the influence of organizational democracy and
TRANSCRIPT
NEAR EAST UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION PROGRAM
THE INFLUENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEMOCRACY
AND ORGANIZATIONAL BELOGINGNESS ON THE JOB
SATISFACTION AND ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP
BEHAVIOUR RELATIONSHIP: A STUDY OF THE
BANKING SECTOR
ÖZHAN TOKAY
PhD THESIS
NICOSIA
2020
THE INFLUENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEMOCRACY
AND ORGANIZATIONAL BELOGINGNESS ON THE JOB
SATISFACTION AND ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP
BEHAVIOUR RELATIONSHIP: A STUDY OF THE
BANKING SECTOR
ÖZHAN TOKAY
NEAR EAST UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION PROGRAM
PhD THESIS
THESIS SUPERVISOR
Prof. Dr. Şerife ZİHNİ EYÜPOĞLU
NICOSIA
2020
ACCEPTANCE/APPROVAL
DECLARATION
I undertake that the thesis I have prepared is entirely my own work and that I provided reference for each citation. I confirm that I have allowed the paper
and electronic copies of my thesis to be kept in the archives of the Near East University Institute of Social Sciences under the conditions stated
below.
My entire thesis can be accessed from anywhere.
My thesis can only be accessed at the Near East University.
I do not want my thesis to be accessible for two (2) years. If I do not apply for an extension at the end of this period, my entire thesis may be become accessible.
24/01/2020
Signature:
ÖZHAN TOKAY
iii
ABSTRACT
THE INFLUENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEMOCRACY AND
ORGANIZATIONAL BELOGINGNESS ON THE JOB
SATISFACTION AND ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP
BEHAVIOUR RELATIONSHIP: A STUDY OF THE BANKING
SECTOR
The aim of this research is to determine the perceptions of organizational
citizenship behavior and job satisfaction of employees in the Turkish and
TRNC banking sector and to examine the effects of belonging and
democracy perceptions on these perceptions. The universe of the work is
staff working in private banks located in Istanbul and the TRNC. At least 384
people will be selected by simple randomization. Survey form will be used as
data collection tool. The questionnaire takes the form of questions related to
demographic characteristics, organizational citizenship scale, belonging
scale, organizational democracy scale and job satisfaction scale. Data
analysis in the study was done in SPSS 16 package program. As a result of
the research, it was determined that the perceptions of organizational
democracy and organizational belonging were influenced by organizational
citizenship behavior and job satisfaction perceptions of the bank employees,
as well as between organizational citizenship behavior and job satisfaction
perceptions.
Keywords: Banking Sector, Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Job
Satisfaction, Participation, Organizational Democracy
iv
CONTENTS
ACCEPTANCE/APPROVAL
DECLARATION
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................. iii
CONTENTS .................................................................................................. iv
TABLE LIST ................................................................................................. ix
THE LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................... xi
ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................... xii
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................... 4
1. THE TERM OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP .......................... 4
1.1. The Definiton and Content of Organizational Citizenship .................. 4
1.2. Classification of Organizational Citizenship ....................................... 6
1.2.1. Active Participation in Organizational Structure ............................. 7
1 2 2. Avoiding from Harmful Behaviors to the Organizational Structure7
1.3. Dimensions of Organizational Citizenship Behavior.......................... 7
1.3.1. Dimensions of Organizational Citizenship Behavior Arising from
Dennis W. Organ................................................................................ 8
1.3.1.1. Altruism ........................................................................................... 8
1.3.1.2. Kindness .......................................................................................... 9
1.3.1.3. Gentlemanship .............................................................................. 10
1.3.1.4. Scrupulousness ............................................................................ 10
1.3.1.5. Civic Virtue .................................................................................... 12
1.3.2. Graham's Dimensions of Organizational Citizenship Behavior ... 13
1.4. Theories Relevant to Organizational Citizenship Behavior ............. 14
1.4.1. Social Change Theory ..................................................................... 14
1.4.2. Leader-Member Exchange Theory .................................................. 15
1.4.3. Theory of Equality ............................................................................ 16
1.4.4. Theory of Attorney ........................................................................... 17
1.4.5. ExpectationTheory ........................................................................... 18
1.5. Types of Organizational Citizenship Behavior ................................. 19
v
1.5.1. Organizational Citizenship Behavior for Individuals ..................... 19
1.5.2. Organizational Citizenship Behavior for Organization ................. 20
1.6. Organizational Citizenship Behavior for Individuals ........................ 20
1.6.1. Positive Effects ................................................................................ 20
1.6.2. Negative Effects ............................................................................... 23
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................. 25
2. CONCEPT OF JOB SATISFACTION ....................................................... 25
2.1. Definition of Job Satisfaction ............................................................. 25
2.2. The Importance of Job Satisfaction ................................................... 26
2.3. Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction .................................................... 28
2.3.1. Individual Factors (Demographic Characteristics) ........................ 28
2.3.1.1. Gender ........................................................................................... 28
2.3.1.2. Age ................................................................................................. 29
2.3.1.3. Marital Status ................................................................................. 29
2.3.1.4. Intelligence and Ability ................................................................. 30
2.3.1.5. Personality ..................................................................................... 31
2.3.1.6. Status ............................................................................................. 31
2.3.1.7. Education Level ............................................................................. 32
2.3.1.8. Seniority ......................................................................................... 32
2.3.1.9. Socio-Cultural Environment ......................................................... 33
2.3.2. Organizational Factors .................................................................... 34
2.3.2.1. Physical Properties ....................................................................... 34
2.3.2.2. Wages ............................................................................................ 34
2.3.2.3. Structure of Work .......................................................................... 35
2.3.2.4. Promotion Opportunities .............................................................. 35
2.3.2.5. Superior-Subordinate Relationships ........................................... 36
2.3.2.6. Co-Workers .................................................................................... 37
2.3.2.7. Management Style and Control .................................................... 37
2.3.2.8. Communication ............................................................................. 38
2.4. Studies for Increasing Job Satisfaction in Businesses ................... 39
2.4.1. The Effects of Socio-Economic Tools on Job Satisfaction of
Employees ....................................................................................... 39
2.4.2. The Effects of Psycho-Social Tools on Employee Job Satisfaction
vi
.......................................................................................................... 40
2.4.3. The Effect of Organizational and Managerial Tools on Job
Satisfaction of Employees .............................................................. 41
2.5. Consequences of Job Dissatisfaction ............................................... 42
2.5.1. Absenteeism ..................................................................................... 43
2.5.2. Labor Force Turnover ...................................................................... 44
2.5.3. Life Satisfaction ............................................................................... 45
2.5.4. Physical and Mental Health ............................................................. 47
2.6. The Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Some Concepts .. 49
2.6.1. Job Satisfaction and Job Attitude .................................................. 49
2.6.2. Job Satisfaction and Mood .............................................................. 50
2.6.3. Job Satisfaction and Efficiency ...................................................... 50
2.6.4. Performance and Success with Job Satisfaction .......................... 50
2.6.5. Job Satisfaction and Motivation ..................................................... 51
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................. 52
3. CONCEPT OF BELONGINGNESS ......................................................... 52
3.1. Organizational Belongingness ........................................................... 52
3.2. Organizational Loyalty ........................................................................ 54
3.3. Personal and Organizational Value Adaptation ................................ 58
3.3.1. Value Concept .................................................................................. 58
3.3.2. The Concept of Personal Value....................................................... 59
3.3.3. Concept of Organizational Value .................................................... 61
3.3.4. Personal-Organizational Value Adaptation .................................... 62
3.4. Commitment to Work .......................................................................... 63
3.5. Internalization ...................................................................................... 64
3.6. Relation to Organizational Identification and Organizational Identity
..................................................................................................................... 69
3.6.1. Individual Identity ............................................................................. 69
3.6.2. Collective Identity ............................................................................ 70
3.6.3. Social Identity and Social Identification ......................................... 71
3.6.4. Organizational Identity .................................................................... 72
3.6.5. Organizational Identification ........................................................... 72
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................. 74
vii
4. ORGANIZATIONAL DEMOCRACY ........................................................ 74
4.1. Democracy ........................................................................................... 74
4.1.1. The Concept of Democracy ............................................................. 74
4.1.2. The Problems of the Concept of Democracy ................................. 78
4.1.3. Components of the Concept of Democracy ................................... 79
4.2. Organizational Democracy ................................................................. 82
4.2.1. Concept of Organizational Democracy .......................................... 82
4.2.2. Implementation of Organizational Democracy in Institutions ...... 85
4.2.2.1. Preconditions for the Application of Organizational Democracy
..................................................................................................................... 85
4.2.2.2. Preparation for Democratic Structure ......................................... 86
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................. 89
5. BANKING SECTOR AND HUMAN RESOURCES AS THE SERVICE
SECTOR ...................................................................................................... 89
5.1. About Human Resources ................................................................... 89
5.1.1. Concept of Service ........................................................................... 89
5.1.2. Structure of Service Sector ............................................................. 91
5.1.3. Development of Service Sector ...................................................... 98
5.1.4. Basic Features of Services .............................................................. 99
5.1.4.1. Intangibility .................................................................................. 100
5.1.4.2. Heterogeneity .............................................................................. 101
5.1.4.3. Synchronization of Production and Consumption ................... 102
5.1.4.4. Instability ..................................................................................... 103
5.1.4.5. Being Unobtainable .................................................................... 104
5.2. Banking Sector .................................................................................. 104
5.2.1. About Banking Sector ................................................................... 104
5.2.2. Turkish Banking Sector ................................................................. 106
5.2.2.1. Historical Development of Turkish Banking Sector ................. 106
5.2.2.2. Legislative Regulations .............................................................. 108
5.2.3. Banking Sector in TRNC ................................................................ 110
5.2.3.1. Historical Development .............................................................. 110
5.2.3.2. Legislative Regulations .............................................................. 111
5.3. Human Resources in Banking Sector ............................................. 112
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5.3.1. Quality Workforce and Human Resources in Banking Sector ... 112
5.3.2. Employee Activity and Human Resources in Banking Sector ... 113
5.3.3. The Problems of The Management of Human Resources in the
Banking Sector .............................................................................. 113
5.4. Related Researches .......................................................................... 114
CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................... 118
6. METHOD ............................................................................................... 118
6.1. Models of the Work and Hypotheses ............................................... 118
6.2. Population and Sample ..................................................................... 119
6.3. Data Collection Tool ......................................................................... 119
6.4. Premises ............................................................................................ 121
6.5. Data Analysis .................................................................................... 122
CHAPTER 7 ............................................................................................... 123
7. FINDINGS .............................................................................................. 123
7.1. Findings Related to Personal Information ...................................... 123
7.2. Findings Related to Organizational Citizenship Behavior ............. 124
7.3. Findings Related to Organizational Commitment .......................... 128
7.4. Findings Related to Job Satisfaction .............................................. 131
7.5. Findings Related to Organizational Democracy ............................. 135
7.6. The Effect of Organizational Democracy and Organizational
Commitment on Job Satisfaction ................................................... 141
7.7. The Effect of Organizational Democracy and Organizational
Commitment on Organizational Citizenship Behavior ................. 144
7.8. Relation Between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship
Behavior ................................................................................................... 145
7.9. Control of Hypothesis ....................................................................... 146
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................. 148
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................... 149
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................... 155
RESUME .................................................................................................... 181
PLAGIARISM REPORT ............................................................................. 182
ETHICS COMMITEE APPROVAL ............................................................. 183
ix
TABLE LIST
Table 1. The dimension of personal values ............................................. 60
Table 2. Studies Describing Organizational Values ................................ 62
Table 3. Comparison of Basic Democratic Qualities with Political and
Organizational Structures ........................................................ 84
Table 4. Classification of service and manufacturing enterprises
according to their processes ................................................... 92
Table 5. Service Processes Matrix ............................................................ 93
Table 6. Services According to Their Structure ...................................... 95
Table 7. Classification of Services Based on the Level of Relationship
Established by Enterprises with Customers ........................... 96
Table 8. Classification of Services According to the Flexibility and
Initiative of Enterprise ............................................................... 97
Table 9. Banks Established In Cyprus Up To The Year 2000 ................ 110
Table 10. Findings Related to Demographic Characteristics ............... 123
Table 11. Findings Related to Employment Status ............................... 124
Table 12. Descriptive Statistics Related to Organizational Citizenship
Behavior ................................................................................... 125
Table 13. Results of Kolmogorov – Smirnov Test of Organizational
Citizenship Behavior ............................................................... 127
Table 14. Perception of Organizational Citizenship Behavior According
to Demographic Characteristics ............................................ 127
Table 15. Perception of Organizational Citizenship Behavior According
to Employment Status ............................................................ 128
Table 16. Descriptive Statistics Related to Organizational Commitments
.................................................................................................. 129
Table 17. the Result of Kolmogorov- Smirnov Test of Organizational
Commitment ............................................................................ 129
Table 18. Perception of Organizational Commitment According to
Demographic Characteristic .................................................. 130
Table 19 Perception of Organizational Commitment According to
Employment Status ................................................................. 131
x
Table 20. Descriptive Statistics related to Job Satisfaction ................. 132
Table 21. Result of Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Related to Job
Satisfaction .............................................................................. 133
Table 22. Perception of Job Satisfaction According to Demographic
Characteristics ........................................................................ 134
Table 23. Perception of Job Satisfaction According to Employment
Status ....................................................................................... 135
Table 24. Descriptive Satatistics Related to Organizational Democracy
.................................................................................................. 136
Table 25. Results of Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test for Organizational
Democracy ............................................................................... 139
Table 26. Perception of Organizational Democracy According to
Demographic Characteristics ................................................ 140
Table 27. Organizational Democracy Perception According To
Employment Status ................................................................. 141
Table 28. The Effect of Organizational Democracy and Organizational
Commitment on Intrinsic Satisfaction ................................... 142
Table 29. The Effect of Organizational Democracy and Organizational
Commitment on Extrinsic Satisfaction .................................. 143
Table 30. The Effect of Organizational Democracy and Organizational
Commitment on General Satisfaction ................................... 144
Table 31. The Effect of Organizational Democracy and Organizational
Commitment on Organizational Citizenship Behavior ......... 145
Table 32. Relation Between Job Satisfaction And Organizational
Citizenship Behavior ............................................................... 145
Table 33. Control of Hypothesis ............................................................. 146
xi
THE LIST OF FIGURES
Diagram 1. The Factors Affecting Life Satisfaction ................................. 46
Diagram 2. Relationship between Organizational Belongingness and
Organizational Loyalty ....................................................... 56
Diagram 3. Formation of Organizational Values and Organizational
Values Shaping Norms and Rules ..................................... 57
Diagram 4. Factors Required for Business Internalization ..................... 66
Diagram 5. Democracy Pyramid ............................................................... 77
Diagram 6. Basic Features of Service ...................................................... 99
Diagram 7. The Distinctions Between the Production and Consumption
Schedules of Goods and Services .................................. 103
xii
ABBREVIATIONS
BRSA : Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency
TRNC : Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
INC : Limited
OCB : Organizational Citizenship Behavior
CMB : Capital Markets Board
BAT : Banks Association of Turkey
CBT : Central Bank of Turkey
TDK : Turkish Language Association
LCM : Least coefficients method
1
INTRODUCTION
Increasing competetive conditions in our globalizing world has effected all
sectors. All the bussinesses apply variety of strategies to be able to continue
their existence in this fierce competition environment. One of the most
important strategies is managing human resources properly and increasing
efficiency. Human resources is the most important input especially in the
service ector and to maximize this input’s contribution, increasing the
efficiency is a must.
Employees’ performances and efficiencies in service sector, is among the
most important factors in bussiness’es continuing their presence and
increasing their effect. Fort his reason, strategies for increasing staff
performance gains importance. Bussinesses can follow different paths to
increase staffs’ performances. But first, it is needed to determine staffs’
thoughts on organization before deciding the path. Staffs’ perceptions of
satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior indicate their attitudes
toward the organization. That is why determining staffs’ perception of job
satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior and develop these
perceptions in a positive way will effect bussinesses’ performance in a
positive way.
Being high of employees’ perception of satisfaction toward job and increasing
their performances volunteerily just for increasing the bussiness’s
performance will markedly increase the bussiness’s success. For this reason,
detecting staffs’ perception of job satisfaction and organizational citizenship
behavior and bussinesses to deterrmine right strategies in this direction has
importance. When a bussiness determines right human resource oriented
strategies, it effects its own success in the positive direction with having staff
with high performance.
There are several factors which effect perception of job satisfaction and
organizational citizenship behavior, but especially the democracy perception
within the organization and feeling of belonging toward the organization is
one of the most important. Being high of in-organization democracy, pave
the way for staffs having voice in the organization by providing them joining
2
the organizational processes and management. This situation, increases
staffs’ perception of satisfaction by making them feel belonging to the
organization, and makes them consider themselves as a citizen of the
organization and determine their attitude and behaviors thataway.
In all sectors, human resource performance is important and variety of
strategies are used to increase it. Showing high performance of especially
finance sector staff in the service sector has positive effects on some factors
which effects organizational success like customer satisfaction, activity,
competitive capacity, and efficiency.
Finance sector, meets the sponsor needs of individuals and bussinesses and
contributes a lot to national economy. Especially the bank sector is among
the most important foundations in the finance sector. Nonetheless, there is a
direct association between the efficiency of banking sector and staff
performance. Showing high performance of staff, has a leading role in the
success of banking sector. And for the high performance of staff, high
satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, belonging and democracy
perceptions has an important role. Where staff’s showing performance in a
democratical organization effects positively their belonging senses toward the
organization, belonging and democracy perceptions effect job satisfaction
perception and organizational citizenship behavior perceptions.
The aim of this research is to determine the perceptions of organizational
citizenship behavior and job satisfaction of employees in the Turkish and
TRNC banking sector and to examine the effects of belonging and
democracy perceptions on these perceptions. In this direction, this research
has seven chapters.
In the first chapter, organizational citizenship behavior is investigated. The
definition, content, graduation, extension and species of organizational
citizenship are examined. Also, the theories that is met in the literature of
organizational citizenship are given places.
In the second chapter of the research, job satisfaction term is investigated.
The definition and importance of job satisfaction and the factors that have
3
effect on it are examined. Also, some studies for increasing job satisfaction in
the organizations and the results of job unsatisfaction are analyzed.
In the third chapter of the research, the term of belonging is investigated.
Organizational belonging, organizational loyalty and the other terms are
examined. Addition to these, literatural information of commitment to job and
internalization are given a place in this chapter.
In the forth chapter of the study, democracy term is investigated. By
examining the democracy term and organizational democracy terms,
applying organizational democracy to the foundations and preconditions are
studied.
