Government of Madagascar andcommunities to implement these new approaches.

Claudine Ramiarison is Executive Director of SAGE(Support Services to Environmental Management),

and President of the Western Indian OceanSustainable Use Specialist Group (WIOSUSG),

Antananarivo, Madagascar.

Andrew Cooke is Director of RESOLVE Consulting(advisory services in law and natural resources

management), Antananarivo, Madagascar.

Visit http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/susg/susgs/woii.html

Updated versions of the Shark and Cetacean ActionPlans will soon be available from the WorldConservation Bookstore. Other Action Plansparticularly relevant to CITES-listed marine species:Mediterranean Island Plants (1996); Tortoises andFreshwater Turtles (1989); Otters (1990); Seals, Fur Seals,Sea Lions, and Walrus (1993).

For a list of TRAFFIC publications on shark fisheries and trade, visithttp://www.traffic.org/publications/pubs_sharks.html

For information on marine fisheries at COP12, see http:/www.traffic.org/cop12/resources.html

Local management fails to prevent domestic exploitation of CITES Appendix Ispecies such as turtles, dolphins and dugong whose prime local importance isas food rather than for trade. Pictured: a female green turtle Chelonia mydasreturns to the sea after nesting.

Available from IUCN:

TRAFFIC on-line

Available from TRAFFIC Europe:

Review of Trade in Live Corals from Indonesiaby Caroline Raymakers, August 2001.

Elasmobranch Biodiversity,Conservation andManagement. Proceedingsof the InternationalSeminar and Workshop,Sabah, Malaysia, July1997. Occasional Paperof the IUCN SpeciesSurvival CommissionNo.25.

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All 27 species of sturgeon and paddlefish – that is, theentire Order Acipenseriforme – have been includedin the CITES Appendices since June 1997. (Entry intoforce of the listing was delayed to April 1998.)

These fish are quite remarkable, many of them liv-ing for over one hundred years. Some reach a lengthof two metres and weigh in excess of 1000kg. Re-stricted to the northern hemisphere, they occur mainlyin the Caspian Sea and Black Sea, yet are also found inthe US, Europe, Siberia, China and Central Asia.

Considered among the world’s most valuablewildlife resources, sturgeon are renowned in worldmarkets for their roe or caviar, which for some spe-cies may sell for US$6000 per kg. The rare beluga isthe largest sturgeon, and produces the most highlyprized caviar.

Heavy fishing and trading pressure led the Partiesto include all species in either Appendix I or AppendixII and to begin a Significant Trade Review of the 23species included in Appendix II.

The CITES Animals Committee concluded from thereview undertaken by TRAFFIC and IUCN that, for anumber of species in 11 range states, non-detrimentfindings were not being made appropriately. Long listsof tailored actions linked to strict deadlines wererecommended, particularly to four of the Caspianrange states.

In the meantime, the Caspian Environment Pro-gramme (CEP) prepared a joint Caspian fisheries re-search expedition in the summer of 2001 to assessstock status. Scientists from four Caspian nationsparticipated along with international experts in echo-sounding techniques. CEP’s partners in this venturewere the United Nations Development Programme,with funds from the Global Environment Facility (GEF)and the European Union’s TACIS programme (Tech-nical Assistance to the CIS – Commonwealth of Inde-pendent States). This work helped to demonstratethe extent to which CITES and CEP effectively com-plement each other.

Ultimately, the Significant Trade Review resulted inthe Paris Agreement, adopted by the Caspian rangestates at the 45th Standing Committee meeting toprogress towards co-management of their jointresources.

More is neededThe progress made by the range states in sturgeonfishery provides a bedrock on which to build furtherimprovements. There is still a need to develop stand-ardized methodologies for stock assessments and forassessing the effectiveness of restocking programmes.

Moreover, effective control of the domestic caviarand sturgeon meat markets is proving elusive, butmust be tightened up through market inventories andthe cooperative development of trans-border anti-

poaching units. Reference tissue samples of all stur-geon species are needed to assess the legality of ex-ports. And finally, further work is needed on theuniversal labelling system for caviar to include re-exports and local production.

The outlook for sturgeon has recently brightenedconsiderably with a commitment by Russia to regu-late its domestic market so that only legally-harvestedsturgeon products can be sold.

Caroline Raymakers is RegionalDirector for TRAFFIC Europe.

Sturgeon make a comebackCaroline Raymakers

Sturgeon Specialist Group

The IUCN/SSC Sturgeon Specialist Group works to increase scien-tific collaboration and raise awareness of the need to control poach-ing and illegal trade, improve social-economic conditions for peoplethat live in the areas where sturgeons occur, and improve regionaland international cooperation through agreements for the Amur River,Black Sea, Azov Sea, and Caspian Sea. In early 2001 it gatheredmore than 40 experts and caviar traders from 11 countries in Moscowto identify priorities and actions for sturgeon conservation.

The International Caviar Importers Association (ICIA) has recentlyagreed to provide a grant of US$10,000 to support the Group’s work.

Sturgeons of the Caspian Sea and the international trade in caviar by T. DeMeulenaer and Caroline Raymakers is available from IUCN.