In the fifth chapter of the study, banking sector as a service sector and
human resources in the banking sector are investigated. The term of service
sector and its development, qualifications are examined. Also, banking
sectors in Turkey and NCTR are studied and some information on the
literature of human resources in banking sector is given a place.
In the sixth chapter of the study, information about the methods that are used
for the investigation is given a place. The model of the investigation,
hypothesises, universe, sample, data gathering tool, premise and data
analysis are in this chapter.
In the seventh and last chapter of the study, the findings that are made
during the field study are given place. The results of the questionnaries that
were applied to the staff working in the banking sector in Turkey and NCTR
are evaluated.
4
CHAPTER 1
1. THE TERM OF ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP
1.1. The Definiton and Content of Organizational Citizenship
The word of “citizenship” is used with the word of “countryman” and it means
to be born or to live in a country, to belong to a country and to be depend to a
country (Puskulluoglu, 2000:1040). While citizenship is mostly used in
companies, countryman is used in states. In organizational citizenship,
individuals make more effort and show more performance except from their
responsibilities. There is noregulations or laws to determine conditions here.
The behaviors and attitudes are applied depends on personal preferences
(Ay, 2007: 11).
Organizational Citizenship Behavior is used as a term first by Denniss Organ
and his friends. Organizational citizenship behavior is explained as beneficial
behaviors for organizations, which are shown with no thought of personal
gain and except from legal attitudes and needs (Organ, 1997: 86). These
behaviors are not created by an obvious structural system, on the contrary,
volunteer behaviors which make easier for organization to function (Alp,
2007: 59). As it its understood from the explanations, individuals display
behaviors without any organizational expectation even if it is not their
responsibility. It does not mean that these behaviors are not examined or
liked by their co-workers or superiors because they are displayed voluntarily
(Cinay, 2015: 23).
Volunteer organizational citizenship behavior causes not to be awarded of
the attituteds and behaviors (Konovsky and Pugh, 1994: 656). Volunteering
means the attitudes that workers display organizational citizenship behaviors
5
beyond the work agreement with the organization and more than they are
supposed to. That is why organizational citizenship is attitudes and
behaviors which are like when it is displayed, awarding is not necessary and
when it is not displayed punishment is not applied (Dyne, Graham and
Dienesch, 1994: 772). Workers display organizational citizenship behavior as
if it is their own personal decision for being loyal to the spiritual agreement
that they have made with the organization (Demirci and Atalay, 2010: 3). In
this term, personal preferences are in the front in these attitudes.
Organizational citizenship behavior requires displaying more behaviors than
job description without any expectation.
Not making structural assessments, being independent from the awarding
system and setting forth more jobs than the organization asks for leads
organizational citizenship behavior is explained as “good soldier behavior” in
the studies (Özdevecioğlu, 2003: 118). And the workers who meet the
responsibilities as its best and even volunteer for more responsibilities are
the staff who display “good soldier behavior”.
Factors like following the orders in the work place, helping co-workers when
they face with a problem, contributing to keeping the work place clean,
undertaking more work load without complaining, helping saving the sources
of organization can be defined as organizational citizenship behavior
(Bateman and Organ, 1983: 588). Also, organizational citizenship behavior
involves providing positive feedbacks about responsibilities, supporting co-
workers on a duty, giving information and advices and this kind of elements
(İşbaşı 2000: 4-5).
If workers give performance over their responsibilities without a reward
expectation, it is named as contextual performance (Lepine, Erez and
Johnson, 2002: 53). Contextual performance provides an opportunity to
distribute the responsibilities among workers. Although it is not in the job
description, it includes elements like supporting other workers and taking
some volunteer responsibilities in terms of conducting activities (Çınar, 2000:
2). In accordance with the mentioned explanations, it is possible for us to
express that organizational citizenship is done without any expectation and
contextual performance is displayed for a reward expectation.
6
Prosocial behavior and organizational citizenship behaviors have similar
characteristics. The behaviors that are applied in order to ensure the peace
of certain people or people are called prosocial behaviors (Borman and
Motowidlo, 1997: 100). The attitude and behavior based on volunteerism
established for the purpose of cooperation, cooperation are considered in this
scope. Structurally speaking, there are two types of prosocial organizational
behaviors. The first is the role defined, and the second is the extra role. Here,
extra role behavior and organizational citizenship behavior are similar. Extra
role behaviors represent positive behaviors that benefit the organization
beyond existing expectations and responsibilities (Organ, 1997: 32). In this
respect, it is possible to state that extra role behaviors, prosocial behaviors
and organizational citizenship behaviors are similar items in the studies
(İşbaşı, 2000: 359). Prosocial behavior is separated from organizational
citizen behavior because it requires extrinsic role definitions.
Things that people in an organization may not be able to comment on as
"good citizens" can be expressed (Appelbaum et al., 2004: 22):
• Having environments with the organization and colleagues,
• Avoiding the organization from unnecessary debates and conflicts,
• Supporting all employees in the organization,
• Responsibilities include volunteering for score studies,
• Respect the practices, rules and regulations of the institution.
When explanations on organizational citizenship behavior are considered; it
can be mentioned if a worker can run the organization with no expectation
other than in-organization job responsibilities, as a volunteer, without the idea
of reward, and any order or motivation.
1.2. Classification of Organizational Citizenship
It is seen that the citizenship behavior of organized citizenship is evaluated in
two classes. The first type of behavior has a structural structure, and the
second type of behavior is behavior that will harm the institutional structure.
7
1.2.1. Active Participation in Organizational Structure
Organizationally superstructure of employees and organizational
associations of employees. In other words, employees actively work together.
Employees who display active behavior can be organized and display
behavior without force (Özdevecioğlu, 2003: 118-119). Volunteerism,
responsibilities, innovation, behaviorism, non-behavioral structure (Çelik,
2007: 119).
1.2.2. Avoiding from Harmful Behaviors to the Organizational Structure
In order to avoid harmful behaviors to the organizational structure, it is
necessary that the employee do not touch the institution and avoid displaying
behaviors which can harm the organization (Özdevecioğlu, 2003: 119).
Complaining about co-workers at work, revealing the wrongs of colleagues,
discussing more with colleagues than unnecessary reasons are some of the
harmful behaviors to the organization. Restraining arise of the problems,
using resources efficiently, making effort for creating a compatible working
conditions are considered under this category (Çelik, 2007: 119).
Although there is no difference with the literature, in the working life, both
these two styles are acceptable. Avoiding behaviors or active participation
behaviors are ought to be used as long as they have benefits for organization
and increase the organizational activity. (Özdevecioğlu, 2003: 119).
1.3. Dimensions of Organizational Citizenship Behavior
The dimensions of organizational citizenship behavior in the theoretical
framework are covered in different studies. In this section, some studies will
be mentioned about the dimensions of organizational citizenship behavior in
the literature.
8
1.3.1. Dimensions of Organizational Citizenship Behavior Arising from
Dennis W. Organ
The definition of organizational citizenship behavior was first made by Dennis
W. Organ. This definition made by the Organ is one of the most used
definitions in the theoretical framework. It has also dealt with the definition of
organization and the dimensions of organizational citizenship behavior.
These dimensions are gentleness, kindness, gentleness, conscientiousness
and civil virtue (Yener and Akyol, 2009: 258).
1.3.1.1. Altruism
Citizenship behavior is one of the most important issues in the research on
organizational citizenship behavior. Structurally voluntary and self-help to
other people means to prevent problems from occurring. The basis for one's
trust in one is that the individual has the belief that the person is a good
person, that his trust in him is preserved and that he will not be harmed. This
phenomenon refers to benevolence. On the basis of trust, it is one of the
reasons that the defensiveness of a person will not be used for an interest
and that this deficiency will not be exploited. In the event of doubt or lack of
confidence related to one's self-sacrifice, the time and energy spent to find
different methods and methods can lead to some loss. It is possible that a
boss who does not trust his employees will be able to follow his employees
and to be able to concentrate on his / her work by thinking about related
items and thus presenting the damage as an example (Samancı, 2007: 35).
Examples include a senior employee who teaches new ways to do their job
responsibilities better, a teacher who looks after a class instead of a teacher
because of being sick, and another member of the organization that supports
a friend who has a lot of work to do. In this respect, besides being a problem
in altruism, there is a possibility of solving this problem (İşbaşı, 2001: 5-7).
From this point of view, it is possible to express attitudes related to altruism in
the following ways (Lepine, Erez and Johnson, 2002: 53):
• Helping newcomers to adapt to work,
9
• Conducting the work of employees who are unable to work due to
discomfort or different reasons,
• volunteering for some jobs, even if they are not compulsory,
• Helping colleagues who have too many tasks and tasks.
1.3.1.2. Kindness
The concept of courtesy is sometimes confused with the concept of altruism.
The reason for this is the fact that there is help at the base of these two
behaviors. The main difference between these two behaviors is the timing of
help. In the context of the emergence of a problem in the concept of self-
concept and the help to be provided afterwards, it is mentioned that the
problem of courtesy is avoided by taking precautions before problems occur.
In this respect, politeness emerges as a proactive approach.
In order for the institutions to carry on their activities, the units involved
should act in a certain coordination. In the event of a problem with any of the
units, the better the other units, the worse it will be. The concept of courtesy
is in effect at this point. From a structural point of view, this means that the
individuals within the organization must be in constant interaction. The
decisions taken in this regard are included in the concept of courtesy that the
duties made are announced to the other institution members and the possible
situation is expressed to the employees of the institution. Since the decisions
made within the organization directly or indirectly affect all employees, it is
important that they are disclosed to them. Employees also want to be aware
of decisions that will affect them. In this respect, it is important that
communication channels are opened within the institution. Taking the ideas
related to the decisions and acting on the rights in the decisions are included
in the courtesy dimension of organizational citizenship behavior (Bingöl et al.,
2003: 496).
The issues such as the sharing of relevant findings with the problems that
may arise in the matters related to the colleagues in the organization and the
disclosure of the changing elements related to their responsibilities to other
employees are gathered under the concept of courtesy. Issues such as
10
informing the marketing department of a product that has not yet begun to be
produced, but related to a product planned to be launched, or the criticism of
consumers related to products or disclosure to the production department by
the marketing department are contested as courtesy attitudes (İşbaşı, 2000:
28). In this sense, the concept of courtesy includes the attitudes of the
workers to tell the managers and other colleagues about the problems they
think will arise in the institution, and their attitudes to support them related to
the solution of these problems (Çelik, 2007: 130).
1.3.1.3. Gentlemanship
Attitudes that focus on removing or overtaking problems that may arise
between people, parties and segments are called gentlemen (Özdevecioğlu,
2003: 121). In addition, the attitudes they carry out in order to abolish the
tough conditions that are unfolded while the occupations fulfill their
organizational responsibilities are also expressed as gentlemen (Farh, Zhong
and Organ, 2004: 242). A gentleman worker delivers more work and
responsibility without seeking for a guilty and complaining about the job.
Gentleman employees are not only uncomfortable because they are
disturbed by other employees, but they are those who maintain their
coolness in case of problems in operation, are not annoyed if they do not
agree with their ideas, respect the opinions of other employees and sacrifice
their teamwork (Köse, Kartal and Kayalı, 2003: 4). It is also possible to
exhibit a negative attitude in terms of gentility. The gesture of the
gentlemen's dimension is to stay away from the elements that may be
negative effects. This situation distinguishes gentlemanship from other
dimensions.
1.3.1.4. Scrupulousness
Scrupulousness within the dimensions of organizational citizenship behavior
means that the employees of the organization voluntarily fulfill responsibilities
related to their own attitudes. It includes punctuality, coming to work on time,
continuity at work, being compatible with the rules and regulations at work.
11
Although some of these concepts are included in the scope of the
employment contract, they are based on volunteerism in some organizations.
For example, in some cases it can be ignored if it is not often desired to
come to work because of adverse weather conditions, illness, problems like
some personal reasons. Apart from that, despite the tolerance provided, if
there is an effort on demand, the scrupulousness of the employees is
revealed (Kamer, 2001: 12).
Scrupulousness and helpfulness can be perceived as similar dimensions.
The most obvious difference between these two dimensions is that while
there is a behavior to support one in helpfulness, an attitude towards a
person in scrupulousness is not revealed and attitudes that provide knitty
benefits are exhibited. A situation where an employee wants to leave his/her
child at home and wants to reach his/her place of employment even though
the weather and road conditions are bad is a challenge. Not only one person
is positively affected by these behaviors but the entire organization is
positively affected.
The factors that contribute to the helpful attitudes of employees in
organizations may not always lead to the display of scrupulousness.
Conscience or helpfulness is a bit of a match for attitudes, because there is
an element to help on whatever they are about. However, when philanthropy
appeals to a particular extent, conscientiousness appeals to the general
public (İşbaşı, 2000: 27).
The main reason for the existence of conscience within the dimensions of
organizational citizenship behavior is that the occupants are not always
willing to remain committed to the rule. The rules are generally not put in line
with the opinions of employees. In this respect, the employees who
internalize the regulations and the rules established by the organization and
carry out them without being subject to a control have revealed
organizational citizenship behavior. Because of this reason, scrupulousness
shows the rule of law. Employees are obliged to adhere to rules and
regulations while under supervision and control. However, even in cases
where there is no control, it is the citizenship behavior of the employee to be
12
adhered to by the rules. Moreover, this situation is within the scope of
scrupulousness (Bingöl et al., 2003: 496).
1.3.1.5. Civic Virtue
It implies that employees participate in organizational life and that they
include civic virtue behaviors, including practices carried out in the
organization (Moorman, Niehoff and Organ, 1993: 214). Apart from that,
civilian virtue also means helping the organization by using appropriate
methods to its administrations. These appropriate methods include the
application of organizational elements, reading and responding to mails,
participating in meetings, transferring relevant ideas to tactics that should be
pursued, opportunities and dangerous observations, providing relevant views
on the policies to be carried out, following issues related to organizational
issues, (eg, Konovsky and Pugh, 1994: 657).
Organizational citizenship behavior is treated in theory in two classes. The
first of these two classes is conscientiousness, gentility and civil virtue-like
behaviors, both of which are done but which have positive effects on
performance and corporate image. In other words, these behaviors reveal
organization-based organizational citizenship behavior. The second class is
behavior like altruism, which aims to provide benefits to the occupations in
the organization. These express individual-based organizational citizenship
behavior (ÖVD-B). If the employee demonstrates politeness or altruism, it
means that he does not want his colleagues to be in the bad situation. In this
respect, it is in the desire to be useful to working co-workers. Apart from this,
civilian virtue, gentleman, conscientious behavior is exhibited, it seems that
the organization is trying to win success. In some cases, it can reveal
attitudes that may be useful for the organization with working colleagues.
This situation can be said that this employee is a good organization
employee.
13
1.3.2. Graham's Dimensions of Organizational Citizenship Behavior
Graham is the other person in the literature who is involved in organizational
citizenship behavior. Graham has addressed the obligation to be an
organizational citizen in three ways. These are (Graham, 1991: 255):
• Obedience: The organization is obliged to comply with regulations and
rules, to monitor job descriptions, and to adopt personnel policies. Apart from
these, similar concepts such as respecting the rules, using the resources
efficiently, fulfilling responsibilities in time are included in the concept of
obedience.
• Loyalty: the institution explains its commitment to itself, its managers, its
leaders. In this regard, as well as being inclined to protect occupational
organizations against possible threats, they are putting forward certain
behaviors in order to be beneficial to the institution's prestige.
• Participation: Even if it is not compulsory, it includes activities such as
attendance at meetings, taking responsibility for organizational
responsibilities, participating in processes, sharing ideas and ideas with other
organizational staff.
It is stated that organizational citizenship behaviors should be in harmony
with obedience and loyalty (Graham, 1991: 255). Apart from this, the three
factors can also manifest themselves as a result of the interaction between
the people inside the organization. These are considered as responsibilities
within the context of organizational citizenship, but also as perceptions
depending on the interactions of the employees with the institutions (Van
Dyne, Graham and Dienesch, 1994: 767-769). These dimensions mainly
examine the interactions between the businessmen and the institution. In this
respect, attention is paid to the interaction of businesspeople with managers
or leaders. However, the Organ has examined the interactions between
employees as well as between employees and organizations. In this respect,
the Organ has dealt with the issue of organizational citizenship behavior in a
broader context. While Graham set out an obligation-based view, the Organ
revealed a voluntary opinion.
14
1.4. Theories Relevant to Organizational Citizenship Behavior
There are a number of theories that are utilized in expressing the causes of
citizenship behaviors of workers who interact with organizational citizenship
behavior. This section will focus on five relevant theories.
1.4.1. Social Change Theory
This theory is used to express different things in the context of business
interactions. (Johnson and O'Leary-Kelly, 2003: 627). In this context, the
theory of social change is exploited in terms of trust as a manager, relations
of functions with managers, organizational justice, organizational citizenship
behavior and job satisfaction. From this point of view, it can be said that the
workshops have a positive or negative attitude towards the institution, and
the social relations relations between the workshops and the organization are
important.
The theory of social change is one of the elements that present an effective
perspective in which the expression of organizational citizenship behavior is
utilized. This theory serves as a support for attitudes and behavior in the
workplace. The reason for this is that the benefits gained within the context of
social change are based on reciprocal relationships and benefits among
employees. Mutual support of employees is investing in future relationships
(Aryee, Budhwar and Chen, 2002: 267-268). This explains the importance of
the theory of social change in introducing organizational citizenship
behaviors.
Social change implies that there is an ambiguity in the behavior of the
occupants and that in this respect the employees are able to take some
responsibilities as volunteers. In addition, the likelihood of exhibiting
organizational citizenship behavior may increase if businesspeople see
themselves within the conditions of social change. Apart from this, the
developments between employees and organizations will be like the
consequences of social change relations. For this reason, the probability of
exhibiting organizational citizenship behaviors in the context of organizational
social change interaction is increasing (Moorman et al., 1993: 209-225).
15
There is a belief that there is a positive interaction between organizational
citizenship behavior and job satisfaction. In fact, there are two approaches
that can be based on this view. The first of these approaches is that
occupations, which are in some conditions as prescribed by the theory of
social change, do not want to be under the favor if they see one as good.
From this point of view they want to show you this goodness. The
corresponding response can reveal itself as organizational citizenship
behavior (Van Dyne, Graham and Dienesch, 1994: 771). The second
approach is to increase the likelihood of exhibiting prosocial behaviors if the
workshops are generally in good mental state. Often, job satisfaction
emerges as a result of positive emotional state. Because of this, employees
who are oversatisfied can find organizational citizenship behavior because
they want to adhere to the principle of acceptance (Organ, 1994: 54). The
theory of social change should not be considered relevant only to
organizational citizenship behavior. This fact also provides for the emergence
of different behaviors and attitudes of citizenship behavior in individuals.