European Union countries alone import some 150 tonnes ofcaviar annually. Pictured: caviar for sale in Astrakhan, Russia.

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Seahorses, and other syngnathid fishes – pipefishes,pipehorses and seadragons – are highly unusual inthat the males alone brood their young on or in theirbodies. It is perhaps no surprise that such quirkyanimals should lead CITES to think creatively abouthow best to address over-exploitation.

Many syngnathids are heavily traded for traditionalmedicines, tonic foods, ornamental display and curi-osities, to a level that has helped deplete many wildpopulations. These are valuable resources to thou-sands of subsistence fishers and medicinally impor-tant medicines to millions of other people.

CITES’ approach to the issue of trade in these fisheswas wonderfully novel, promoting conservation en-

gagement without originally debat-ing a listing proposal. Australia andthe USA considered proposingtrade controls at the 11th Confer-ence of the Parties in 2000, but fi-nally decided that this action wouldbe premature and might do moreharm than good. Instead, they sub-mitted a discussion document topromote action.

Their caution was rewardedwhen the Parties decided unani-mously to take action on behalf ofsyngnathids – an unusual consen-sus in the case of marine fish. TheAnimals Committee has been busyever since, collating trade data andmanagement information submit-ted by Parties, facilitating a techni-cal workshop in May 2002, and

Pregnant males set a precedent for CITESAmanda Vincent

developing a discussion document for considerationat the 12th Conference of the Parties.

The CITES consultative process led to new evidencethat the seahorse trade and associated conservationproblems had grown sufficiently to require govern-ment intervention. As well, it became clear that manystakeholder groups were requesting managementguidelines for seahorse fisheries, although not neces-sarily through CITES.

After considering a wide array of options, the CITEStechnical workshop on seahorses and othersyngnathids, and the CITES Animals Committee,recommended – as a partial conservation contribu-tion – Appendix II listing for all seahorses, thus sup-porting a proposal to this effect from the United Statesof America.

The delay in proposing an Appendix II listing untilthe 12th Conference of the Parties has fostered con-siderable dialogue on seahorses and their relatives.Such collegiate discussion should help promote col-lective international engagement in managing theirtrade. Indeed, it is a hopeful sign that the Hong KongChinese Medicinal Merchants Association helped fundthe CITES technical workshop and called on its mem-bers to adopt conservation measures for syngnathids,although the Association remains wary of the Appen-dix II listing per se.

Amanda Vincent holds the Canada Research Chair inMarine Conservation at the Fisheries Centre,

University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.She is also Director of Project Seahorse and

Chair of the CITES Animals Committee’sSyngnathid Working Group.

Project Seahorse is a marine con-servation team that integrates re-search and management, whilecooperating with diverse stake-holder communities around theworld. Seahorses serve as wonder-ful flagship animals for grave prob-lems with overexploitation, wastefulbycatch, and habitat loss.Visit http://www.projectseahorse.org

Seahorse products at a market in Hong Kong. Seahorses are the subject of an unusual pre-listingdebate by CITES, since the taxa are not listed on any of the Appendices.

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REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Regional

Good management makes good neighboursMalan Lindeque

Much of the international trade in CITES-listed spe-cies originates from shared populations that are dis-tributed across national borders. Yet traditionallyCITES has been administered at the national level.

Wild species do not, of course, recognise geopoliti-cal borders. Therefore, where shared populations areconcerned, promoting CITES implementation at aregional rather than national level can have signifi-cant benefits. Moreover, limited human and finan-cial resources can be used more effectively, scientificand socio-economic know-how can be pooled lead-ing to better informed decisions about the possibleuse of these species, and regional management poli-cies can be developed that are adapted to the eco-logical and biological characteristics of the resource.

Regional approaches – sensible but rare

From an environmental perspective, harmonizedconservation policies and management regimes forspecies shared by different countries make sense.There are now many bilateral and multilateral agree-ments to conserve and manage marine wildlife re-sources, particularly those developed under theauspices of the Convention on Migratory Species(CMS). Such regional approaches usually include acommon legal framework, institutional arrange-ments, regular consultations, funding, and monitor-ing and compliance. CITES not only encompassesthese elements but has the added strength of meas-ures such as trade sanctions, to ensure better com-pliance with its provisions.

In spite of CITES’ apparent advantages for manag-ing trade and harvest of shared populations, regionalmanagement is still relatively uncommon under theConvention. One notable exception, however, is theagreement among several South American States con-cerning the conservation of the vicuña (Convenio parala Conservación y Manejo de la Vicuña) .

There are unfortunately many more instanceswhere CITES-listed species are subjected to poten-tially conflicting, and sometimes clearly incompatible,national conservation and management policies in thedifferent countries where they occur. Consequently,one of the greatest challenges facing CITES is to

develop effective mechanisms to ensure collabora-tion between countries that trade in products fromshared wild populations.

Beyond charisma

Some of the most complicated debates in CITES in-volve shared populations of so-called ‘charismatic’species, such as elephants, whales and marine tur-tles, where expectations differ about the most effec-tive means of conservation and management. TheConvention cannot necessarily contribute to settingup harmonized management regimes for such spe-cies, particularly when they are widely distributedthrough a large number of countries.