1.4.2. Leader-Member Exchange Theory
Leader-member exchanges are expressed as the quality of interaction
between employees and managers (Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995: 225). In this
context, it is important for the parties to be fair to one another and to have
certain values of interaction in order for the interaction to continue. Within the
context of leader-member exchange relations, some willing attitudes
resembling organizational citizenship behavior can be revealed (Moorman,
Niehoff and Organ, 1993: 223). In this respect, it can be expressed as a
leader-member exchange relation that the more positive attitudes of the
managers to the employees who have more contribution to the organization
as a result of the organizational citizenship behaviors put forward by the
employees.
Much of the work on the interaction between organizational citizenship
behavior and leader-member exchange mentions that leaders need more
support for members and more confidence in leadership-member exchanges
(Wang, Chu and Ni, 2010: 149). In this respect, the support that the leaders
16
give to the employees encourages the employees to behave in the
organizational citizenship way.
1.4.3. Theory of Equality
The motivation of the occupants varies depending on if they think that they
are equal and fair. If the employee is not treated fairly by himself or herself,
this will lead to a decrease in employee’s productivity and performance. From
this point of view, the theory of equality is an approach based on perceptions
of relevance, whether the organization is fair and equal to employees (Koçel,
2010: 636). In this context, the concept of intra-organizational justice in this
theory is a crucial factor.
The main element of the theory of equality is that this desire is motivated by
the desire of employees to accept similar treatments within the context of
work relations (Koçel, 2010, 636). The theory of equality is gained by Stacy
Adams in the literature. According to this theory, employees compare
themselves to other employees. As a result of the comparison, the items
related to him / herself reach the relevant result when they are treated
equally and fairly because other employees have similar characteristics.
Employees who feel that they are not treated equally are in some initiatives in
the institution to treat them equally (Newstrom and Davis, 1993: 156). If it is
thought that there is injustice in the institution, it is a relevant search for
solution of this problem. Here, organizational citizenship behavior emerges
as an important tool for equality and justice within the organization.
Employees tend to be more inclined towards organizational citizenship
behavior, or avoiding it, as a reaction to the inequalities in which they live.
Organizational citizenship behaviors are structurally in the context of
voluntary behavior attitudes beyond the need for formal roles. In this respect,
this attitude is an answer to equality. However, if there is a change in
organizational citizenship behaviors, it is aimed to change the behavior of
official attitudes (Moorman et al., 1993: 209-225).
17
1.4.4. Theory of Attorney
The theory of attorney expresses the transfer of powers possessed by a
certain decision-making authority to a veil. When the theory of attorney is
dealt with within the context of the working relationship with the organization,
while the attorney is the organization while the representative is the
employee. In this theory, it is stated that the parties try to maximize the
benefit. Because of this reason, occupations are trying to minimize the risks
that may arise due to organization and interactions. The risk of proxy is
related to the extent to which the efforts to be made within the context of
change interactions can be met. Nevertheless, if the representatives are
inadequate or beneficiaries, it is possible to put the attorneys at serious risk.
If the attorneys are not informed of the activities carried out by the attorneys,
this is the case for the parents. This, in turn, poses a threat to subordinates
(Whitener, et al., 1998: 514-515). In order to reduce the risk, the attorney of
the person giving the power of attorney appeals to the observance of the
proxy (Koçel, 2010: 355).
The theory of power of attorney is trying to answer the following elements
(Koçel, 2010: 355-356):
• How the parties with different interests and desires in each other and
in conflict of interest will be kept under control,
• The way in which information flows between segments can be
realized,
• In what form the most effective relationship that can be established
between the deputies and the attorneys with knowledge advantage in
terms of structure can be established.
With the correct answers given to the items listed above, it is possible to
establish the right relationship between the proxy and the proxy. The
successes provided by these factors increase the likelihood that the agencies
will exhibit organizational citizenship behavior.
18
1.4.5. ExpectationTheory
This theory explains that people have the potential to have a productive
performance that is relevant to their work and in the end, expect to earn
some prizes (Arnold and Feldman, 1986: 49-53). From the perspective of
expectation theory, a person's over-exertion causes a high performance
expectation. If the individual performs too much, s/he may be able to provide
some positive outcome. Positive outcomes may be reward for some, material
like money for others, while spiritual items for others. Positive outcome leads
to increased satisfaction of the people and therefore high performance of the
people.
According to the expectation theory, the motivation is based on three factors.
These three factors are (Newstrom and Davis, 1993: 148-149):
• Valens: refers to the rate at which the person will receive the reward given
by the effort. A staff member strongly demands a promotion, in this respect
the promotion has high valence in terms of the staff. In general, the prize
valens are of special character. In this regard, the valence is determined on
the basis of the experience of the person and varies with the process. The
reason for this is that the requirements are met and new requirements arise.
• Expecting: Describes a probability perceived by the person. The probability
is related to the person receiving a certain prize as a result of a certain effort.
If the person thinks he will get a reward after a certain effort, s/he will display
more effort.
• Instrumentality: explains the belief that a person will receive a prize if s/he
finishes her/his task.
In terms of the expectation theory, people are doing an analysis similar to the
benefit-cost analysis. The benefit that the person expects to do is to make
more use of the efforts of the individual, at least in the effort they spend. The
fact that Kisin is trying harder can cause to reveal the attitude of
organizational citizenship. However, the point to be noted here is that the
attitude has been exhibited by expecting a response from the person. In this
19
respect, the theory of expectation is separated from the behavior of
organizational citizenship.
1.5. Types of Organizational Citizenship Behavior
Organizations maintain their assets by bringing together a group of people
and working together for a purpose. For this reason, the individual and the
organization carry out their activities as a whole. Organizational citizenship
behavior is also shaped by these two factors. The types of organizational
citizenship behaviors are found in the literature as follows (Williams and
Anderson, 1991: 601; Finkelstein, 2006: 604; Bülbül, 2010: 43)
• Individual organizational citizenship behavior
• Organizational citizenship behavior towards knitting
In the following sub-headings, the perception of organizational citizenship
behavior towards the individual and the knitting is examined.
1.5.1. Organizational Citizenship Behavior for Individuals
The important thing in organizational citizenship behavior towards the
individual is benevolence and courtesy. Employees have to be helpful
towards each other and gentle approaches are gaining importance. However,
responsibilities of employees to inform each other also come to the forefront.
Employees are adopting shared behaviors that support each other and share
each other (Bülbül, 2010: 43).
It is important for employees to support each other in line with the benefit of
the organization and to complement each other's deficits and deficiencies.
The fact that an employee is missing at a point where other employees are
supportive and behaves in a way that observes the benefit of the
organization shows the positive side of organizational citizenship behavior
(Finkelstein, 2006: 604).
20
1.5.2. Organizational Citizenship Behavior for Organization
Employees present their own assets in the development and progress of the
organization. All employees carry out their activities as a whole and carry out
their work in line with the benefit of the organization. The organization
continues its activities as a whole in order to achieve its aims and objectives
(Finkelstein, 2006: 605).
Three important factors are emerging in organizational citizenship behavior
towards knitting. These are the dimensions of civil virtue, gentility and
conscience. If employees fulfill their responsibilities in a formal and
conscientious manner, organizational citizenship behaviors will positively
contribute to the organization (Williams and Anderson, 1991: 602).
1.6. Organizational Citizenship Behavior for Individuals
1.6.1. Positive Effects
Organizations with employees who volunteer to fulfill more of the role
requirements they need to fulfill can provide noticeable benefits (Morrison,
1994: 1563). Organizational citizenship behaviors are more likely to emerge
in organizations that provide proactive collaboration and enable employees to
be motivated. In addition, these organizations can achieve competitive
advantage while increasing performance (Dyne et al., 2000: 4).
Organizational activities are beginning to walk more effectively with
organizational citizenship behavior. Hence, it is possible to say that
institutions with organizational citizenship can reach their aims easier. It is
stated that the employees of the institution will achieve competitive
advantage not only with the skills they possess but also with the citizenship
behaviors they have put out of these skills.
Organizational citizenship behavior affects organizational life in three parts.
In the meantime, the tendency of one's cooperation in the institution
increases together with the citizenship behavior. Therefore, information
sharing rate increases with the information acquisition rate in the institution.
The second effect is the increase in the sense of responsibility of the
21
employees of the organization. The reason behind this is that organizational
citizenship behaviors do not make employees sacrifice for the institutional
considerations and for the institution. If it is the last influence, it is related to
employees' positive behaviors and attitudes. Positive behaviors and attitudes
affect the success levels of employees in the institution (Özdevecioğlu, 2003:
119). Fundamentally, these three domains are hostile as important resources
used to achieve institutional success.
Work attitudes that employees have adopted in organizations have an impact
on organizational citizenship behavior. Structurally, business attitudes can be
expressed as a way of responding of employees to the institutions. From this
point, employees with positive attitudes display positive attitudes towards
their institutions while those with negative attitudes display negative attitudes
towards their institutions. Furthermore, organizational citizenship behavior
improves performance by contributing to the awareness of responsibility,
which in turn increases the productivity of the institution. However,
organizational citizenship behavior also tends to relate to the tendency of
employees towards various areas in the organization. In this sense,
managers can find more time to address important issues together with
organizational citizenship behavior (Ahmadi, Forouzandeh and Kahreh, 2010:
109).
The increase in organizational performance has the effects of organizational
citizenship behavior. The reason for this is that organizational citizenship
behaviors support the functioning of the institution, increase the efficiency of
the employees and administrators and reduce the conflicts within the
institution. Organizational citizenship behavior, however, leads to the efficient
use of limited resources in the organization, ensuring the coordinated
execution of teamwork, and more enthusiastically working at the institution
(Podsakoff, Ahearne, MacKenzie, 1997: 263-264). It is important to have
organizational citizenship behavior in the corporate culture in order to have
skilled workers. Thus, the employees of the institution will be more effective
and the institution will be able to achieve more success.
While trying to reach the targets of the institutions and employees, it is a
basic necessity to ensure that the employees of the institution and the
22
employees also reach their targets. In this respect, organizational citizenship
behavior emerges as a factor to be used to reach both institutional and
personal goals (Özdevecioğlu, 2003: 120). This qualification, which
organizational citizenship behavior has, ensures that it is preferred by
institutions and employees. While the employees reach their targets, the
institutions also ensure their continuity.
Organizational citizenship behavior is shaped by characteristics of the
employee, characteristics of the organization, and characteristics of the
manager or leader. In addition, these factors also shape the spiritual states of
employees while they work. The working conditions that affect employees'
positive mental state ensure that the employee exhibits organizational
citizenship behaviors as it ensures that employees qualify the developing
situation and situation positively. Thanks to this situation, the efficiency of the
institution also increases (Erdem, 2008: 64). Employees who are in a
negative mental state characterize events within the organization as negative
and thus avoid exhibiting organizational citizenship behaviors.
It is possible to express that there are relevant contributions to the following
issues with the movement of organizational citizenship behavior (Köse, Kartal
and Kayalı, 2003):
• Increased efficiency of managers and employees,
• More effective use of institutional resources,
• Support for the development of coordination between the units and groups,
• The ability of the organization to keep its talented employees in the
organization and the further development of these employees,
• Providing continuity in corporate performance,
• The organization is able to adapt to variable environmental factors.
Organizational citizenship behavior improves the performance of employees
by achieving organizational success. The reasons for the organizational
citizenship behavior in order to achieve success are as below (Cohen and
Vigoda, 2000, Karaman and Aylan, 2012, Korkmaz and Arabaci, 2013):
• Minimizes problems in organization.
23
• Organizational continuity is ensured by providing that the organization
operates as a whole.
• It is important for the continuity of organization’s success.
• It has positive effects on productivity of organization.
• Increase individual performance by improving the employees themselves.
• Employees accept more responsibility for the benefit of the organization.
• The staff slows down the turnover rate as it increases employees'
commitment perceptions.
• The organization can adapt to changes and innovations more easily.
• Employees take on more responsibility by exhibiting conscientious
behavior.
• Employees exhibitmore gentlemanly behaviors and this reveals their
positive side.
These aspects of organizational citizenship behavior are positively affecting
organizational productivity.
1.6.2. Negative Effects
Although there are generally positive expressions about organizational
citizenship behavior in the literature, some researchers have mentioned
negative effects on organizational citizenship behavior. Organizations which
have high organizational citizenship behavior are reported to have to help
each other continuously if they are not trained at the same time (Karaman
and Aylan, 2012).
Organizations with high organizational citizenship behaviors are expressed to
have a negative impact on the employees, because they attach greater
importance to the work of others and their sense of benevolence is higher
than their own affairs. Employees' desire to help their colleagues can cause
their jobs to hang. This can cause organizational problems and productivity to
decrease (Bolino et al., 2004: 229-246).
24
According to Bolino et al. (2004: 229-246), organizational citizenship
behavior is high, and the negative effects that can occur in organizations are
listed below:
• There may be some problems with staff management
• Expectation of the continuity of organizational citizenship behavior can
create pressure on the employee
• Organizational citizenship behavior has negative effects on employees'
performance by preventing them from doing business.
• It can cause role conflict by affecting the role definition in the negative way.
• The high sense of helpfulness of the employees prevents the team from
working over time.
The high level of organizational citizenship behavior can prevent employees
from focusing on their own business or create pressure on them. This
reduces the efficiency of the organization by affecting the performances of
employees in the negative direction.
25
CHAPTER 2
2. CONCEPT OF JOB SATISFACTION
2.1. Definition of Job Satisfaction
It is important for employees to be satisfied with their work and the activities
they carry out in terms of maintaining the work of employees other than being
productive. Job satisfaction, especially in terms of businesses that want to
improve and maintain their continuity, should be among the priority issues.
Due to this reason, there are many studies related to this topic in the
literature.
Relevant to job satisfaction, there are many definitions in the literature. In
these definitions, job satisfaction is described as the level of positive
emotions felt for job or work related situations (Adams and Bond, 2000: 538).
In another definition, job satisfaction is defined as the emotional reaction that
employees can put into their jobs (Keles, 2006: 3). Job satisfaction in a
different definition is explained in the form of feelings of workers about
occupations that often have work or work (Aşan and Özyer, 2008: 135).
Canbulat (2007) finds job satisfaction as that employees can meet the wishes
and expectations of the organization and that the organization also fulfills the
wishes and expectations of the employees and that they are satisfied with the
work and the institutions of the employees. In terms of Keser (2006), job
satisfaction is a concept used to explain the happiness and satisfaction of the
employee.
Job satisfaction is an important source of job absenteeism and job turnover
(Moura et al., 2009: 541). On this point, the reason behind too much work
related to job satisfaction is the significant affect it has on the work force
26
(Brown and Sargaent, 2007: 212). In this regard, studies related to job
satisfaction are examined under four different scopes. These four different
contexts can be expressed as follows (Kuşculuoğlu, 2008: 13):
• Issues related to organizational issues such as organizational commitment,
performance and labor turnover.
• Issues related to the effects on employees such as burnout and stress.
• Issues related to job qualifications, leadership-like management issues.
• Personality related issues.
2.2. The Importance of Job Satisfaction
It is at the root of institutions' desire for job satisfaction of employees that
they can make their employees more effective. This situation causes the
concept of job satisfaction to be perceived as a motivational tool (Can, Akgün
and Kavuncubaşı, 1995: 111). In this respect, businesses have started to
preceive their employees' job satisfaction equivalent to production. That is
why businesses are now focusing on the job satisfaction of employees as
well as focus on production. The fact that job satisfaction also affects the
lives of employees in particular makes this concept more important. When
this situation is addressed from the point of view of the institutions, it is seen
that the employees' job satisfaction has three effects. Employees who do not
have job satisfaction according to the first effect tend to abstract themselves
from the job and leave the job. The second effect is that employees with high
job satisfaction are more likely to remain in the organization. If it is the third
effect, the behavior and attitudes of the employees with high job satisfaction
will be positive (Özkalp, 2004: 29).
The ability of organizations to provide job satisfaction is closely related to the
skills and capabilities that employees have. For this reason, the business
policies that institutions create or will create are important. Institutions will be
able to influence their job satisfaction with the changes they make and this
situation will be reflected in the productivity of employees (Can, Akgün and
Kavuncubaşı, 1995: 111). Productivity is also important in terms of effective
use of institutional resources. The limited resources of the institution require
27
that resources are not to be wasted. Employees who provide job satisfaction
must be productive in terms of effective use of resources. When employees
are thought to be a source, effective use of these resources is provided by
job satisfaction (Şimşek et al., 2003: 36).
Failure to provide job satisfaction will have negative effects on organizations.
It is possible that these negative effects are listed as below (Budak, 2006: 23-
24):
• Employees are reluctant to come to work,
• Losses and absences in the labor force,
• Sudden strike and appearance of boycotts in the institution,
• Decrease in productivity,
• Problems arising in the institutional discipline,
• Disruptions in the organization's goals and objectives,
• The growth rate of the labor force turnover rate of the institution,
• Problems that arise when the institution finds qualified labor,
• Reductions in corporate image,
• Occuring problems in collaboration in the institution,
• Increases in business mistakes,
• Increase of wrong decisions and problems in decision making,
• Occupational diseases and occupational accidents are becoming more
often,
• The problems that arise in the institution are being began to ignore by the
employees,
• Employees are beginning to experience reductions in their institutional-
related considerations.
Work satisfaction has some effects on employees as much as it has on
institutions. The benefits employees obtain who provide job satisfaction can
be expressed as follows (Budak, 2006: 24):
28
• Employees will not have a will to look for a different job.
• Because they provide job satisfaction, employees will do their jobs more
carefully and will be exposed to work accidents less often.
• Work satisfaction of employees will provide more peace of mind.
• Employees who provide job satisfaction will also feel happy in their private
lives.
• Employees who provide job satisfaction will be less likely to have
occupational diseases.
• Employees will be able to meet their cultural and social needs in an easier
way if they have job satisfaction.
• Employees who provide job satisfaction will feel more committed to the
organization themselves.
2.3. Factors Affecting Job Satisfaction
Factors affecting job satisfaction of employees are taken from two
perspectives. These are individual factors and organizational factors (Keser,
2006: 73). Within this chapter, these factors will be discussed under the
subheadings.
2.3.1. Individual Factors (Demographic Characteristics)
Individual factors are antagonistic factors that depends on employees. In
view of this, an employee can not value another employee with an element of
value. This causes employees to provide or refuse job satisfaction from
different individual factors. Also, it is related to their own perceptions if
employees provide job satisfaction related to individual elements or not
(Canbulat, 2007: 29).