But recently, by instituting the Dialogue Process(see box, page 5) the Convention has assisted in im-proving the understanding of both global and localconservation issues and in encouraging cooperativeregional management decisions about shared re-sources. Dialogues have been held amongst the rangestates of the African elephant Loxodonta africana, andmore recently the range states of the hawksbill turtleEretmochelys imbricata in the Wider Caribbean.

Whether the topic is coral reef conservation, great apeextinctions, illegal trade or climate change, the environmentalconventions are beginning to find more and more overlap intheir interests, activities and sources of support. This is true atall levels, from global to local. CITES, like the other globaltreaties, is necessarily becoming more broad-based in itsapproach. Nowhere is this trend more evident than in CITES’promotion of harmonization, standardization andcommunication at the regional level.

PERSPECTIVES

A rare example of regional management of shared populations is theagreement among several South American countries to manage trade andharvest of the vicuña Vicugna vicugna.

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However, these dialogues have notyet resulted in the negotiation oflonger-term regional agreements.

The Review of Significant Trade(see box, page 5) offers a differentexample of the role CITES can playto promote more effective regionalcooperation. Under this review proc-ess, if trade levels are considered topotentially jeopardise conservationof the species, then the technicalCommittees or the Standing Com-mittee may make recommendationsto improve CITES implementation inparticular range states. In the caseof non-compliance the StandingCommittee may even recommend atrade suspension. These trade sus-pensions provide a powerful incen-tive to encourage Parties to takeremedial action, and rather surpris-ingly, the Parties to CITES have con-

tinued to support and strengthen the Significant TradeReview process in an era of opposition to prescriptiveinternational mechanisms.

Holistic approach

Before the potential of the Significant Trade Reviewprocess to encourage regional management was rec-ognised, it was not particularly successful in improv-ing the management of shared populations such asthe African grey parrot Psittacus erithacus and queenconch Strombus gigas. To overcome this, the Signifi-cant Trade Review process should now focus on pro-moting incentives to promote common institutionalarrangements; to undertake joint scientific studies in-volving assessment, monitoring and information ex-change, to decide jointly on levels of harvest andexploitation, and to collaborate on developing con-trols and CITES compliance. Preferably all this shouldbe tied up in longer-term agreements amongst therelevant countries.

An example of this more holistic regional approachis reflected in recent recommendations made by theCommittees concerning sturgeon conservation andtrade management in relation to the fisheries in theBlack Sea, the Amur River, and the Caspian Sea. In thecase of the Caspian sturgeon stocks, the StandingCommittee facilitated an unprecedented pact (theParis Agreement). This agreement includes a detailedprogramme of action by the sturgeon range states ofthe Caspian Sea on status assessment, quota setting,monitoring, law enforcement, the regulation of trade,the recovery of stocks, marking of specimens in trade,genetic identification of stocks, ex situ production andother issues.

This agreement has provided the framework formuch improved regional communication, coopera-tion and transparent decision-making, and also ap-pears to have enabled CITES Management Authoritiesto improve collaboration with other sectors of gov-ernment. It is hoped that a similar approach can even-tually be applied to species as diverse as queen conchin the Caribbean region, African grey parrots and otherparrot species in West and Central Africa, and saigaantelopes Saiga tatarica in Central Asia with the aimof establishing harmonized management systems asthe basis for further international trade.

Malan Lindeque is Chief of the ScientificSupport Unit, CITES Secretariat.

Regional groupings:the EU experienceChristoph Bail

Most international environmental agreements haveprovisions that allow Regional Economic IntegrationOrganizations, such as the European Community, tobecome parties in their own right. Consequently, theCommunity is a party to about 40 multilateral envi-ronmental agreements, including the Convention onBiological Diversity (CBD).

However, when CITES was first drawn up in 1973,this eventuality was not considered.

As one of the biggest wildlife markets worldwidethe EU nevertheless assumes its responsibility for sus-tainable trade in wildlife products. It has been imple-menting the Convention in all its Member States since1984, even though not all Member States were Par-ties then. And with the ratification of the Conventionby Ireland this year, all Member States of the Unionare now also Parties in their own right.

Stricter than CITES

EU legislation includes some provisions than are evenstricter than CITES, and which have influenced theConvention’s evolution. The Significant Trade Proc-ess (see page 5), for example, was based on EU law.

The African elephant Loxodonta africana has benefited from a DialogueProcess among its range states.

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Regional management has not yetbeen successful in protecting theAfrican grey parrot, but theSignificant Trade Review processshould help.

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REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES

Central America: speaking with one voiceMauricio Castro Salazar

At the 4th CITES COP in Gaborone, Botswana, in1983, the Convention was amended in order to allowaccession by regional economic integration organi-zations. For the amendment to enter into force, 54Parties must ratify it, and so far only 40 have done so.

The European Community’s accession to CITESwould be advantageous for the Convention, bringingincreased accountability, greater access, and financialbenefits. EU Member States already pay 35% of totalannual contributions. The European Commission sup-ports projects such as MIKE (see page 13) and theHawksbill Turtle Dialogue. Party status would pro-vide a better basis for such expenditure.

The European Community is strongly committedto achieving membership of CITES in the belief thatnature conservation will be the prime beneficiary.Accordingly, it looks forward to becoming a Party assoon as possible.

Christoph Bail is Head of Unit E3 “Developmentand the Environment, Mediterranean”, Environment

Directorate General, European Commission.

Central America is a ‘mega-diverse’ region whereapproximately 7% of the planet’s entire biodiversity isrepresented in an area that covers not even 1% of theworld’s landmass. A region with such extraordinarybiodiversity must be prepared to conserve it, under-stand it and use it rationally, as mandated by the sevenHeads of State when they signed the Central Ameri-can Alliance for Sustainable Development (ALIDES)in 1994.

Central America is an example of the will to facethe challenges of the new millennium. At the sametime as this region was negotiating peace after a pe-riod of military conflict culminating in the EsquipulasPeace Plan, it was also discussing how to manage itsecosystems and harmonize policies and environmentallegislation in the different countries. This is how theCentral American Commission on Environment andDevelopment (CCAD) came to be created in 1989, withthe object of establishing an integration agenda forsustainable development in the region.

Finding consensus

The seven Central American countries are increas-ingly determined to speak with a single voice in pre-senting a united position before the body of nations.By unanimous decision of the Council of Ministers,Central America’s position must be forged consensu-ally and in conjunction with Central American civilsociety, gathered together in CCAD’s permanentforum of civil society.

This voice is expressed by the pro tempore Chair, aposition that rotates geographically every six months

along with the rotation of the Chair of the CentralAmerican Integration System.

Recently, CCAD and IUCN, through its Environ-mental Law Programme and the Regional Office forMesoamerica, signed an agreement to strengthensome of CCAD’s technical committees; the CITES com-mittee will be among those that benefit. The purposeof this agreement is to keep committee members (oneper country plus two representatives of civil society)permanently informed about the Convention itself andabout the types and tendencies of positions being pre-sented at Conferences of the Parties.

After long and intensive working sessions, CentralAmerica is now in the process of putting into effecta unified regional authorization permit for trade inpermitted species, and recently concludedstudies inventorying mahogany forests and turtlecolonies.

Wealth and responsibility

The wealth of Central America lies in its diversity andhigh numbers of endemic plant and animal species.Conscious of the responsibility this wealth signifies,the Central American states are committed to takingsure steps forward in the implementation of CITES.

The next CITES COP will provide Central Americawith yet another opportunity to speak to the worldwith one voice, this time counselled by IUCN.

Mauricio Castro Salazar is Executive Secretary of theCentral American Commission on Environment and

Development (CCAD).

The European Commission helped finance the CITES Hawksbill Turtle Dialoguefor the Wider Caribbean, and supports projects such as MIKE. Party statuswould provide a better basis for such expenditure. Pictured: hawksbill turtleEretmochelys imbricata in Praia do Forte, Bahia, Brazil.

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aheadCITES is considered a successful convention.There is much talk of change and improvement,however, perhaps because one of theConvention’s strengths is its adaptability. But isit changing fast enough to maintain itsrelevance in a time of accelerating social andenvironmental transformation?

Looking

Choosing the best route

Steven Broad

CITES is often portrayed as a great success storyamong multilateral remedies to wildlife conservationproblems, its impact constrained only by the willing-ness of member countries to implement and enforceits provisions.

Its detractors, on the other hand, claim that CITES’provisions and approaches are based on out-datedand misguided assumptions about conservationthreats and incentives for change and that it is at bestineffective and sometimes even exacerbates the prob-lems it purports to address.

There may be elements of truth in both points ofview. CITES’ strengths lie in its comprehensive statemembership, in its detailed focus, in the Parties’ will-ingness to take binding decisions, in the accumulatedlearning from over 25 years of practice, in its rela-tively inclusive approach to civil society views andassistance (compared with many other multilateralfora), in the leadership role played by its Secretariat,in its apparent robustness in a political climatewhere non-tariff trade restrictions (howeverjustified) are generally frowned upon, and in theParties’ ongoing enhancement of the Convention’srather crude regulatory toolbox with a wide range

of supplementary measures adopted throughresolutions and decisions.

Some weaknesses

CITES weaknesses lie in:ä the narrow perspective of its decision-making (with

wider conservation threats and socio-economicdynamics frequently given scant attention);

ä its failure to internalize monitoring and evaluationof the impact of its trade measures;

ä the lack of a secure financial mechanism to ensureinvestment in implementation and enforcement;

ä the inordinate amount of time the Parties spenddiscussing a tiny minority of species (most of themlarge, grey mammals);

ä the inevitable limitations of a Convention text writ-ten three decades ago, in the Parties’ reticence toapply proven regulatory measures to commercialnatural resource sectors such as fisheries and tim-ber trades; and

ä its perceived isolation from other multilateral in-stitutions of importance in ensuring sustainable useof biodiversity.