2.3.1.1. Gender
The studies on the effects of gender on job satisfaction have different results.
In some studies, it has been stated that in men's office activities, men provide
29
job satisfaction in managerial activities (Keser, 2006: 110). In a relevant
study of this issue, it was concluded that female psychologists provide less
relevant job satisfaction with issues such as pay, respect and promotion
compared to male psychologists (Sweeney et al., 2002: 59).
In an other study of women and men's job satisfaction, it was seen that
women achieved lower job satisfaction than men. In this, it is stated that
women may have to work in more unskilled jobs and that they may be less
effective than men. It is also said that the social roles that are imposed on
women and men may also be effective in this end (Kantar, 2008: 47).
The effects of gender on job satisfaction may change according to
professions. Especially when women work in a sector where men are
dominant, it can cause them to drop their expectations and this can lead to
easier job satisfaction for women (Keser, 2006: 111).
2.3.1.2. Age
The relationship between age and job satisfaction is confronted as one of the
interesting topics in the literature. Especially when people have different
ideas in every age, this makes it even more interesting. In studies, there is a
similarity between age and job satisfaction in relation to "U" interaction.
According to this analogy, it is stated that job satisfaction is high due to the
fact that there is a lot of enthusiasm for work in the new entry periods.
However, it is said that there is a decrease in job satisfaction with the
progress of age and the start of experience at work. Later on, as the
employees become increasingly acquainted with the aged, it is stated that job
satisfaction has started to increase again (Okpara, 2006: 52). Apart from this
view, there are also studies that compare the relationship between age and
job satisfaction to the "inverse" interaction, with the view that job satisfaction
increases with age (Keser, 2006: 101).
2.3.1.3. Marital Status
Studies show that married employees are less likely to leave work than single
employees. Nevertheless, it is expressed that in case of working partner of
30
employees, change is observed in these rates. In this process, the
opportunities of spouses working can have an effect on leaving work.
Besides that, it is possible to say that family relations has affects on job
satisfaction. Especially with the child's ownership, the assumption of
childcare by women can cause men to work harder to increase their incomes.
Women start thinking that they are not going to work because they are
disconnected from work. Even if they return to work, they are working with
less promotion and less wage expectation. Low expectations can lead to
easier job satisfaction. Men, on the other hand, focus on wages because of
their familys’ livelihood. Difficulties in wages can cause job satisfaction of
men to decrease (Aydoğdu, 2009: 13).
When married and single employees are compared, married employees are
said to be happier than single ones. On the basis of this, it is stated that
married employees focus on family livelihood and that they are more
satisfactory. Married employees can provide more job satisfaction than single
employees because they want to stay at the job rather than high expectations
(Brough and Frame, 2004: 10).
2.3.1.4. Intelligence and Ability
Intelligence and ability emerge as crucial factors for their employees to Show
their creativity. Employees with high levels of intelligence and ability are able
to produce more with less workload. Employees with low levels of ability and
intelligence may have to work harder. These conditions leads enterprises to
examine the intelligence and skill levels of people in the selection of
personnel. Besides, employees’ ability to adapt to work is also closely related
to their level of talent and intelligence. Employees with high levels of
competence and intelligence are employed in jobs that are appropriate to
their level, helping to increase job satisfaction. However, employees who are
assigned to tasks below their own abilities and levels of intelligence may
result with dissatisfaction (Silah, 2001: 12).
Individuals can display different characteristics in respect to talents. These
abilities usually manifest themselves in the form of physical abilities and
31
intelligence-related abilities. Intelligence-related abilities include activities in
which cognitive abilities are used, as physical abilities include activities that
need events such as body coordination, hand skills. Today, businesses are
seeking to employ highly skilled workers who are interested in intelligence.
The reason for this is that there is a moderate increase in the work related to
intelligence in social life (Özkalp and Kırel, 2001: 28).
As the education level approaches to each other in enterprises, the
importance of intelligence and skill levels increases. It may not be right to say
that job satisfaction can be achieved even if the level of competence and
intelligence of the work done by the employees is matched. However, it will
be possible to say that the level of ability and intelligence will lead to job
dissatisfaction that is far above the job requirements (Budak, 2006: 55).
2.3.1.5. Personality
Personality is all of the features that become known in a process, but do not
emerge quickly, that identify with a person. It is possible to predict the
attitudes and behaviors of individuals by understanding their personalities
(Keser, 2006: 118). Personality can affect a person's work-related ideas and
feelings in a negative or positive way (Demir, 2005: 136). In this regard, the
positive personality structure of the individual is important for the individual to
provide more job satisfaction (Akgündüz, 2006: 99).
In terms of expressing the relationship between personality and job
satisfaction, the effect of different types of personality on job satisfaction is
emphasized. In this regard, it is expressed that different personality types
have different qualities on job satisfaction. Such types of people; open
minded, outward-facing, harmonious, responsible, and emotionally balanced
(Mohammed et al., 2009: 135).
2.3.1.6. Status
The status is a concept that affects the position and career of the workoffice
in a hierarchical way. Structurally, status also shapes work-related
32
expectations. In this regard, the overlap of status and anticipation is very
important with regard to providing job satisfaction (Keser, 2006: 126).
Most of the employees enter the working life with the expectation of reaching
a certain career. At the root of this expectation is the possession of a high
status. In this respect, the high status qualitatively provides an element of job
satisfaction for employees (Akgündüz, 2006: 100). Often it is said that job
satisfaction increases with the increase in the status. It is possible to express
that the increase in salary, independence and prestige is influential to this
rise (Eren, 2008: 517).
2.3.1.7. Education Level
Educational levels of employees are increasingly related to job-related
expectations. In this sense, job satisfaction can be increased by being able to
respond to rising expectations of employees. The employee with a high level
of education wants to work in a job that suits the level of education and wants
to get a salary incurred in the level of education. But as the expectations
increase, they can be removed from the possibilities provided and this can
cause job satisfaction to decrease (Demir, 2005: 130). Highly educated
employees see this education as having great expectations. In this way, the
job satisfaction of employees who do not meet the education and the wages
they receive are showing a decline. However, in general, it is also possible
that we can say that people who are well educated are working in better jobs
than those who are not well educated and that job satisfaction is higher due
to this reason (Aydoğdu, 2009: 13).
2.3.1.8. Seniority
The seniority is related to how long the employee works in a company. The
time spent in the company grows the experience of the employee who is
related to the field in which the employee is working and thus the employee's
seniority is increasing. As the employee gets seniority, the reputation of the
company rises. In this respect, highly reputed employees can have more say
in institutions. Also, new employees learn their business processes and
33
activities in consultation with senior employees and benefit from their
experience. In this sense, senior employees are pleased that their respect for
their work and their work experience are trusted.
The expectation of these employees also increases because their seniority
can make an important contribution to the company. In this respect, it
becomes important that the expectations of senior employees can be met by
the institution. Job satisfaction of senior employees who meet expectations is
rising (Kantar, 2008: 65). However, senior employees who do not meet their
expectations will begin to think about their time spent working in the company
they are in, and this will be reflected negatively on job satisfaction (Turk,
2007: 75).
2.3.1.9. Socio-Cultural Environment
Employees’ attitudes and behaviors are shaped by their growth and their
cultural background and social qualities. The thoughts, ideas and behaviors
of the individuals are in this aspect in the socio-cultural environment.
Employees often shape their attitudes and behaviors depending on the
conditions they are in. Due to this, they can think that they will be excluded if
they are not display appropriate behavior. In this respect, the socio-cultural
environment affects business life as much as it affects private life (Budak,
2006: 64).
Positive interactions between employees causes positive effects on job
satisfaction. At first, individuals meet their basic needs and then aim to meet
their social needs. This situation requires individuals to have socio-cultural
relations. The interaction established by the socio-cultural environment
influences the formation of individual attitudes and behaviors. In this sense, it
is obvious that employees will not have a chance to not have socio-cultural
interaction. However, these relationships may show an increase in job
satisfaction in the case of positive qualifications (Islamoğlu and Börü, 2007:
71).
34
2.3.2. Organizational Factors
Organizational factors are the factors that develop from the characteristics of
employees' institutions. Organizational factors can be studied in different
ways from a structural point of view. Some of these factors will be included in
this section.
2.3.2.1. Physical Properties
Physical features include work, cleanliness, light, noise, temperature,
ventilation. Problems in this condition may cause employees to feel
uncomfortable. Also, defects in physical conditions will return to those who
work as a source of stress. Raising the physical qualification in working
conditions will increase the confidence of the employees to the institution and
this situation will be reflected positively on the job satisfaction of the
employees (Akgündüz, 2006: 105).
2.3.2.2. Wages
Individuals want to work to meet their needs in the first place. In this respect,
individuals pay certain fees as compensation for their work. So, the
perception that employees have a relevant relationship with their salary will
have an impact on job satisfaction (Korunka et al., 2003: 69).
It is expressed that employees pay attention to mainly three factors related to
the salary they receive. These elements can be stated as follows (Erdoğan,
1999: 238-239):
a) Comparing the level of salary provided with the salary level in the
world,
b) Comparison of salary of employees with the same level of education,
c) Comparing the salary of employees who do similar work in the
organization.
When salary levels of employees increase, job satisfaction levels increase.
However, one point that the employees are concerned with about the salary
is whether there is a fair wage distribution in the institution (Akgündüz, 2006:
35
104). In this aspect, employees compare the salary they receive with the
wages they receive from other employees and decide whether there is a fair
wage distribution. If employees think that they are paying less than the
content they are doing, this will lead to the idea that there is no fair wage
distribution for employees. All these negative conditions will cause the
decrease of the job satisfaction level of the employees (Keser, 2006: 77). To
be able to prevent these problems, institutions should follow a fair pay policy.
2.3.2.3. Structure of Work
Work qualifications have some influence on employees. Constant repetitive
tasks cause employees to feel bored over time and distract attention. Also,
the fact that the content of the job is far below the employee's capacity
causes the employee to cool off. However, the fact that the content of the
work is too higher than the employee's capacity also leads the employee to
perceive the work as a danger (Demir, 2005: 141).
The ability of the employee to identify with the work depends on the structure
of the work being compatible with the employee. From this point of view, it
will be appropriate for the institutions to act according to the principle of
proper working. This will prevent work dissatisfaction by preventing
employees from suffering from work structure (Pearson and Moomaw, 2005:
40).
2.3.2.4. Promotion Opportunities
The content of promotion opportunities are consist of promotion and career
opportunities. The career opportunities they have is one of the important
work-related expectations of employees. An employee who starts a new job
in the company is starting working with the expectation that he will be
promoted in the future. If the employee is not promoted in time, the job will
begin to show a satisfactory decline (Kantar, 2008: 67).
Promotion opportunities can be interpreted differently by employees. While
some employees look at the possibilities of promotion from the material point
of view, some employees are emotionally looking at the possibilities of
36
promotion as a result of promotion and the possibilities of promotion in the
direction of the prestige. As the employees gain experience, they are in the
process of being more responsible and the institutions can respond with the
promotion of the employees to this desire. However, inadequate career
opportunities at the institution is starting to become a problem for employees
who have begun to work easily and are therefore more likely to take
responsibility for it. These problems cause the employees to experience job
dissatisfaction over time (Eren, 2008: 515).
2.3.2.5. Superior-Subordinate Relationships
Employees generally have a desire to be appreciated within the scope of
their relationships with superiors. Also, most of the employees do not want to
hear negative feedback from managers. For this reason, the appreciation of
employees is a quality that increases their job satisfaction. If the employee
gets appreciated relevant to the performance s/he has exhibited, s/he will be
willing to make an effort to improve her/his performance (Başaran, 2000:
220).
Collaboration in the organization is required to meet the needs and realize
the individual goals. However, the system that exists today makes it
obligatory for individuals to cooperate (Tabancalı, 2000: 314). As the number
of companies increases, competition conditions become increasingly difficult.
In order for companies to be able to distinguish themselves from other
companies, it is necessary to exhibit different items. In order to be able to
provide this element, the companies should maintain their activities in
positive subordinates and superordinates associations. Positive relationships
between subordinates and superordinates will provide the development of
the firm (Basım and Şeşen, 2008: 61).
Companies have to evaluate their resources in the most efficient way to get
the most from their production. It is important to remember that companies do
not have resources that are only material. From this point of view, employees
are the most important resource companies have. In order for this resource
to be used efficiently, it is important that the subordinate and superordinate
37
relations are established to have positive qualities. If firms can not establish
positive relationships, employees will not be able to work peacefully and this
will be reflected negatively in the job satisfaction of employees (Vural and
Coşkun, 2007: 141).
2.3.2.6. Co-Workers
Because people are social lives, they have to interact with other people.
Comapnies also emerges as one of the areas where people constantly
interact with each other. In this aspect, the employees interact with each
other in order to ensure the continuity of the company activities as well as for
social purposes. In this regard, being colleague means that employees
accept people who will work with each other (Kırel et al., 2004: 78). When
employees love their colleagues, relationships established will be positive.
This situation will increase the job satisfaction of employees (Başaran, 2000:
220).
Creating conditions in which employees can have good relationships is
important for the development of business partnerships. In an organization
with positive business partnerships, it is highly likely that employees are
happy with their work. This situation is an improvement for the employee's
job satisfaction. In addition, good co-workers ensure that employees can
collaborate more effectively and produce more effectively. In this regard,
positive co-workers show an effect that increases productivity (Akkoç et al.,
2012: 110).
2.3.2.7. Management Style and Control
The management style of the companies also affects the policies of the
companies. Companies that adopt authoritarian management style focus
primarily on their own desires and ignore employees' desires and
expectations. It is not possible for employees who work in this management
style to reveal their own ideas. Employees are performing their duties only
because they are obligatory under such management. Employees are
unlikely to be able to provide job satisfaction from the tasks they perform as a
38
necessity (Başaran, 2000: 220). Instead, in companies that care about
employees' ideas and allow them to express their thoughts, the employees
perceive their work as their own parts and are doing their job willingly. This
situation has been shown to increase the job satisfaction of employees
(Kantar, 2008: 67).
Besides the management style, the control systems applied at the firm also
have an effect on the job satisfaction of the employees. Employees in
companies that are strictly and frequently supervised may feel themselves
under constant threat. It is not possible for employees who are constantly
threatened to concentrate on their work. This can lead to a decrease in the
job satisfaction of employees (Eren, 2001: 518). For this reason, it will be
important for companies to determine the control systems they will not feel
under pressure.
2.3.2.8. Communication
Communication is needed to establish human relations. In this respect,
communication is the basis of social functioning (South, 2001: 197). The fact
that human relations are based on communication also shows itself in the
production processes. The production and sustainability of the production is
only possible with the communication between the employees. Managers are
able to transfer the work that needs to be done to the employees through
communication and they can explain the responsibilities of the employees to
the managers again through communication. So, communication is provided.
From this point of view, communication processes must be smooth in order
that the operation in the company can be smooth. This requires the
establishment of certain communication systems in the company
(Sabuncuoğlu and Tüz, 1998: 138).
Establishing proper communication infrastructure in the companies will
ensure that the communication problems that may arise between the
employees are at the lowest level. In addition, proper communication
infrastructure will make it easier to solve problems that emerge.
Communication is also important in terms of developing relationships
39
between employees. It is not possible for employees to be happy in an
organization that does not have effective communication and communication
systems. This situation causes job satisfaction of employees to decrease.
2.4. Studies for Increasing Job Satisfaction in Businesses
High satisfaction perceptions of employees' also increases their
performances. The high performance of the employees increases productivity
and efficiency in the enterprises. That is why businesses can use a variety of
tools to improve their satisfaction perceptions. Some of the tools used to
raise employees' satisfaction perceptions are (Giauque et al., 2012: 175):
• Fees
• Rewarding
• Confidence
• Social participation
• Valuation
• Independent work
• Authorization
• Training
• Participation in decisions
• Effective communication
All of these factors affect employees' satisfaction perceptions positively.
Factors affecting satisfaction perception in the literature are classified in three
groups. These have been examined in subheadings.
2.4.1. The Effects of Socio-Economic Tools on Job Satisfaction of
Employees
Socio-economic instruments are an important factor affecting employee
satisfaction perceptions. The socio-economic instruments often used by
40
organizations are as follows (Herzberg et al., 2011: 40-42; Bang et al., 2012:
97):
• Wages are expressed as the most effective tool of satisfaction. It is
necessary for the employees to start their business life and to make their
financial livelihoods in order to keep their business life despite the changing
conditions. That's why giving employees bonuses, ensuring their profitability,
or raising wages will positively affect their sense of commitment and
motivation, which increases the satisfaction perceptions of employees.
However, the most important factor to pay attention to is the fair approach. It
is important to determine fair approaches in the distribution of salaries.
• Rewarding is one of the important factors that raise employees' satisfaction
perceptions. The rewarding of disciplined employees shows them the value
they are given, and this increases the satisfaction perceptions of employees.
Rewards satisfy employees and link them to organization.
• Trust is another important factor that employees expect from the work
environment. Security needs are among the basic needs of people. Having
employees' job security, having social security and environmental
confidence, affects their perceptions of satisfaction positively. Employees
with job security work more peacefully and happily. This increases the
employee's satisfaction perceptions and motivations, thereby increasing the
success of the company.
2.4.2. The Effects of Psycho-Social Tools on Employee Job Satisfaction
Psycho-social tools are often used to increase satisfaction perceptions of
employees. The psycho-social tools used by businesses are listed as follows
(Bang et al., 2012: 98; Weiner, 2013: 30-33):
• Social inclusion is seen as an important factor in raising employee
satisfaction perceptions. When employees are constantly communicating and
their needs are met quickly, their level of motivation increases and this
increases their satisfaction perceptions.
• Independent work is expressed as employees’ independent exhibition of
knowledge and abilities in line with organizational goals and objectives.
41
Continuously interfering with employees can affect their work negatively by
causing them to feel under pressure.
• Value and respect for employees are also important concepts. Appreciation
and respect for the employees increase the satisfaction perception by
providing the employee the status s/he wants to have.
• One of the most important factors for employees is involvement in
decisions. The suggestion of employees about the working environment,
working patterns and the execution of her/his suggestions have positive
effects on the satisfaction perceptions of the employees.
• Psychological trust is one of the most important issues that employees
expect from orgsnization. Employees want to work in a peaceful environment
without job anxiety. In this way, employees' sense of satisfaction increases
and performance improves and business success is positively affected.
• Social work is one of the basic needs of employees since humans are
social creatures. With social organizations organized by businesses, social
life outside of work life is supported, which affects employees' satisfaction
perceptions positively.