The way forward

So how should we move forward? Continue tosqueeze the best possible result from CITES as itstands? Scrap CITES and write a new wildlife tradetreaty? Migrate CITES to become a protocol of theConvention on Biological Diversity and thereby placeits role in a wider conservation and sustainable devel-opment context?

None of these routes is an obvious favourite. Thefirst appears safe, but presents no clear solution formany of the weaknesses noted above. However, theother two options face what could be insurmount-able obstacles likely to arise from a rewriting process.The last, relatively minor, amendment made to thetext of CITES in 1983 is still not in force almost 20years later, ratifications not having been made byenough of the Parties at that time.

Whichever route is chosen, and it may involve ele-ments of all three, there is an urgent need for govern-ments to rationalize the approaches to conservationand sustainable development they pursue in differentmultilateral fora. This is not a matter of judging which

What about us? CITES is sometimes criticised for spending a great deal of timediscussing ‘large grey mammals’ and not enough on smaller, less popularspecies. Pictured: the Apollo butterfly Parnassius apollo (Appendix II) from theEastern Caucasus, Georgia.

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Plants from a nursery near Rio de Janeiro are prepared for shipment. Gettingaccurate trade data is a challenge, requiring standardized procedures and agood knowledge of taxonomy.

For the hard-pressed government official trying todetermine the taxonomy of the latest species pro-posed for export, and the equally hard-pressed cus-toms officer at the final destination, tracking CITEStrade is a challenge.

Yet the process is at the heart of CITES, helpingParties to assess the legality and sustainability of tradedspecimens.

Since the Convention came into force 27 years ago,more than five million records have been entered inthe CITES trade database, from country reports labo-riously derived from paper certificates (see page 13).The levels of reportable CITES trade continue to in-crease as more species are added to the Appendices,and could soon jump a notch if commercially impor-tant marine fish species are included.

The increasing levels of trade, for an increasingnumber of species, place a heavy burden on data gath-ering, while limits on the timeliness and accuracy oftrade data hamper decision-making processes.

Decision-making tool

These trade data are not just a historical record, butalso serve as an important tool to guide conservationand wildlife trade policy and formulate resource man-agement decisions.

Collecting these reports quickly and accurately andputting the resulting data at the fingertips of policy-makers and resource managers is a priority of CITES.Fortunately, the success and ubiquity of the WorldWide Web in the 21st century provide us with the op-portunity and challenge to do this.

But a tracking system is only as good as the infor-mation on which it is based. Building the technicalcapacity of trade tracking is closely linked to improv-ing the decision-making processes leading up to thetrade. There is no point in having the timely collec-tion of inaccurate information!

So how can we improve our performance?

Faster, fairer, smarter

Changing the way documents are issued and proc-essed may be the answer. Permit data that are entered

institution is most important or performs best. Thefundamental conservation concerns that CITES wasdeveloped to address and many of its specific regula-tory provisions remain as relevant and important to-day as they were in the early 1970s when theConvention was developed.

To succeed in the long term, however, the coop-eration, energy and ambition exhibited in the CITESforum must be applied in future in a working envi-ronment where the place of overexploitation among

wider causes of biodiversity loss is recognised, whereadaptive regulatory approaches are applied in thecontext of other conservation strategies, where soundconservation and economic strategies are not con-strained by fear of conflict with WTO and where deci-sions reflect wider sustainable development goals andthe socio-economic factors that will inevitably shapetheir effectiveness.

Steven Broad is Executive Directorof TRAFFIC International.

Trade tracking in the 21st centuryStephen V. Nash

into a common electronic database before or as thepermits are issued could provide much more timelyinformation on authorized trade.

Such a central permit database could also pro-vide a means to issue documents directly throughInternet connections. This would further help withstandardizing forms and content, and help preventtypographic errors.

While the idea of a central database raises security,confidentiality and sovereignty concerns, such ascheme is no more demanding in terms of technol-ogy than e-commerce or on-line banking, both ofwhich are increasingly commonplace.

This system would provide data on the basis ofdocuments issued. However, specimens and quanti-ties in trade may be less than what was originally au-thorized, for a variety of reasons. It will be necessaryto collect information on the actual trade itself, onexport and import.

One possibility is to convert document data intomachine-readable bar codes, a system already in

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The future of CITES: a personal perspectiveJim Armstrong

It was back in 1994 when I was first asked about thefuture of CITES. The BBC was interviewing partici-pants at COP9 in Fort Lauderdale, after the watersheddecision to adopt new criteria for listing species onthe CITES Appendices.

I was a member of the Australian delegation then,and Chair of the CITES Plants Committee, and I hadjust finished chairing the Criteria Working Group. Itwas this working group that had successfully formu-lated the details of the Resolution (Conf. Res 9.24)subsequently adopted by the Parties. Since manyparticipants had believed that the new criteriaresolution had little if any chance of being adopted,the unanimous support for the re-crafted proposalcame as a real surprise. I realized then that CITES had‘come of age’ and that it could evolve to take effectivedecisions that had a sound basis in science.

So, being in a buoyant mood and hearing in thebackground the sound of my namesake LouisArmstrong, singing “I see trees of green… ”, I launchedinto a spirited support of CITES. I even suggested thatCITES was the most effective international environ-ment instrument working to conserve the world’s bi-otic resources. CITES’ future lay in its ability to addressthe ever-changing threats to these resources.

A few years later, in 1996, I joined the CITES Secre-tariat. Although I now see the Convention from acompletely different perspective, my enthusiasm forit has never waned.

But has CITES a future in the new millennium? Canit continue to evolve to deal with the new and verypervasive threats facing the world’s biota?

The simple answer is a resounding yes! But weneed to understand the path CITES has forged over

LOOKING AHEAD

Medicinals market in Sao Paulo, Brazil: all CITES medicinal plants werereviewed by the German Scientific Authority from 1996 to 1999 (see page 17).Thanks to such rigorous review processes coupled with the new criteria, CITES’decisions are now firmly grounded in science.

The future of permits?

widespread use (consider for example the worldwidetracking of shipments by commercial couriercompanies). Data could be collected electronically onexit and entry by border authorities with relativelyminimal equipment, software and training, and thentransmitted to the central database.

Getting the ‘big picture’

The end result would be up-to-date global informa-tion on potential and actual trade, available to policy-makers and resource managers. This would beparticularly useful in managing resources that areshared among several countries, since it would bepossible to see and analyse the ‘big picture’ beforemaking national-level decisions.

Direct electronic ‘capture’ of data and its centrali-zation could also eliminate the need for separate an-nual reports, and this would help relieve the growingreporting burden brought on by an increasing numberof treaties and international commitments. It couldalso reduce or eliminate the need for marking or tag-ging or additional certification.

New possibilities

These ideas were not within the realm of possibilitywhen CITES came into force in 1975, but everythinghas changed. With the emergence of the World WideWeb, the prospect of globally coordinating the issu-ance of documents, and providing accurate, timelyand easy access to trade data is not so remote.

Twenty-seven years of CITES implementation havedemonstrated that a permit system for regulating tradein wild resources is a sound approach that providesfor consistency and fairness in its application. Forthis reason, improved trade tracking is one area whereCITES must, and can, be brought into the 21st century.

Stephen V. Nash is Chief of theCapacity Building Unit, CITES Secretariat.

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the past 29 years, before we can see clearly the path itis now taking, or the direction that we might wish it totake in the new millennium.

A misconception

The common misconception is that CITES regulatesinternational trade only in endangered species. Sincespecies in Appendix II and III of CITES are not endan-gered, but may become threatened with extinctionunless their international trade is regulated, the cor-rect perception is that CITES regulates trade in spe-cies of conservation concern.

The term ‘endangered’ is indeed included in thetitle of the treaty, and this is the source of the miscon-ception. It is not practical to change the name of theConvention, but the name is one of the great stum-bling blocks with the trade community – it is difficultfor traders to embrace CITES as a marketing tool cer-tifying that their Appendix II traded specimens havebeen harvested sustainably.

Here lies the greatest challenge for CITES over thecoming years, namely, how to engage the trade com-munity to ensure that significantly traded CITESspecies are managed sustainably.

Is sustainability CITES’ business?

The issue of sustainability has had a chequered his-tory in CITES. Since the term ‘sustainable use’ is notmentioned in the text of the Convention, some haveargued that, unlike the Rio Conventions such as theConvention on Biological Diversity, CITES was neverintended as an instrument to support sustainable use.

I disagree.We need to remember that CITES was established

well before the concept of sustainable developmentwas promoted. Article IV of the Convention mandatesthat the export of any specimen of an Appendix II-

listed species can only occur when the ScientificAuthority of the State of export has advised that suchexport “will not be detrimental to the survival of thatspecies” (see page 4).

This enlightened phrase characterizes the essenceof the concept of sustainable use, and CITES movedto do this well before the idea of sustainability wasconceived.

To date the Convention has failed to promote thisprinciple effectively, but I am convinced that the im-portance of this idea will be realized as one of thefundamental strengths of the Convention in the com-ing years. Most of the 30,000-plus species regulatedby CITES are in Appendix II and it is this fact thatpositions CITES as an effective sustainable develop-ment tool. Article IV is a cornerstone of the Conven-tion. When applied correctly by an exporting Party,the Article IV provisions of CITES are, quite simply, acertification of sustainability!

New strengthsSo, what are the other strengths that CITES will de-velop in the new millennium? I see some obviousadvances:

Thankfully, the historic distinction between animalsand plants in the Convention is disappearing. Al-though we see their separate treatment now in vari-ous CITES Resolutions and Decisions, there is nopractical need, for example, to address ‘animals bredin captivity’ and ‘artificially propagated plants’ sepa-rately. This practice is unnecessarily duplicative andonly serves to perpetuate the myth that we are deal-ing with uniquely different biotic entities that requireseparate or biologically different procedures in CITES.Importantly, this stereotype was rejected in the newlisting criteria, which applied a unified scientific ap-proach to the world’s biotic resources.

Inspector from the US Fish and Wildlife Service examines seized wildlife products.