2.4.3. The Effect of Organizational and Managerial Tools on Job
Satisfaction of Employees
Businesses are trying to improve employees' satisfaction perceptions within
organizational and managerial tools. The key managerial and organizational
tools affecting employees' satisfaction perceptions are listed below (Herzberg
et al., 2011: 40-42; Weiner, 2013: 30-33):
It is important to ensure that employees work as a whole for a purpose. The
consolidation of the employee and organizational goals in a common point
will increase both employee satisfaction and organizational success.
Empowering employees according to their skills ensures that employees
work more efficiently and are satisfied with their work.
42
Giving training to the needs of the employees and increasing the knowledge
and skills of the employees about the issue increases the satisfaction of the
employees by increasing their ability to do business.
Effective communication with employees increases the satisfaction level of
employees. Communication is decisive in solving the needs of employees.
With the communication to be established with the employees, the needs of
the employees can be perceived more clearly and solutions can be
suggested.
2.5. Consequences of Job Dissatisfaction
Job satisfaction is one of the most important factors which affects employee
performance. Employees who do not have high job satisfaction or even job
dissatisfaction perform poorly, which decreases the productivity of the
employer (Oudenhoven et al., 2003: 2).
Job dissatisfaction can cause conflicts between the employer and the
employee by causing employees not to do business in line with the goals and
objectives of the organization. Employees who are not satisfied with their job
are more likely to leave the job. This weakens the sense of responsibility for
employees' work and reduces their productivity (Jong et al., 2001: 355).
Job dissatisfaction can cause many negative effects on employees. The
absenteeism of employees increases and their intention to leave the
workplace increases. According to Oudenhoven et al. (2003: 2-3), some of
the impacts of job dissatisfaction in their work are as follows:
• Affect employees' mental health negatively
• Affect physical health negatively
• Increase in labor turnover
• Work slowdown
• Tiredness
• Absenteeism
• Conflict
43
• Decreased life satisfaction
• Theft
All these reasons can be caused by the dissatisfaction of employees.
Reducing employees' satisfaction perceptions has negative effects on their
performance and affects both mental and spiritual health of the employees in
the negative direction. For employees with job dissatisfaction, the goals and
objectives do not matter. This situation causes the employees to work or not
to work only in their own desires.
2.5.1. Absenteeism
Absenteeism is one of the most important factors affecting the work force
cycle negatively which leads to high costs for organızatıons and at the same
time affects the working atmosphere in a negative way. This situation
decreases the productivity of the business (Turan and Parsal, 2011: 3).
Depending on job dissatisfaction, there are many factors that affect
absenteeism and these factors are categorized. These are expressed as
individual, behavioral and organizational factors. Depending on the gender,
age or educational status of the employees, the perceptions of absenteeism
may change, or absenteeism may vary according to attitudes, judgments or
working conditions. Job dissatisfaction often creates a problem of
absenteeism in employees, but the extent of this absenteeism can vary
according to various factors (Rössler, 2012: 67).
Employees' absenteeism may differ depending on their motivation to go on to
work and their ability to continue to work. Factors that affect the motivation
and competence of employees to continue to work are listed below (Stimpfel
et al., 2012: 2503).
The factors that influence the motivation to continue to work are:
• Job satisfaction
• Procedures about continuity for organization
• Fees
44
• Other job alternatives
• Communication with colleagues
• Communication with managers
• Responsibility towards work
Factors affecting the ability to continue to work are:
• Accident
• Health problems
• Transportation problems
• Family issues
Both the motivation to continue to work and the ability to continue to work
have an impact on employees' perceptions of absenteeism. It is difficult or
even impossible to remove the absenteeism in the business. However, the
absenteeism can be controlled (Yürür and Keser, 2010: 167).
Businesses can apply various procedures in order to avoid the absence.
However, the fact that these procedures are so strict will increase the
intentions of employees to leave work. The fact that employees are forced to
come to work, even if they are sick, or that they are not asked to leave
absenteeism in a crucial question about their family will create pressure on
employees. It is important for businesses to follow the controlled absence
procedure (Lopez, 2010: 108).
2.5.2. Labor Force Turnover
The workforce turnover is defined as the process of employees leaving their
current job in order to evaluate other business alternatives. Employees are
planning to leave work when they are not satisfied with their current job. This
situation causes the operator to search for another staff, and thus the
workforce is devalued (Yüksel, 2011: 292).
In organizations, labor costs cause significant costs. Separation of
experienced staff from the job and starting a new employee causes costs for
45
the business. In the companies, the transfer of labor can be caused by
various reasons. Some of these reasons are as follows (Şahin, 2011: 25):
• Death
• Retirement
• Becoming distant with work
• Resignation
The reason for the labor force turnover is mostly leaving the job. Employees
can decide to leave their jobs for many reasons. However, job dissatisfaction
is one of the most important factors affecting employees' intention to leave
work. Employees who are not satisfied with their jobs and who think it does
not meet their needs choose between alternative job opportunities and leave
their current jobs (McHugh et al., 2011: 205).
Low job satisfaction leads to high labor force turnover. If employees'
perceptions of satisfaction with their work are low and if they do not take
effective steps to raise these perceptions, employees will increase their
intention to leave the job. Separating employees from their jobs leads to
increased management and training costs in enterprises and reduced
productivity (Jodlbauer et al., 2012: 42).
2.5.3. Life Satisfaction
Work and life satisfaction have an important relationship between them.
Individuals' business and private lives are intertwined. When individuals want
to devote more time to their work life, they have to cut this time out of their
private lives. If individuals spend more time in their private lives by reducing
the time they spend in private lives, their expectations for business life are
increasing. Individuals want employers to compensate for the time they
separate. If employees' expectations are not met, the perception of
dissatisfaction rises (Green and Zhu, 2010: 742).
Individuals' perceptions of satisfaction in general are acting as a whole. An
individual who is not satisfied in business life will not be satisfied in his
private life. The expectation of individuals from life creates integrity. The fact
46
Job Satisfaction
Marriage Satisfaction
Family Satisfaction
Life Satisfaction
that certain needs are not met in the business or private life of the individual
affects the whole life in the negative direction. This may be due to the
individual's perception of satisfaction
(Rössler, 2012: 67).
It is stated in the literature that the individual has three important factors
affecting the overall satisfaction perception. These factors are as shown in
Fig.
Diagram 1. The Factors Affecting Life Satisfaction
Source: Stimpfel vd., 2012:2504.
It is expressed that the relationship between work and life generally has
spreading characteristic. A situation that is happening in business life also
affects private life, or a situation that is happening in private life affects
bussiness life. Various situations that occur somewhere in the lives of
individuals can affect the individual's whole life positively or negatively (Yurur
and Keser, 2010: 166). Individuals' unsatisfaction with their business life has
negative effects on their general life. Some of these effects are listed as
follows (Lopez, 2010: 110):
• Aggressive behavior
47
• Frustration
• Physical health deterioration
• Problems in mental health
• Shortening of life expectancy
• Decline in life satisfaction
There is an important relationship between individuals' job and life
satisfaction. The satisfaction of those who are happy in their provate lives is
higher than those who are not happy in their private lives. Those who are
happy with their lives are more positively approaching their business lives
because they feel less job pressure (Green and Zhu, 2010: 742).
Demographic characteristics are also influential on life satisfaction. The age,
marital status, educational status and income of the persons have an
influence on satisfaction perceptions. Having different needs due to each
individual having different lifestyles differentiates their life satisfaction.
Different positive or negative developments cause different effects in each
individual. This indicates that demographic characteristics are important in
determining work and life satisfaction (Turan and Parsak, 2011: 3).
2.5.4. Physical and Mental Health
Job dissatisfaction can cause employees to experience physical and mental
health problems. Employees who experience job dissatisfaction may
experience psychological depression and experience various physical
problems. Employees want to know the effects of job dissatisfaction and take
precautions about them. There are basically two reasons why workers want
to know the mental and physical problems of their employees due to job
dissatisfaction. These are listed below (Yüksel, 2011: 293):
• Physical and mental problems of employees can lead to life's problems,
• Employees' mental depression life can cause significant financial loss.
Job dissatisfaction of employees can cause adverse effects on mental health.
These effects can cause one to lose confidence in himself or to lexperience
48
problems with his family and friends. Problems in employees' mental health
can lead their lives to be worried, sad and tense. The low level of satisfaction
in employees affects their general view of life negatively. This situation can
cause employees to feel unwell and to suffer difficulties in making decisions
(Lopez, 2010: 110).
Various factors that create job dissatisfaction and disrupt workers' mental
health are listed as follows (Kantar, 2008: 65):
• Repetitive tasks
• Boring jobs that does not provide any good for employee
• Having communication problems with colleagues
• Over workload
• Constant changes in company
• Lack of confidence in work
Job dissatisfaction also affects the physical health of the people over time.
Various physical problems that can occur in employees due to job
dissatisfaction are listed as follows (Türk, 2007: 78):
• Headache
• Fatigue
• Continuous sweating
• Difficulty in breathing
• Loss of appetite
• Joint pain
• Over use of alcohol
• Indigestion
• Hypertension
• Nausea
• Heart attack
• Risk of paralysis due to a stress
49
All these negativities can come into play as a result of job dissatisfaction. Job
dissatisfaction can cause various stress factors in employees and this can
affect the mental and physical health of employees in a negative way.
2.6. The Relationship between Job Satisfaction and Some Concepts
There are some concepts that affect the concept of job satisfaction. These
are such as morale, productivity, performance and motivation. This section
will focus on the relationship between these concepts and job satisfaction.
2.6.1. Job Satisfaction and Job Attitude
The concept of attitude is expressed in the form of a person being spiritually
ready or accustomed for an object, an event or a person. Alos, attitude may
be explained as some behavioral patterns that are attached to the objects of
the people as a result of previous experience (Koçel, 1998: 522).
The work attitude of employees reflects their views and thoughts related to
their work. From this point of view, it is possible to express that employees
who show a positive job attitude love their jobs, and those who exhibit a
negative job attitude do not like their jobs. In this respect, it also shows that
the attitudes of employees shows us if they have job satisfaction or not. In
this regard, it is possible to say that employees who have negative job
attitudes have a low job satisfaction, while those who exhibit positive job
attitudes have high job satisfaction. However, it is important to determine the
factors that affect the attitudes and behaviors of the employees.
Organizations have important influences on employees' attitudes and
behaviors in determining the factors that affect them, and positive attitudes of
employees. Organizations' ability to meet employees' needs and to rely on
their employees will cause employees to demonstrate a positive attitude
toward business. This will have a positive effect on the performance of
employees by raising job satisfaction perceptions. Increasing employee
performance is seen as an important factor in increasing the productivity and
effectiveness of the employer (Eren, 2001: 518).
50
2.6.2. Job Satisfaction and Mood
It is stated in the literature that the relationship between mood and job
satisfaction is the same. In this respect, when employees’ mood is high, it
means that employees' job satisfaction levels are high. But mood is a
concept that can have qualities that vary from person to person. In this
respect, the high mood of an employee does not reveal that organizational
motivation is high. However, in terms of employee, the good mood is an
indicator of high job satisfaction (Şahin, 2011: 33).
2.6.3. Job Satisfaction and Efficiency
Firms have to go through a certain production process in order to sustain
their assets. In order to be able to continue this process effectively, they need
workers. The efficiency that the employees will demonstrate will ensure both
the continuity of the company and the development of the company. The
ability of employees to work efficiently will depend on job satisfaction levels.
In this respect, the level of job satisfaction will also affects productivity. This
suggests that there is a positive relationship between job satisfaction and
productivity (Kantar, 2008: 66).
2.6.4. Performance and Success with Job Satisfaction
It is possible to say that the relationship between performance and success
with job satisfaction is similar to that between job satisfaction and
productivity. However, it is possible to say that there are three different
dimensions of the relationship between employee performance and job
satisfaction. These dimensions are (Mohammed et al., 2009: 138):
• Increasing employee performance allows job satisfaction to occur,
• Allows for increased job satisfaction performance,
• The award has a decisive influence on the relationship between job
satisfaction and performance.
The ability of employees to show success has increased their confidence in
themselves. In addition, employees who are successful can be rewarded by
51
the organization to make them proud of themselves. In this respect, the
return of success to employees has positive qualities. Because of their
success, the level of job satisfaction of those who are appreciated and
rewarded also increases (Budak, 2006: 69).
2.6.5. Job Satisfaction and Motivation
The concept of motivation and job satisfaction come out as two structurally
interactive between each other concepts. Job satisfaction can increase
motivation as well as motivation can increase job satisfaction. It is noticable
that the concepts of motivation and job satisfaction influence each other
positively. This causes a cyclical relationship between motivation and job
satisfaction (Türk, 2007: 78)
52
CHAPTER 3
3. CONCEPT OF BELONGINGNESS
3.1. Organizational Belongingness
Before the concept of organizational belonging is expressed, it will be
appropriate to express the concept of belonging. Belongingness stands out
as a concept related to giving priority to understanding others in relationships
with the other people. This concept is expressed in the dictionary as
"relation", "state of belonging" and "connection". The direction of the
association expressed here can be a human being, an object, a social class,
or a community. In other words, these items can be increased according to
the factors that the individual can use to express himself. The concept of
belonging, which can be expressed as an element of connection between
society and people, also helps people to be understood (Alptekin, 2011: 12).
When the concept of belonging is considered in terms of emotional state, it
can be expressed as a person's self-worth and importance because s/he
feels that s/he is in a certain position in society and is accepted by others.
The notion of belonging from a different angle expresses the need that
comes from the reflection of these elements in one's life as a result of the
desire of the person to be loved, valued and accepted by others (Uslu, 2012:
16). From a different perspective, the concept of belonging means the
process of articulation or integration. It is the desire for integration and desire
for relevant element. The desire to be involved in an item, person or situation
is a human necessity. From this point of view, the belonging occurs in the will
of the people and as a result the individual is able to establish direct or
indirect relations with their surroundings (Alptekin, 2011: 12)
53
Relevant studies in the literature are based on the concept of organizational
belonging until the 1950s. However, this issue came to the forefront with the
increase in the work done with this subject in the 1980s. Every work carried
out has been very important in order to establish new items related to
organizational belonging and to create theoretical sub-structure. Researchers
have considered psychological theories on what the concept of
organizational belonging is based on. The reason for this is to think that
people can not feel in terms of organizations that are not in their own sense
of emotion. Researchers have suggested that the sense of belonging must
be primitive precursors, and this is analogous to the relationship between
mother and baby (Brown, Rodgers and Kapadia, 2008: 354, Nelson and
Quick, 2009: 544).
One of the first definitions related to organizational belonging was made by
Grusky. According to his definition, organizational belonging means the
strength of one's association with the organization. In a different definition,
organizational belonging is described as all the normative pressures
internalized in order to be able to demonstrate attitudes in a way that will
provide organizational goals and benefits. In this aspect, it can be expressed
as organizational belonging, internalization of organizational benefits and
aims by members of the organization, exertion in order to be a part of the
employee, and employee organization as just a family (Akt Özdevecioğlu,
2003: 114). Organizational belonging mostly refers to the employees' desire
to stay in the organization, their commitment to organizational values and
goals, and the mental ties that employees feel for the organization (Özgan,
Külekçi and Özkan, 2012: 197).
It is possible to list some of the definitions made related to organizational
belonging as below (akt. Günel, 2009: 117):
• McDonald and Makin (2000) described organizational belonging as a
psychological agreement between the organization and the employee. The
relationship between the people and the organization is clearly represented
by spiritual agreement.
54
• Swailes (2002) stated that organizational belonging has a strong will to
accept the organization's culture and goals and to continue the process with
the organization.
• According to Chen et al. (2002), organizational belonging is psychological
identity felt by the employee against the organization.
• Valentine et al. (2002) describes organizational belonging, as employee
loyalties and information in parallel with organizational orientations.
• Erdheim et al. (2006) expressed the organizational belonging in the form of
a mental state involving the relationship between the employee and the
organization, and the desire to remain in the organization due to the
consequences of this relationship.
The concept of organizational belonging is closely related to some concepts.
In this respect, it will be appropriate to express these concepts in terms of
understanding the concept of organizational belonging. In this respect, these
concepts will be covered in other chapters.
3.2. Organizational Loyalty
Various definitions are made in the relevant literature with the concept of
organizational loyalty. In these definitions, organizational loyalty is defined as
member behaviors that include increasing the interests of the institution that
are highly dependent on the benefits of the person and belonging to those
benefits. In another definition, organizational loyalty is expressed as a
spiritual sense of belonging to the institution (Koç, 2009: 204). Podsakoff et
al., (2000) described organizational loyalty as a process involving praise of
the institution, protection of the institution against external threats, and
institutionalization even in unusual circumstances. Demir (2005) deals with
organizational loyalty as an element after the identification and internalization
of organizational belonging. According to him, organizational loyalty and
organizational belonging are concepts that can not be separated from each
other.
55
Aydogdu (2009) says that organizational loyalty sometimes causes
employees to become passive. According to him, those who work in
organizational loyalty think that the management of the organization will take
the right steps. In this respect, these employees are not involved in any act.
Some researchers stated that this concept has active qualities within the
scope of opinions related to organizational loyalty, while some researchers
have stated that they have passive qualities.
The concept of loyalty that has been discussed in the literature has also been
discussed under the concept of customer loyalty. In this regard, customer
loyalty has been evaluated as one of the most important indicators of
profitability (Payne and Webber, 2006: 366). The concept of loyalty has been
tried to be expressed as a pioneer in the structural aspect of trust
(Kuşçuluoğlu, 2008: 4).
There are also cases where the concept of loyalty is handled within the
context of the individual self-mastery. In this regard, when there is a high
level of loyalty, the employees keep the requirements of their organizations in
the foreground and they are in some sacrifice. However, it has also been
expressed that employees can always make a high contribution to high
sadacanthate when they can be faithful to their business or their
organization, if they are not loyal to the organization, and that this can affect
the output positively (Von Nordenflycht, 2010: 156).
56
Diagram 2. Relationship between Organizational Belongingness and
Organizational Loyalty
Source: Koç, 2009: 208.
Keles (2006) stated that loyalty is a feeling of emotional attachment to the
corporation and emotional attachment to the institution. According to him,
loyalty is a concept that is closer to normative commitment. Apart from this, it
is stated that psychological contracting is effective with expectations in
sadacatin formation. In addition, beliefs toward to organization, voluntary
work and organizational responsibility for the organization may also be
considered as loyalty (Keleş, 2006: 101). In a different study, loyalty has
been considered in the context of normative commitment, which is expressed
as an attachment to the value of the organization, which leads to the
culturality (Köksal, 2012: 19).
In the literature, the relation of values concepts with loyalty has been
examined. Robey, Anderson, and Raymond (2013: 379) stated that they
regarded values as the reference of individuals in their work. Kirkman, Lowe
High Loyalty
Normal Loyalty
Low Loyalty
ORGANIZAT IONAL
C OMMITME NT
Organizational Belongingness
Sense
Identification,
Attachment,
Dedication
ORGANIZAT IONAL
LOYALTY
57
Basic Adoptions and Assumptions
Organizational Values
Normls and Rules
and Gibson (2006: 287) stated that values are the act of selecting a certain
and desired state within a community. It is possible to express business
value and organizational values on the concept of value. While job value
emerges as the result of adapting individual values to working life,
organizational values emerge in the form of application of rules and cultures
in organization (Aygündüz, 2003: 36).
In organizations, organizational values emerge in line with some basic
adoption and assumptions, and these values contribute to the formation of
norms and rules in the institution. This operation can be expressed as in
Figure.
Diagram 3. Formation of Organizational Values and Organizational Values
Shaping Norms and Rules
Source: Aygündüz, 2003: 36.
As can be seen in Figure 3, organizational values emerge within the context
of basic aadoptions and assumptions. Organizational values are structurally
the same for every department in an organization. But norms and rules can
not be the same for every department. A new employee is adopting
organizational values over time by establishing relationships with employees
within the organization. However, if organizational values and personal
58
values are incompatible, it will be difficult for employees to adopt
organizational values, which may cause the organization to lose faithfulness.
3.3. Personal and Organizational Value Adaptation
Within this section, personal and organizational harmony will be expressed
on; concept of value, concept of personal value, concept of organizational
value and adaptation of personal-organizational value.
3.3.1. Value Concept
While there is no common definition of relevance associated with the concept
of value, when we examine the basics of this concept, sometimes
philosophical, sometimes personal, and sometimes organizational meanings
emerge. The concept of value is a concept that shapes the behavior of
individuals in everyday life, including the ideas and feelings of all people
(Koiranen, 2002: 175). In addition, despite the fact that there is no consensus
on this concept today, it seems that relevant theoretical studies have been
made on this topic. According to this definition, the value can be expressed
as a belief that reveals the attitudes and behaviors that one will exhibit, and a
continuing belief in which to choose between the two different points of
personal or social preference (Carlson and Kacmar, 2000: 1042).
The value can be expressed as thoughts shaping our negative and positive
feelings, and related to what some situations should be. In this regard, values
are the shaper of our behaviors. In other words, the value is explained as an
attitude and a force that enables to be selected according to behavior with
opposite attitude to behavior (Sezgin, 2006: 558). The beliefs that are
covered in value can mean meanings such as the closeness, condition,
conditions and standards of the individual or a community that the individual
feels about the environment. However, it is not possible for people to be
separated from the values when it is thought that value is acquired together
with knowledge and experience. In this sense, the concept of value moves
with the entity (Koiranen, 2002: 175).
59
Value collects all the elements that people need to be able to hold on to life
and be happy in life. The difficulty of fully expressing the concept of value
arises from the fact that it can be expressed in terms of many elements like
social, moral, economic, institutional, personal, scientific. For this reason,
many values can be defined in different forms. There are two dimensions
within the concept of value in terms of structure. These dimensions can be
expressed in the following way (Robbins and Judge, 2007: 121):
• The content aspect of the value: Contains perceptions about which items
are important.
• Intensity aspect of value: It is the aspect that allows sorting of important
items. In this aspect, the order of importance emerges with this dimension.
When a person's values are put in order, the value structure of that person
will be understood. The intensity dimension of this value comes out as a
dimension that varies from person to person.
The concept of value is a personal precaution and there is also a great
importance in terms of organizations. In this respect, the common values that
organizations have are confronted as elements that shape institutions.
Another issue that makes values important in terms of institutions and
individuals is that the possibilities of differentiation, change and stretching of
values are very small. Values generally shape organizational functioning as
people are made up of events and experiences they live in. Values in this
respect cause some attitudes and behaviors in the organization to be seen
as more important than others (Yılmaz, 2007: 642).
3.3.2. The Concept of Personal Value
Relations form the personal values of people, the events they have
experienced in their past, and their surroundings. The individual's value
system is shaped by the relationship of the individual with his family, with his
teachers, with his friends, and with the people around him. However, the
values and skills that the individual has genetically possesses shape the
individual's value structure (Hammann, Habisch and Pechlaner, 2009: 44).
Personal values are effective on the organization because they can shape
60
the behavior of employees in organizations (Karacaer et al., 2009: 54).
However, there is no such thing as a movement on a value in the
organizations, but it is a matter of acting on common values instead.
Personal values can be dealt with in two ways. These can be expressed as
follows (Robbins and Judge, 2007: 122):
• Objective values: Contains the values that the individual wants to achieve
throughout his or her lifetime.
• Tool values: Refers to the values that an individual has to acquire in order
to reach its objective values.
Table 1 shows the purpose and tool values of two dimensions of personal
values.
Table 1.
The dimension of personal values
Objective Values Tool An easy life Being hardworking, determined and
ambitious
Feeling successful
A peaceful environment A
nice earth
Being enough and effective
Fun
Cleanliness
Equal opportunities and Courage
brotherhood Independency
with free will Reaching
happiness Spiritual
harmony Spiritual loyalty
National security
Complacency
A continuous nice life Self-
respect
Honored in society
Making real friendships
Reaching wisdom
Helpfulness
Being honest
Being creative
Self-confidence
Being intellectual
Being rationalist
Being amiable
Being responsible and loyal
Being kind
Being reliable
Living controlled
Source: Robbins and Judge, 2007: 122.
61
As seen in Table 1, at the beginning of the formation of personal values, the
individuals determine the objective values and use the tool values by which
the objective values can be realized. Personal values may vary from one
person to another, and the purpose and tools used to access these values
may vary from person to person. Because of this situation, it is possible to
say that personal values are in a complex form. In the researches, business
values or common culture factors are mostly considered separately.
3.3.3. Concept of Organizational Value
Organizational values are confronted as a concept that comes to the fore of
organizational goals and the factors that bring about organizational culture
(Citp and Ballaro, 2014: 55). It is possible that organizational values can be
called into account for all the elements of the organization's employees,
including the continuity of the institution and the preservation of the
institution's prestige, as well as internalization of the employees' beliefs as
they become part of the organization (Kartal, 2009: 285).
It is possible to state that all of the concepts that are important for the
organization are included in the scope of organizational values. There are
studies in the literature that explain the concept of organizational value
through different concepts. These studies are included in Table 2.
62
Table 2.
Studies Describing Organizational Values
McDonald and Gandz (1991) They used organizational goals
while explaining organizational
values. According to this,
organizational values are formed as
a result of goals shared with
organizational goals. These targets
can also have different
characteristics.
O’Reilly, Chatman and Caldwell
(1991)
Initially, organizational values have
all the elements that are important
to the organization. But as a result
they decided that organizational
values are organizational culture.
Boxx, Odom and Dunn (1991) They expressed that organizational
values direct all activities in the
organization.
3.3.4. Personal-Organizational Value Adaptation
As long as one person is not compulsory, s/he will not want to work in an
organization s/he has not associated. It is not so easy to express this
theoretically, which can be easily understood by everyone. The reason for
this is that at first personal and organizational values need to be expressed
and then it is necessary to determine why there is no numbness between
these values at this point. There is no system in the literature to measure the
values accepted by everybody, and everyone has a different opinion about
values (Yılmaz, 2007: 643).
Some studies have been carried out in the literature in order to understand
the harmonization systems. Within the context of this study, the
63
harmonization of the following processes has been examined (Hambrick,
Finkelstein and Mooney, 2005: 472):
• Environmental resources-personal purpose, motivation values adaptation
(S-V compliance),
• Environmental demand-ability and skill compatibility (D-A compliance).
While S-V compliance provides job satisfaction in the interviews, it is stated
that D-A compliance influences the criteria that bosses use when selecting
employees (Hambrick, Finkelstein and Mooney, 2005: 472). It is also stated
that if the personal values do not match the environmental resources (S-V
nonconformity), unsatisfactory people and if organizational demands exceed
individual skills (D-A incompatibility)
Despite the difficulty of evaluating adaptation, researchers have found some
scales to measure. It is expressed that the value system is shaped even
though it has no direct effect on behavior and attitudes. That is why, it
provides relevant information about how a person's information system-
related information may be motivated. The Rokeach Value Study, developed
in this regard, enables organizations to understand the values they possess
and thus to evaluate them according to organizational values (Robbins and
Judge, 2007: 134).
3.4. Commitment to Work
Commitment to work is expressed in the literature as "dependence on work"
and "devotion to work" (Bal, 2008: 18). In the literature, the concept of
burnout has been used as a waypoint in order to explain the concept of
dedication to work. In this respect, dedication to work has been expressed as
a concept that is strengthened if there is reasonable business resources, or
drifted to "depletion" if not (Hallberg, Johansson and Schaufeli, 2007: 135).
There are two dominant views related to dedication to work. These views can
be expressed as follows (Bal, 2008: 18):
• The concepts of commitment to work and exhaustion are the exact opposite
of each other. In this respect, dedication to work involves inverses of the
64
ineffectiveness, exclusion, desensitization and emotional exhaustion
discussed in the context of burnout.
• The concept of dedication to work may be the opposite of the concept of
exhaustion. However, different sub-dimensions may be relevant to this
situation. Because of this situation, these dimensions need to be examined.
These sub-dimensions are expressed as absorption, vitality/energy (vigor)
and dedication/consecration.
The employee's willingness to work during his/her working hours, his/her
mental endurance at the upper level, his fearlessness from problems, is
defined as vitality/energy. It is explained in the form of
dedication/consecration that the employee should establish a bond between
himself and his work, be happy with his work, consider his/her work
important, and be proud of it. It is explained that the employee gives the
whole concentration to work, does not finish the job, and if he can not leave
the job, he is buried (Çalışkan and Erim, 2010: 661).
3.5. Internalization
The concept of internalization is defined as combining work and individual
identity (MCKelvey and Sekaran, 1977: 282). Lodahl and Kejner (1965) have
expressed the concept of internalization of studies as "the degree to which
one identifies himself or herself with work or with his or her own total image,
and determines the self-respect of one's performance".
The concept of internalization is a positive expression, characterized by
effort, self-sacrifice and self-sense. The person spends a high level of energy
while working, is working for the job and is volunteering for it (Kasnte, 2011:
755). The person who has internalized his work is the person who is fully
focused on his work and focused on happiness. By internalizing the person's
work, he is away from negative concepts such as burnout (Bakker, 2008:
187). The person who has internalized the work behaves in accordance with
the values and purposes that his job requires. It strives to fulfill the roles
required of the person in the best way (Eroğlu, 2007: 34).
65
The concept of internalization is defined as the positive attitude of the
individual towards the work and the combining of the person's self with work
(Schaufeli, Taris and Rhenen, 2008: 176). The feeling of internalization
towards work refers to positive work experience. In the organizational life, the
internalization perception has many benefits for the organization.
Organizations organized by those who internalize their work are more
successful (Near and Erdil, 2012: 372).
The person who has internalized his work has taken his business to the
center of his life. Those who have internalized their work see their work as
the most important parts of their lives. Along with this, the person spends
energy, time and resources for business life and strives for business success
(Zhang, Zheng and Wei, 2009: 200). Those who internalize the work also
determine their behavior according to their work. Intra-organizational and
non-organizational behavior develops for the benefit of the organization. The
person acts by considering the success of the business and the good of the
organization (Çalışkan, 2014: 365). A person is defined by his job when he
can combine his work with his image or express himself. The person feels
himself psychologically belonging to the work. The private life and work of the
quiche are intertwined. He is happy about his personal affairs and reflects
this in his private life (Keles, 2014: 97).
Internalization can be directly related to the work of the person concerned or
related to the organization. There is a fundamental reason that the person is
in the psychology of internalization. When people identify and express their
identities, they take into account their business development, job satisfaction
and performance. People feel themselves in that job, and their satisfaction is
determined by this. In the researches, it was not possible to distinguish
exactly the internalization of the person against the work or against the
organization. Despite the fact that many researchers carry out studies to
determine the internalization perception against job and organization, the
differences in perception of job and organization are not fully determined due
to the fact that full scales can not be developed and different variables
influence internalization perception (Lodahl and Kejner, 1965; McKelvey and
Sekaran, 1977; Cardoso et al., 2010).
66
Center of an individual's
life
Active participati on to the
work
Her/his performanc
Job Internalization e for in ng creasi
self-respect
Her/his activities
for increasing self-respect
It is important to determine whether they are in the sense of internalizing the
employees against their work or against their organizations. In his work,
Thornton (1970) states that many personal, organizational and non-
organizational factors are influential in the dilemma of people who feel they
belong to the fields of expertise or against mobilizing. However, the concepts
of internalizing work and internalizing organization are closely related. In
general terms, the higher the level of expertise related to one's job, the more
they feel they belong to the area they specialize in, and the lower the level of
belonging relative to.
People feel more confident about their work and internalize their work than
the organizational internalization. The person first thinks of his own value and
acts in this direction. The person keeps his or her own performance and
improvement of his / her expertise in front of his organizational well-being.
(Cardoso et al., 2010: 200). In the study conducted by Saleh and Hosek
(1976), it is seen that the definition of internalization against work is
diversified. These definitions are generally grouped into four groups. These
are shown in FIG.
Diagram 4. Factors Required for Business Internalization
Source: Saleh and Hosek, 1976.
67
Business internalization is expressed as a directive in which one expresses
himself/herself with work, his/her active participation in the work,
performance and activities, and self-esteem. In their work, McKelvey and
Sekaran (1977: 300) argue that "the identity of an individual can be handled
as dependent on individual, work, and organization. In the context of
business internalization, it falls on the basis of these contexts and attempts to
find out which business elements create low or high business internalization."
Internalization of work is strengthened as support for organization is
strengthened, and organizational internalization is also increasing. The
progress of the person who specializes in the field by taking the support of
the organization strengthens the internal integration and the sense of
belonging by affecting the sense of organizational internalization positively
(Chen and Chui, 2009).
All investments made by individuals on their business will increase their
business success and ensure that business and organizational perceptions
are positively impacted. The perception of internalization related to people's
work and organization will cause the perceptions of loyalty, satisfaction and
motivation to rise with time. All these things will only come into play when the
people feel themselves belonging to the organization. The perception of work
and organizational internalization of the person also feeds the sense of
belonging. However, the individual who felt himself belonging to the
organization would also have caught the internal union (Turunc and Çelik,
2010: 185).
In the literature, the effects of work internalization and organizational
internalization perceptions have been examined in different ways (Brown,
1969, Chen and Chui, 2009, Bee and Havitz, 2010). Researchers working on
work internalisation have investigated which emotions lead to work
internalization in general and have been found to be influential on work
attitudes such as organizational commitment, job satisfaction, nonworking,
job change. However, the relationship to organizational citizenship behavior
has also been examined and a positive relationship has been identified. It is
expressed that the perception of work internalization influences the attitudes
related to the work in general positively (Chen and Chiu, 2009: 478). In
68
Brown's (1969: 346) study, the internalisation of an individual by a person is
expressed as the perception of the extent to which the individual feeds
his/her own sources of satisfaction with the organization. It is an important
issue that employee refers to the sources of satisfaction in internalizing the
organization. Depending on the sources of satisfaction of the person, the
internalization perception may change (Brown, 1969: 346). In different
studies, it has been tried to determine relations between internalizing work
and different attitudes. Bee and Havitz (2010: 144) define the attitudes that
work internalisation perception is effective as organizational commitment,
high performance and behavioral loyalty. In their work, Soul, White and Wood
(1975: 309-311) says, work internalization has been influential on motivation
and organizational identity perceptions. Hollon and Chesser (1976: 310)
investigated the factors affecting job internalisation and found that
participation in decisions was an important factor in job internalisation.
People have to take on various responsibilities in business life and participate
in decisions to strengthen their perceptions of work internalization by causing
them to feel that job.
Various variables are taken into account in expressing business
internalization and in determining the factors affecting it. Chen and Chui
(2009: 485) have identified the factors that influence work internalization in
their work as variables of skill use, task specificity, nature, autonomy, and
feedback. In their studies, Rabinovitz, Hall and Goodale (1977: 279) found
that factors influencing perception of work internalization were the
demographic characteristics such as the person's developmental effort, job
duration, job qualifications, work ethics, age, gender, marital status and
control orientation variables. The demographic characteristics of the people
and the skills and experiences related to the business are influencing the
internalization of the business. The time and specialization effort that the
person spends on the job is influencing the perception of work internalization.
Considering all these facts, it is stated that many factors are influential on
business internalization and that the specialization effort may be the most
important factor.
69
Ldahl and Kejner (1965) point out that the process of socialization at the
beginning of job internalisation and organizational internalization is effective
in their work. The efforts of people to socialize in business life and the
responses they receive increase the internal integration towards their
business. In the rise of the internalisation perception of the person, besides
socialization, the goodness of the organization as a whole is also important.
The organization has a positive impact on the internalization process, the
ability to work as a whole, the high level of communication skills and the
support of each other.
Besides the positive effects of the internalization process, it has been found
that some studies also have negative effects. Igbaria, Parasuraman, and
Badawy (1994) found that high levels of job internalization perceptions in
their work have an impact on the role conflict. High internalisation feelings
about people's work can lead to organizational role conflicts or role
ambiguities as they wake up to want to take an active role in all activities (Liu,
et al., 2009: 580).
3.6. Relation to Organizational Identification and Organizational Identity
The concept of identity refers to the elements of individuals that are invisible
but known, together with the apparent qualities used to express one. Also,
inanimate beings also have identities. In this sense, the concept of identity
emerges as an element attributed to both the living and the inanimate.
There are many factors such as choices, decisions, values, assumptions,
rules and habits within the scope of individual identity. Individual identity
reveals how the individual expresses his / her importance, what interests
him/herself, and reveals himself/herself about events, thoughts and ideas
(Tüzün, 2006: 44).
3.6.1. Individual Identity
As it is expressed that the individual identity, the individual, the person
making the individual are related to what is the relevant question, it is also
stated that the individual is an element that reveals the basic qualities
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(Tüzün, 2006: 44). The concept of self emerging when the concept of
individual identity is expressed makes it difficult to make this definition easy.
When the concept of self is considered from a psychological point of view, it
is possible to say that this concept is ideas and perceptions that the
individual has relevant to himself (Loğa, 2003: 8).
While discussing the concept of identity in psychology, two different opinions
were presented. Although these opinions are different opinions, they are
highly interacted with each other. These opinions are as follows (Loğa, 2003:
8):
• Individual identity,
• Social identity.