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I believe that we will soon see a coalescence of thecurrently separate Animals and Plants Committeesinto a single CITES Scientific Committee, with the jobof providing objective scientific advice to the CITESParties. To complement this new approach, CITESimplementation should be coordinated through a newCITES Technical Committee that will move to assistParties on implementation and compliance issues thatare inappropriately referred at present to the Animalsor Plants Committees.

The Convention’s power to deal with ineffective im-plementation is one of the great successes of CITES.With the establishment of the new Scientific and Tech-nical Committees a new synergy will emerge in theConvention between policy and science, so essentialto ensure effective natural resource management.

The integration of science and implementation hasalready started in CITES and the trend will developfurther as the Convention’s sustainable developmentagenda progresses and matures.

The current strength of the Review of SignificantTrade process in CITES will be greatly enhanced inthis new millennium. Innovations like the currentmove to country reviews (as in the recent case for Madagascar), and the very successful regional pro-

grammes – such as that for sturgeons in the CaspianSea (see page 25) – have shown how critical conserva-tion issues can be effectively addressed through CITES.

Clearly, such innovative approaches will be appliedmore broadly in the Convention when the success ofthis approach is more widely appreciated.

Finally, the CITES ranching provisions will be recog-nised in the Convention as one of the most innovativemeasures for improving in situ conservation of CITES-listed species. The problem is that ranching is onlyforeseen by CITES as a measure to facilitate the trans-fer of animal species from Appendix I to II, when itcould in fact be developed as a system for the sustain-able management of species already in Appendix II.

The ranching provisions are readily applicable toplants, and since the conservation role of artificiallyproduced specimens is limited, CITES Parties shouldbe encouraged in the future to establish effectiveranching programmes to ensure the sustainable de-velopment of the biotic resources that they manage.

A green future

CITES will meet its sustainable development agendaonly when it manages to integrate completely its in-novative biotrade initiatives with the laudable goals ofsustainable conservation, economic development andsocial well-being.

This is the direction for CITES in the new millen-nium. It is the direction that all multilateral environ-ment agreements are attempting to take. I would liketo think that CITES will be the first to get there!

“I see trees of green… ”

Jim Armstrong is Deputy SecretaryGeneral, CITES Secretariat.

Some potential economic instruments to promoteconservation of Appendix I species

Assignment of well-defined property and use rights. Poachersharvesting Appendix I species under open access conditions canmake a lot of money with a minimum investment. The profit margincan be so high that it does not matter what efforts they have to maketo evade enforcement controls. The assignment of property rightscan help to optimize enforcement efforts by providing resource own-ers (i.e. local communities or the private sector) with an incentive toprotect ‘their’ resources. However if discriminatory or not well de-signed, these incentives could negatively affect market access orreduce economic welfare.

Use of managed wild populations. This is perhaps the mostpromising approach for in situ conservation of Appendix I speciesprovided that it is accompanied by improved conservation manage-ment. Revenues for conservation could be generated through thenon-commercial sale of breeding rights or hunting rights. However,benefits for local people would depend on the ability to open avenuesof trade for non-commercial purposes.

Ecotourism. For this to succeed, governments must find ways todistribute the gains from tourism to the wildlife conservation pro-grammes and the welfare of local communities through employment,compensation fees and social service programmes. Currently a largeproportion of the revenue remains outside the country with the touroperator.

Captive breeding. Most such operations exist in the consumercountries, with few in the range states. To contribute more to in situconservation, they must involve the local people of the range states.

Juan Carlos Vasquez is Legal and Trade Policy Officer,Legislation and Compliance Unit, CITES Secretariat.

Whereas trade restrictions can encourage ex situartificial propagation that does not provide benefits torange states, CITES ranching provisions promote in situconservation. Pictured: North American cactus speciesfrom a nursery in the Canary Islands on sale at a GranCanaria duty-free shop.

LOOKING AHEAD

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As many of us were returning exhaustedand exhilarated from Johannesburg, asmall team of IUCN and TRAFFIC staffand volunteer experts was rushing tomeet an important deadline. The Analy-ses of Proposals to Amend the CITESAppendices were due for the forthcom-ing 12th Conference of the Partiesto CITES.

Their work brought home an impor-tant point: while we were seeking to in-fluence the debate at an internationalsummit, the crucial ‘nuts and bolts’ workof the Union, on which we largely baseour reputation, was proceeding asalways.

The Analyses exemplify one of IUCN’smost important services to the environ-mental community: providing objective,scientifically rigorous and trusted assess-ments of the status of nature, used tounderpin major decisions of the conser-vation community. IUCN’s review workcan involve everything from species andecosystems to the policies of authoritiesentrusted with their protection and management. An-other example which quickly comes to mind is ourannual evaluation of the proposals for natural WorldHeritage sites for UNESCO.

This is a service which the Union is proud to offer.Some of our critics, however, might see this as evi-dence of IUCN’s “split personality”: on one side theanalytical authority, on the other the passionate ad-vocate of biodiversity conservation as echoed in thegenerous volunteerism of our expert networks andthe tireless campaigning of many of our members.