The reason for the individual identity and social identity to interact is that the
self is formed within the context of the relationships established by the
individual's environment. The environment recognizes the identity of the
individual and at the same time creates social identity by making an impact
on the individual. There is a mutual development in this aspect.
3.6.2. Collective Identity
Collective identity arises from the ways in which societies that differ from
social, cultural, and historical aspects reflect the differences of others.
Although they have different characteristics, they become a concept that not
only differentiates the situation with communicating communities over time
but also reveals the process. Inter-community interaction is required for the
formation of collective identities (Loğa, 2003: 10).
Collective identity communities have been linked to one another, with strong
links from the historical process. Sometimes this situation manifests itself
strongly in the context of ethical attitudes. From this point of view, common
items belonging to communities such as artworks, beliefs, customs, values,
and symbols are highly influenced by the collective identity.
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3.6.3. Social Identity and Social Identification
According to the theory of social identity, people tend to divide themselves
with other people into social classes according to differences such as age,
gender, religion and membership in a different community. It is stated that
this class has two functions. These are (Coşkun, 2006: 20):
1. Individuals rank their social environments by dividing them into mental
parts. Thus, a systematic solution is provided.
2. The social class defines the person according to the gathering he or she
has lived and provides the place for himself/herself in this society.
The theory of social identity suggests that individuals are educated within the
values of the society in which they live, and that the individual exhibits
attitudes that are identified with these values, while the social identity is
developed according to the group in which the person is present (Haslam,
2001: 105).
It is stated that, in studies conducted related to the social identities of
persons, individuals generally tend to have social identity because they tend
to work for community benefit. But this does not show that you will not have a
negative identity. Persons with negative social identities use elements that
can remove negative items by introducing some benchmarking systems.
Social identity theory provides a fairly reasonable system for perceiving
attitudes, behaviors, judgments and evaluations at the social level (Moura et
al., 2009: 540).
The concept of social identification is defined as meaning that a person
belongs to a community (Tüzün, 2006: 46). As a result, individuals struggle to
handle themselves in a common class. If there are differences with the
common class, they will pay attention to the elements that will close those
differences. In such a case, if individual identity is small, it is damaged and
transformed into a form of social identity that reveals social qualities (Coskun,
2006: 21).
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3.6.4. Organizational Identity
All of the features used when expressing and describing an institution reveal
the organizational identity of that institution. Every institution is separated
from other institutions in terms of their characteristics. But as individuals
move from their own perceptions while expressing an institution, they
express themselves part of the institution's identity. Often they fill in the open
sections of their definitions with the views of the people they interact with and
identify the institution from this point of view. Due to this situation, social
identity is very important in the creation of organizational identity. Often,
individuals do not have enough information to evaluate institutions. But
society is revealing identity.
In one study, organizational identity was considered from three perspectives.
In the first of these three perspectives, organizational identity has been
evaluated in terms of concepts expressed by the state, such as incorporated
companies and holding companies. In the second, organizational identity,
which institutions express on their innovative, pioneering similar concepts,
was dealt with, and organizational identity was handled on the basis of
customers who defined institutions on honest, high quality similar
expressions from the third angle (Loğa, 2003: 13).
3.6.5. Organizational Identification
The concept of organizational identification is one of the issues that are
emphasized due to the fact that the organizational efficiency and the job
satisfaction of employees are affected structurally. While there are studies in
the literature that consider the concept of organizational identification as an
organizational commitment concept, there are studies that characterize this
concept as an ethnicity of organizational commitment (Guatam, Dick and
Wagner, 2004: 302).
In terms of understanding the concept of organizational identification, the
concept of identification should be understood. Identification or identification
is expressed as the adoption of any identity or identity, the feeling of
commitment to the particular identity. In other words, identification is the
73
person's reaction to understanding himself. In this regard, certain interaction
occurs in the process and allows the interaction of the people to continue
(Karayiğit, 2008: 19). This situation also leads to the conclusion of the
concept of identification in the context of organizational commitment (Loğa,
2003: 35).
Employees prefer an institution, allowing them to identify themselves
because of their affiliation with this institution, and to provide a more detailed
description. However, in the shortest sense, organizational identification is
the adoption of the identity of the institution to be used by the employee.
Whether or not the employee is able to respond to the relevant question
through the institution, this indicates an organizational identity (Guatam, Dick
and Wagner, 2004: 302).
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CHAPTER 4
4. ORGANIZATIONAL DEMOCRACY
4.1. Democracy
4.1.1. The Concept of Democracy
The concept of democracy emerges as a concept defined in different forms.
In the Turkish Language Association's dictionary, this concept is defined as a
form of government based on the sovereignty of the people (TDK, 2017).
Structurally, the concept of democracy comes out as a Greek word. In other
words, this concept derives from the union of the words "demo" and "cracy".
From these words, "demo" means individual or human, while "cracy" means
rule or force. From here it is possible to express democracy as the power of
individuals (Tutar, et al., 2009). Historically, for the first time, the Greek
historian Herodotus mentioned the concept of democracy in the 5th century
BC. In this process, Herodotus emphasized the power of the people. In this
respect, relevant explanations of the concept of democracy are mentioned
quite often in the elements of the people and the people's administration
(Holden, 2007).
People have continued their lives in certain communities in the process from
the past to the present day. Within this process, two groups, generally called
"ruled" and "ruler", emerged within the communities. From the structural point
of view, the concept of democracy is expressed as the directing of the people
itself. But it would also be possible to say that democracy does not exist
precisely when it is thought that the democracy that shows its existence now
also shows up in the Greek Sites but collective works are carried out today
and only in one or a few persons in the Greek Situations. In this respect,
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there are also opinions that suggest democracy is not realistic (Duverger,
1993: 6).
Beethan and Boyle (1998: 1) defines the concept of democracy as the
decisions that affect the institutions in full are taken by all the members of the
institution and that everyone has equal rights in the decision making systems.
In other words, democracy means to have equal rights in the use and
exercise of rights in decision-making processes. Democracy is the form of
government that gives the greatest possible diversity and protects it, giving
the most freedom to many individuals.
Democracy for Rouseseau (2012: 63); it is a concept that never existed in the
case of the full understanding, and it is a concept that will not exist in the
future. It is not possible for the public to be able to collect continuously,
without interruption, in relation to public activities. However, it is not possible
to establish commissions because the form of government is not
differentiated. Sartori (1996: 225) has made the definition of democracy in a
negative way. According to him, democracy means that no one will be able to
choose himself, no one will have the ability to manage himself, and therefore,
the individual will not be able to independently seek power.
In terms of Lewis (2007) democracy is an inevitable form of government. In
this regard, Lewis "Adventure of Turkey's Democracy" stated in his book that
democracy is a normal condition in the new world conditions. He also said
that democratic deviations should be corrected. Lewis expressed democracy
through two simple rules. One of these rules is to take the responsibilities
and authorities of the administration from the people. Management can be
changed by the public when necessary. Another of these rules is that the
people make their choices at the time intervals determined by laws and
regulations. In terms of Lewis, democracy is the most difficult to implement
along with the best forms of government. Under existing circumstances,
almost everywhere in the world there are democratic or nearly democratic
regimes, and developments exist in existing democratic institutions (Lewis,
2007: 48).
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Under the latest conditions in the world, a large part of political thinkers and
politicians have begun to rely on the concept of democracy. In this respect,
the 20th century is expressed as "century of democracy". During the last 25
years of this century there has been a considerable increase in the number of
democratic countries. In this process, 82 democratic countries emerged from
44 democratic countries. Similarly, the number of authoritarian countries has
fallen from 67 to 26 (Yazdani, 2010). But it is not possible to say that the
process has progressed since the time the concept of democracy emerged.
Relevantly, philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato could be portrayed as
pioneers for expressing the notion of democracy as the management of
communities at the expense of property and wisdom. Until the 1800's, the
term democracy was considered as a negative concept. But nowadays, even
individuals with different political identities urge upon it (Heywood, 2007).
The process of governance of the people in democracy is carried out by
those who administer them in the name of the people. From a structural point
of view, democracy is expressed as a reconciliation regime. In this respect, a
compromise culture is needed for the application of democracy. Appropriate
conditions must be created in order to be able to express different ideas. Six
criteria are also required for democracy. These criteria are (Scwartz and
Skinner, 2002):
• The right of matures to vote,
• Competition-based elections,
• Ordinary citizens' freedoms,
• Compliance with the law,
• Having equal rights against the legislation,
• Measurement of general desires and preferences in a fair manner.
Democracy management is a system based on values. Here, the question of
what values democracy is based on emerges. Structural needs and values
perceptions can vary from community to community. In this respect, needs
and values perceptions in societies where individuality is important and
perceptions of needs and values in hierarchical and collectivist societies will
77
Civil Rights
Free and Fair
Elections
Democratic
Society
Open and
Responsible
Government
vary. In some cases, different segments of society may have different value
judgments and anticipations. Even in societies with completely similar
qualities, different perceptions may emerge (Matsuda et al., 2001).
Some basic elements are included in the concept of democracy. The basic
elements of Beethan and Boyle democracy are expressed under four
headings and they are examined within the democracy pyramid. This
pyramid is shown in Figure.
Diagram 5. Democracy Pyramid
Source: Beetham and Boyle, 1998: 33.
The basic elements of democracy are also handled by Aktan. It is possible
that the basic elements can be expressed as follows (Aktan, 2005: 10-13):
1. Political and dimplomatical freedoms,
2. The state of law,
3. Limitation of power and administration,
4. Principle of separation of powers
5. Openness and transparency,
6. Secularism
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7. Democracy culture.
Political and diplomatical freedoms expressed by Aktan as freedom of
religion, freedom of thought, right to live, right to political participation,
freedom of travel. What is meant by the rule of law is that the executives
elected by the people should continue their administration according to the
law and lrules. It is also important that their administrations and powers have
their limitations in order not to have unlimited power. The culture of
democracy means that the society does not respect the rights and freedoms
of its members (Aktan, 2005: 11).
The basic elements of democracy have also been expressed in a different
study (Yılmaz, 2000: 81-88):
1. Respecting persons and personalities,
2. Personal freedoms,
3. Belief in Rationality,
4. The concept of equality,
5. Justice,
6. Legal administration,
7. Constitutionalism,
8. To rule public with majority principle.
4.1.2. The Problems of the Concept of Democracy
Democracy is changing from day to day and is shifting to different areas. In
the past, democracy was a system that allows people to participate in the
decision-making processes on the people's representatives, and today
democracy is a system in which the characteristic of representation gradually
decreases. Changes as the rapid development of communication
technologies, the distribution of responsibilities in institutions, and the
increasing social problems are increasing rapidly. Because of these changes,
the concept of power escapes to many points outside the center and
gradually dissipates. This situation causes the central administrations to lose
79
power. With the loss of power of central governments and governments,
different decision-making processes have to emerge or existing processes
have to change. With this differentiation, autocratic, centralized governments
instead of equal rights based on the formation of a social structure is the
issue. The involvement of this structure in decision-making processes is
increasing. It is said that the institutions which manage this type of
democracy together are increasingly the only institutions that direct
themselves, and that they lose their forces as a result. In such a case, central
government is far from being the main force governing society. In this case,
the central government is transformed into an institutional form representing
different autonomous governments (Sundström, Furusten and Soneryd,
2010).
4.1.3. Components of the Concept of Democracy
It is expressed that the concept of democracy gains power in general after
the cold war. However, there are some confusions related to the existence of
democracy and how to measure it. In this respect, it has been emphasized
that democracy should be considered under some basic concepts. These
basic concepts are (Coppedge et al., 2011: 253):
• Election,
• The liberal concept of clarity, transparency, minority rights and
accountability,
• The right of majority to manage,
• Attendance and participation,
• Speaking through negotiations such as congress, media, non-governmental
organizations,
• The concept of equality, which means that everyone has equal rights.
33 items related to the components of democracy have been put forward
from these basic concepts. These materials are as follows (Coppedge et al.,
2011: 255-256):
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1. Sovereignty: The ability to bring politics to a free form in external and
internal affairs. It depends on international law and law does not disrupt
sovereignty.
2. Authority: Central government authority is needed for the management of
a country.
3. Elected Government: With the election, the government's referral,
4. Voting Right for Men: Men have the right to vote in the election.
5. Voting Right for Women: Women have the right to vote in the election.
6. Regular Elections: According to the law and the Constitution, elections
must be held at regular intervals.
7. Participation: The voters voluntarily participate in the elections.
8. Free Elections: the ability of people and parties to participate in elections
without government intervention, voters to vote freely, party and candidates
to compete as they desire.
9. Access to Media and Campaign Financing: It is to be ensured that all
parties participating in the election have equal access to media, campaigns
and financing.
10. The level of governmental and statutory compliance: the government
should not be allowed to use the laws for its own benefit.
11. Constraints of the Executives: It shows the level of restriction made by
elected or non-elected.
12. Legislative Power: Indicates the level of control of the legislature.
Democracy gains power if the executive is supported by the legislature.
13. Independence of Judiciary: The level of the executive not influencing the
judiciary.
14. Judicial Supervision: The level of executive and judicial adjudication to
judicial supervision.
15. Party Power: Demonstrates the extent to which political parties are
institutionalized.
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16. Party ideology: shows the ideologies that the parties have.
17. Party System Layers: The level of participation of parties in the
legislature.
18. Election system ratios: election thresholds used in elections.
19. Competition: The level of competition among the parties.
20. Level of Change: shows the level of change of parties and governments.
21. The Development of the Media: It refers to the existence of different
media organs and their independence.
22. Civil society's independence: civil society is independent of the state.
23. Political participation of Civil Society: explains the level of public interest
in elections.
24. Non-governmental elections: the level of justice in elections outside the
election of power,
25. Inequality in democratic development: the level of political development
of the entire social strata.
26. Direct democracy: The level of public influence directly on policy makers,
27. Civil freedoms: The extent to which citizens can express their views and
opinions on the extent to which they are subjected to governmental
repression.
28. Property Rights: The level of protection of property rights.
29. Freedom of Religion: The level of protection of individuals’ religions.
30. Equal Resources: equality in all people's access to health, income,
education-like resources. It is relevant if the resources are evenly distributed.
31. Gender Equality: levels of genders in government with legislative.
32. Ethnic Equality: Legislative and judicial levels of representation of ethnic
groups.
33. Comprehensive Citizenship: the level of protection of citizens of the law.
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4.2. Organizational Democracy
4.2.1. Concept of Organizational Democracy
The use of the concept of democracy which is a political tool, in organizations
is called organizational democracy. Structurally, organizational democracy
has many uses. In this respect, concepts such as "participatory
management", "participation in decision making", "workplace democracy" are
confronted as concepts that can be used instead of the concept of
organizational democracy (Weber et al., 2009: 1133). Industrial democracy is
also referred to as organizational democracy. In fact, the notion that
constitutes the root of these concepts is the concept of "industrial
democracy". But nowadays industrialization has shifted to a different field,
which has caused the concept to move away from the concept of
organizational democracy (Dinçer and Fidan, 2003: 60).
The ability to participate in organizational processes and management of
individuals who work in and are involved in an organization refers to the
concept of organizational democracy (Harrison and Freeman, 2004). It is
highly desirable to find democracy in institutions and organizations. This can
be explained in terms of how employees can express themselves more
owing to organizational democracy. It is also be possible to increase the
organizational commitment of employees who can express themselves. In
this context, it is possible to reduce the ineffective attitudes and thus the
organizational effectiveness will increase (Paksoy, 2000: 513).
In institutions, organizational democracy mostly comes according to the way
of institution exhibits its will (Tutar et al., 2009). The structures in which
workers and employees are supported provide organizational democracy. In
other words, this support can be provided directly or through representatives
as well as by being able to participate in the management. In other words,
organizational democracy means that employees are constantly present in
the institution cognitively, physically and participitively, not only for a certain
period of time (Weber et al., 2009).
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Today, organizations are increasingly resembling societies. Structurally,
organizations are not homogeneous. Organizations have individuals from
different layers of society. However, it is also the case that employees come
from different economic strata in organizations. This situation causes
different interest groups to appear in organizations. Apart from this, there
may be injustice in inequality and income distribution in organizations. These
vary considerably depending on whether or not there are organizational
democracies in the organization.
Today's work refers to organizational democracy as a democratic structure
existing in supportive organizations. It is the institution that has adopted the
democratic decision-making processes that it is desired to express with the
supporting organization here. In addition, it is desirable that employees
should have adopted corporate objectives. In other words, this system is
expressed as "supporting organizational structure". Supportive organizational
structure is extremely important for the use of democratic principles in
organizations. In this context, it is possible that the principles of
organizational democracy can be expressed as follows (Yazdani, 2010: 56):
• Participatory management policies and practices,
• Employees can announce their thoughts and ideas.
Political democracy and organizational democracy are basically separated
from each other. In order to understand this distinction, it is necessary to fully
understand the characteristics of the democracy process. In this respect, it is
important to compare basic democratic qualities in terms of political and
institutional structure. This comparison is given in Table 3.
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Table 3.
Comparison of Basic Democratic Qualities with Political and Organizational
Structures
Demokratic
Characteristics
Political Structures Organizational
Structures
Accountability of the
management
department:
Accountability is
addressed in terms of
selection
Accountability is
generally applied in
terms of election
periods.
In general it happens
very unlikely or not at
all.
Equal rights in
participation: All
individuals have the
same right regardless
of their statutory and
economic status.
The participation of
every citizen is
protected under the
law.
Participation in
organizations is under
organizational control.
Freedom in
exchanging
information: power
and management can
access knowledge
without any restrictions.
The information is
guaranteed under the
laws on which free
exchange can be made.
The administration
controls the access to
information and the
free exchange of
information.
Representation in
government:
Governments and
governments can
maintain their
legitimacy only in the
direction of those who
voted for it.
Representation is
guaranteed under the
election process.
There is little or no
representation in
organizations.
Source: Kerr, 2004: 84
As can be seen, the democratic features of political structures and
organizational structures differ. Especially in organizational structures,
democratic functioning is shaped by the control of organizational
85
management. It is important for the organization management to attach
importance to different ideas and opinions in terms of forming a democratic
structure in the organization. But with the presence of autocratic
governments, it will not be possible to create a democratic space.
Organizations need to be connected to some political democratic principles in
terms of being democratic. In other words, these principles can be expressed
as follows (Tosun, 1990: 530):
• The opponents in the organization should be accepted as the legal assets
of the individuals,
• Recognition of the right to speak to employees and the right to be skeptical,
• Providing a management style that assumes responsibility for employees'
thoughts and ideas,
• To ensure individual rights and freedoms in the institution,
• To ensure the superiority of order in the institution and to provide equality
principle,
• To establish complaint systems in the institution and to persuade the
employees that all complaints are taken into account in these systems,
• Keeping in mind that the management of the institution has responsibilities
not only to its employees but also to its customers, stakeholders and
collectives.