But I would argue that there is no split down themiddle of the Union, nor are we straddling a fencebetween two sides. We are, in fact, bridging the gapbetween the heart and mind of conservation.

Finding common ground

To turn back to CITES as an example: our hard-nosedanalysis of the merits of the proposals in no wayundermines our concern for the safeguarding of indi-vidual species, whether threatened by trade or not.

But saving species requires more than goodintentions and fervent convictions; it takes all the clearthinking, sound knowledge and reliable data we canmuster.

One of the Union’s most important roles is that offair broker between those whose activities mightthreaten nature – whether for profit or sustenance –and those whose main concern is the unprecedentedglobal extinction crisis we now face.

In Johannesburg the world’s leaders committedthemselves to building partnerships, a key element ofwhich is finding common ground. They also commit-ted themselves to reducing biodiversity loss, if in arather half-hearted way. ‘Common ground’ is whereIUCN works, and biodiversity conservation is, ulti-mately, our reason for being there.

As the Parties to CITES gather in Santiago inNovember, they too will be performing their tradi-tional balancing act between competing interests. ButCITES is changing, as noted by many in previous arti-cles. Its influence is widening, its scope and activitiesare expanding. Every other conservation conventionfaces the same challenge to abandon the narrow fo-cus assigned to it in a different era of environmentalpolitics.

If CITES is at a crossroads, it has plenty of com-pany. As we move into a critical new round of tradeliberalization talks under the Doha agenda, environ-mentalists along with social development activists arebound to seek a more prominent place at the interna-tional negotiating table.

Conservation now faces the challenge of develop-ing strategic responses and substantive inputs for theglobal trade debate. CITES began as an idea and hasevolved into a global Convention with 160 Parties assignatories. We need similar creativity and ambition ifwe are to have an impact on the future of trade andsustainable development.

Achim Steiner is Director General of IUCN.

Between mind and heart

Achim Steiner

LOOKING AHEAD

These black rhinos Diceros bicornis are under 24-hour armed guard to protect them frompoachers. Wildlife conservation makes sense ecologically, economically, and ethically.

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IN PRINT

http://www.iucn.org/bookstore

The IUCN Publications Service Unit is the distributorof CITES publications.

Visit http://www.iucn.org/bookstore/CITES-publications-index.htm The new World Conservation Bookstore Publications

Catalogue is now available. Contact: [email protected]

CITES Handbook

The CITES Handbook has been compiled to providethe Parties to CITES and others with the most essen-tial texts for CITES implementation in one singlereference book. It includes the Convention text,Appendices, standard CITES export/import permit,re-export certificate, and Resolutions and the Deci-sions of the 11th Conference of the Parties.

ISBN 2-88323-009-9, 2001; 295 x 210mm, 304pp; £25,US$37.50; Order no. B1100; French Order no. B1102;Spanish Order no. B1101

The Evolution of CITES

6th Edition, 2001Willem WijnstekersThis comprehensive publication presentsa history of the evolution of CITES. It be-gins with the basics and guides the readerthrough its complex structure. The pro-visions of the Convention are clearly high-lighted in the book, and the numerousresolutions and decisions are explained.

No ISBN, 2001; 240 x 160mm, 492pp.,colour photos; £20, US$30; Order no.B1130

Checklist of CITES Species

Compiled by UNEP-World ConservationMonitoring Centre

This checklist provides alphabetical lists of the spe-cies of fauna and flora included in Appendices I, IIand III of CITES in order to help Management andScientific Authorities, customs officials, and all othersinvolved in implementing and enforcing the Conven-tion. The list provides not only the scientific namesbut also the common names in English, Spanish andFrench.

ISBN 1 899628 17 7, 2001; 295 x 210mm, 335pp.; £28,US$42; Order no. B576; trilingual edition (E/S/F).

Identification Manuals

These manuals are useful tools for Management andScientific Authorities, customs officials, and all othersinvolved in implementing and enforcing CITES. Withdrawings (black and white), maps and concise descrip-tions.Flora: £67, US$100 (1 binder); English Order no. B579;Spanish Order no. B578; French Order no. B577Fauna: English: £459, US$825 (8 binders); Order no.B289; French: £360, US$540 (6 binders); Order no. B410

The Birds of CITES and How to Identify Them

Johannes Erritzoe; illustrated by Helga Boullet Erritzoeand the author

With colour paintings and concise descriptions, thisrichly illustrated guide will help identify all the birdsincluded in the CITES Appendices.

ISBN 0 7188 28915, 1993; 300 x 210mm, 201pp.; £25,US$37.50; Order no. B286

CITES Guide to Plants in Trade

Compiled by Sabina Knees and Mike Read, edited byBrian Mathew

With the help of photographs and general descrip-tions, this guide is intended to assist customs officersand others involved in the control of plant trade toidentify a number of them, and to increase the aware-ness of the general public by drawing their attentionto those species that are endangered.

No ISBN, 1994; 295 x 210mm, 216 pp.; £31, US$46.50;Order no. B273

New catalogue

the iucn bulletin world conservation...crocodile (wwf-canon/michel roggo), cuban painted tree snail...

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