4.2.2. Implementation of Organizational Democracy in Institutions
Institutions need to pass through some processes in order to be able to apply
organizational democracy in organizations. In this respect, the preconditions
for the application of organizational democracy and the preparation of the
democratic structure will be discussed.
4.2.2.1. Preconditions for the Application of Organizational Democracy
The preconditions necessary for the application of organizational democracy
can be expressed as follows (Yazdani, 2010: 59):
86
• Being able to have a more flexible structure than the existing organization
bureaucracy and to take the necessary steps to ensure this,
• To create an organizational climate that has self-criticizing and constructive
qualities,
• To ensure that employees have a similar structure in terms of their
experience and values,
• Ensuring that the institution is in a dynamic environmental relationship so
that it can focus on producing new ideas rather than focusing only on
production activities,
• Providing team culture in the institution,
• To create an environment of confidence that exists within the scope of an
internal environment and organizational leadership,
• A flat and horizontal institutional structure should be established instead of
a high and vertical institutional structure.
The establishment of the preconditions mentioned above in the organizations
prevents the negative elements to come to the fore. Thus, organizations can
more easily adapt to issues such as peace, justice, freedom, equality, and
thus are able to make a democratic structure easier.
4.2.2.2. Preparation for Democratic Structure
At first, the business model needs to focus on quality service, high values
and a suitable strategy in order to become a democratic organization. With
this business model to be created, elements such as justice, transparency
and equality will be easier to organize.
It is not possible to implement organizational democracy in every
organization. In order for this concept to be implemented in an organization,
some facilitating factors are needed. The most important of these facilitators
are organizational climate and organizational culture concepts.
Organizational culture emerges as a concept that includes common values,
attitudes and meanings in the institution. It is possible that we can not state
87
that the organizational culture has come to fruition through visual and logical
elements. Logical elements include the aims and objectives of the institution,
organizational structure, control systems, utilized technology, reward and
punishment system. Visual elements can be considered as icons, symbols,
physical environment, behavioral patterns, experience, ceremonies arranged
in the organization (Koçel, 2003: 31).
Another important element in terms of democratic organization in the
organization is the organizational climate. From a structural point of view, this
concept expresses organizational principles, procedures, and behavioral
attitudes. Communication structures in organizational structure, leadership
qualities, cooperation are related to the existing climate in institutions. At the
same time, it is called social-moral climate. It is expressed that there are
three conditions for creating a fair society in terms of socio-moral climate.
These are to be able to discuss moral issues and to respect different ideas
and ideas. The latter can participate in regulation and rulemaking. The third is
a fair implementation of the rules (Weber et al., 2009). Relevantly, Lempert
discussed a socio-moral climate under a different view in five dimensions.
These (Weber et al., 2009):
1. Participation of employees in laws, conflicts of interest, social problems
and values,
2. Interest, appreciation and support from auditors and colleagues,
3. Relevant free communication regarding the values of the institution, its
rules, its applications being legitimate,
4. While taking decisions related to the norms, rules and values of the
institution,
5. Distrubuting and assigning responsibilities appropriate to the skills of the
occupants.
In terms of the application of organizational democracy, organizational
climate and organizational culture must conform to the democratic structure.
If these elements do not coincide with democracy, it is not possible to form
organizational democracy. In this respect, institutions that want to implement
88
organizational democracy need to make arrangements in their respective
structures.
89
CHAPTER 5
5. BANKING SECTOR AND HUMAN RESOURCES AS THE
SERVICE SECTOR
5.1. About Human Resources
In this section, the concept of service, the structure of the service sector,
development and general characteristics of services will be discussed.
Hereby the main elements of the service sector will be understood.
5.1.1. Concept of Service
The World is in the process of rapid change and development. As a result of
the facts mentioned the world is increasingly shifting itself from
manufacturing to service processes. The case causes traditional marketing
methods to create problems related to the marketing of services. Therefore
as a sub-branch of marketing, "service marketing" is starting to come into the
forefront nowadays. The service sector is becoming increasingly important in
Turkey and the World. Developed countries are starting to get away from
traditional industrialism with their own perception of service. The lack of a
concrete item such as a product or merchandise in the concept of service
makes it more difficult to explain the concept.
The concept of service first emerges as a concept assessed by French
thinkers in the 1700s. In this period, all kinds of applications other than
agriculture-related applications are considered as services. However, the
inadequacy of the assessment was identified and finally, the concept of
service was described as all of the activities that did not create a product or
merchandise by Adam Smith. Another thinker, Jean Babtiste Say, expressed
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the service as an activity that can not be produced and that enhances the
benefits provided by the products (Grönroos, 1990: 36).
The service may be expressed as providing the business needs of another
person or/and an organization. In this respect, the service can be given to
institutions or individuals, as well as to both of these items. The service is
based on providing the needs of others. Business requirements such as
engineering, maintenance, support services in an organization or institution
are carried out through services (Doğan and Tütüncü, 2003: 1). In general,
the service can be considered as an application that does not produce
goods. ISO/ CD 8402-1 International Standards express the concept of
service outcomes which is created in the context of the internal activities
providers by means of implementations between consumers and providers to
ensure the needs of people or consumers (Tütüncü, 2009:21).
The service is expressed as applications or benefits that do not require a
particular segment to offer other segments or to possess the ownership of a
particular item. it is also stated that the service provider can be made with a
concrete product as well as without a concrete product (Kotler and Keller,
2006: 402). While a meal served in a restaurant includes service and good,
car wash just comprises service. In other words, the service can be
expressed as a benefit that is untouched and meets the needs and desires of
consumers, which is made or connected to a concrete commodity that does
not result in a transfer of ownership (Tenekecioğlu et al., 2009:145).
The American Marketing Association (AMA) has expressed the service
concept as benefits and actions which are provided to marketer sale or
provided with the sale of goods. However, the fact that the difference
between the services and the products is not explained here causes the
difference in the products and services to be not fully explained. The reason
is that the services are provided to the people just like the products, in order
to provide satisfaction to the people. Recognizing this incompleteness, the
American Marketing Association service has also provided services that
provide satisfying needs and desires and can be disclosed on their own when
they are offered to corporations and customers without depending on product
sales (Öztürk, 2003: 15).
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Services are expressed in all forms of non-tangible and needs-abiding
implementations (Umut, 2002: 21). In another definition, the Service has
been expressed as applications that provide valuable benefits with
satisfaction and which people or consumers cannot or can not do themselves
(Grönroos, 1990: 37).
5.1.2. Structure of Service Sector
The service sector is stated constructionally as a structure with a very
different character. From banking to automobile trafficking, many professions
are in the service sector. The service sector is generally classified according
to its manufacturing structure and marketing functions.
While the service sector is evaluated according to manufacturing processes,
project type manufacturing is generally considered as discrete manufacturing
with continuous manufacturing. it is possible to see this classification in Table
4.
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Table 4.
Classification of service and manufacturing enterprises according to their
processes
Type of manufacturing process
Operating description
Manufacturing Service
Project Low production volume, long time mostly single production.
Shipbuilding, airport construction, oil refinery repair and maintenance.
Durable consumer goods services, architecture, engineering projects, advocacy.
Discrete Production of goods or services with little production volume, depending on ordering, for a short period of time.
Printing, mold production, carpentry, hand tool production
Insurance services, health services, restaurant services.
Continuous Short term activities which are high production volume, production of certain types of goods or services.
Bulbs and cars Dental clinics, cafeterias, car wash places.
Source: Songür, 1997: 92.
In a different study, which defines services through their production
processes, services are defined by assessing the degree of involvement of
the consumer in the service process and factors like labor intensity. In this
respect, services can be categorized as wholesale services, service plants,
professional services and service business. This classification is shown in
Table 5.
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Table 5.
Service Processes Matrix
Labor Intensity Degree of involvement of the consumer in the service process
Low High
Low Service Plants Service Business Hotels, leisure and Auto repair services, recreation areas, airlines, hospitals
shipping facilities
High Wholesale Services Professional Retailers, wholesalers Services Architects, doctors,
accountants
Source: Songür, 1997: 93.
Classification of service enterprises according to marketing function is the
issue. This classification is driven by findings such as expertise, capacity
flexibility, product standardization. Service enterprises by marketing function
are
Emergency service enterprise (ESE), serving large quantities in varying
amounts.
Consumer service enterprises (CSE) providing relatively standardized
services to customers.
Professional service enterprises (PSE) providing a special requirement for
advanced professional services.
Emergency services include water, natural gas breakdown services,
emergency services, health services, police and security services, and
services provided by various vehicle repairers. They have to provide fast and
urgent service to their customers within the scope of emergency services.
Priority in emergency services is good performance and speed (Terziu, 2016:
97).
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Consumer service enterprises may be referred to as businesses that provide
certain standards to their customers. Retailers selling a certain type of goods,
barbers, taxi-drivers, mail carriers can be given as examples of consumer
service operations. These services have a certain standard, so they have
similar characteristics to those produced in high amounts. It is expected that
the staff working in the consumer service enterprises will often carry out a
number of easy jobs smoothly. In addition to the high turnover, it is relatively
less costly to provide training to the personnel who start to work in the
consumer service enterprises. Apart from this, the personnel working in these
enterprises mostly communicate with the customers peer-to-peer. For this
reason, it is necessary to have the qualities of these employees to
communicate well with the customers, to be gentle to the customers and to
have a good appearance. (Songür, 1997: 97).
As professional service enterprises, computer software firms, engineering
project bureaus, consultancy firms, research institutes and architectural
project bureaus will be examples. The staff of professional services
enterprises is generally highly trained. In these enterprises, the number of
staff is often small. In this respect, this personnel is directly related to the
profitability and image of the business (Terziu, 2016: 97).
A different service classification was made by Lovelock. According to his
classification, services are tangible and intangible and are classified as self-
servi ce for people and goods (Lovelock and Wright, 2002: 34). This
classification is shown in Table 6.
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Tangible Services Related to human body Related to products
Beauty Center
Hair dresser
Vehicle maintenance and repair Transport,
Cultivation.
Table 6.
Services According to Their Structure
Service Format People Goods
Intangible Services
Related to Human Consciousness
Information Services,
Theatre, Cinema,
Museum.
Related to Intangible activities
Accountancy,
Advocacy,
Banking.
Source: Lovelock and Wright, 2002: 34.
It is possible that services can be also classified according to the type of the
relationship established with business customers. It is possible to see the so-
called classification in Table 7.
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Table 7.
Classification of Services Based on the Level of Relationship Established by
Enterprises with Customers
Membership Relationship is present
Permanent Phone Subscription, Insurance, Banking.
No Official Relationship is not present
Road Services,
Police Services
Radio Services.
Rarely Theatre subscription, Monthly bus cards.
Public Transportation,
Mail Services,
Rental Services,
Restaurant Services.
Source: Lovelock and Wright, 2002: 53.
As shown in Table 7, the relations established with the customers in the
service enterprises are evaluated on the basis of their duration and the
membership status of the customers. Within the context of customer
relationships, identification of services provides the ability to identify
customers to businesses. Thus, it is easier for companies to offer services
that appeal to customers. This is helping to increase the level of service
achievement.
Apart from the above classification, it is possible to classify the services
depending on the initiative and flexibility of the serving company. This type of
classification is shown in Table 8.
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Table 8.
Classification of Services According to the Flexibility and Initiative of
Enterprise.
Initiative
Flexibility
Higher Lower
Lower Hotel services, Restauran service, Communication
services.
Theatre and Cinema,
Public Transportation,
Fast-food resterants.
Source: Lovelock and Wright, 2002: 64.
Service provider businesses have a high chance of taking initiative, and the
high flexibility of the service offered may increase the ability to fully respond
to customers’ needs. In this respect, services will have a major benefit in
businesses that are basically adjusted to customer requirements and
expectations. services are generally encountered by activities carried out for
profit. However, in some cases, some services are provided for public
prosperity by state institutions and organizations. In this respect, it is possible
to evaluate the services in two parts (İslamoğlu, 2000:36):
Services provided by individuals or businesses for profit purposes,
Non-profit services provided by the institutions apart from businesses and
enterprises.
From the above, it is might be said that it is possible to classify the activities
in the service sector in different ways. In addition, structural aspects of the
different qualities of services are causing a large number of classification
types. In this respect, the service sector is itself a complex structure.
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5.1.3. Development of Service Sector
The service sector is increasing its importance day by day. This situation has
led to the fore the concept of "service economy" in developed countries.
Within the framework of the traditional approach, from Adam Smith until the
1970s, the process did not progress to the desired level, while the adoption
of a renewed industrial understanding was anticipated. Instead of new
industrial formation, the economy gradually began to adapt to the service
system. The point at which the traditional approach is misleading is that it
regards the industrial sector as a superior segment. Moreover, in this
approach, service activities are described as applications that only benefit
from the transmission of industrial and agricultural products to customers and
provide economic development support (Terziu, 2016: 101).
Industry, agriculture, and services are the three main sectors of economies.
Each country continued to develop with the help of these sectors at different
rates during their development. This situation has led to the adoption of
different approaches in economics. Each passing day approaches have
initiated to diverge from each other. Differences between approaches, in
particular, began to grow in the early 1900s. n the context of past
approaches, the service sector, in general, has been relinquished, or the
contributions of the service sector in economies were left behind. However,
as seen in today’s conditions, the service sector emerges as a sector with
high potential. At the basis of the development of the service sector is both
the fulfillment of economic requirements and the involvement in production
activities. The service sector is no longer an auxiliary sector but a basic
sector. One of the indicators of countries' prosperity is the developments in
the service sector. Apart from these, with the increase in the income of the
people and the increased share of the service sector, the competition within
the service sector has come into being. Increasing competition has made
marketing in the service sector more important. However, the fact that the
service has different characteristics according to the products has contributed
to the formation of the "service marketing" branch in terms of structure.
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Abstractness
It is not possible to see and touch the service
without getting it.
Service
Weakness
Services cannot be stored for later delivery.
It is unlikely that services, such as presentations, meetings, information
processing, requests, designs, can be seen in the service sector. Apart from
this, the service processes are moving to become a structure which is carried
out through more computers and networks today. With services such as the
Internet, e-mails, and global networks, services have begun to move out of
regional areas. Although these conditions in question have advantages in the
competitive environment, they have made it harder to observe and evaluate
the services. However, the service sector still needs to have labor intensity
(Şenol and Anbar, 2010: 78).
5.1.4. Basic Features of Services
There are some opinions related to the basic features of the service. In
terms of Kotler and Keller (2006: 405), the main features of service are
abstractness, variability, inseparability, and lack of instability. These
properties are shown in diagram 6.
Inseparableness
Services cannot be
separated from the
individuals they are
offered
Diagram 6. Basic Features of Service
Source: Kotler and Amstrong, 2004: 239.
Variability
Services and service quality differ depending
on location, time and delivery.
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In literature, it is explained intangibility of the services with the concept of
abstractness, synchronization of production and consumption with the feature
of inseparability, variability with the feature of heterogeneity. (Doğan and
Tütüncü, 2003: 2). Apart from these features, the property of being deprived
of services is also considered in the main features (Gronroos, 1990: 27).
5.1.4.1. Intangibility
The intangibility of the service is expressed by the concept of being abstract.
In this respect, services are abstract because they are intangible, invisible or
they can not be expressed in the measurement. There is no specific
ownership of services due to the fact that they pass directly from the
manufacturer to the customer or consumer. Otherwise, it is not possible for
services to be produced and stored before delivery. If it is not consumed
when it is served, it can not be consumed in the process. From this point of
view, it is not possible to eliminate the financial losses in case of no
consumption (Sayım and Aydın, 2011: 246). From this, it is possible to say
that services are non-tangible activities that can not be perceived by the five
sensory organs of the individual. This prevents physical access to services.
These features cause the services to function based on the concept of
benefit. Services can only be evaluated after being consumed by customers
(Gümüşoğlu et al., 2007: 16).
The feature of being intangible is the most basic feature that provides the
separation of services from products. As well as services’ intangible features,
it is not possible to express them with cm, kg etc. In this respect, almost
every type of service has the intangible feature. This makes it one of the
most important features of services. Some of the important elements that
have been come out the intangible nature of the services are as follows
(Doğan and Tütüncü, 2003: 3):
• Protective devices like "patent" do not make it possible to protect
services. This allows services to be imitated.
• Although products can be displayed on the counters, not the shelf,
services do not have such possibilities.
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• It is very difficult to calculate the cost due to service delivery and to reveal
the price-quality interaction.
• It is not possible to hide services. In this respect, according to the
changes in demand, service management is very difficult.
• It is difficult to determine at what price the services will be offered. It is
also not possible to be able to benefit from the general criteria when
determining prices.
If the services are untouchable, these items cause the marketing process to
differ according to the products. Customers who want to receive service will
not know exactly what service is and what benefits the service will provide
before they receive service. In terms of this situation, the following three
items will make services become concrete when the marketing of services is
done (Tenekecioğlu et al., 2009: 146):
Utilizing concrete means of service representation. Embodying credit card
applications in the name of embodying credits in banking services can be
given as an example.
Within the scope of marketing utilizing concrete symbol of promotion
methods. The service operator identifies and announces an icon that evokes
the service it offers. In this way, people will remember the service provided in
case they encounter the icon.
Connecting the service to the service providers. It is as if the institution
providing education service is giving priority to the teacher who gives the
education service or the place providing entertainment service is giving
priority to the employee who offers the entertainment service.
5.1.4.2. Heterogeneity
The heterogeneity of services is expressed by the concept of variability. In
this respect, the demand for services varies and also it is structurally unclear.
The amount of demand for a service can vary according to days, hours,
years, and seasons. For this reason, firms are having difficulty in establishing
a relationship between supply and demand. In some cases, it is possible that
there is an excess of supply due to low demand and in some cases shortage
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of supply due to high demand. The situations in question can cause
businesses to suffer financial losses. Apart from this, measurement of the
service performance and effectiveness is encountered as a separate problem
in terms of businesses (Sayım and Aydın, 2011: 247).
The conditions under which the services are provided cause the content of
the service to change. In this respect, the quality of service will increase or
decrease depending on the conditions under which the service is offered and
who offers the service. The services are consumed as soon as they are
produced and it makes difficult to be under the control quality of service item.
The performance displayed by service providers is in line with the service
quality. In this respect, it is possible to get services in different qualities at
different times or days in the same enterprise. This situation in question can
cause the customers to move away from the enterprise (İçöz, 2005: 49). The
inability of businesses to meet a certain standard related to service provision
is causing quality problems. The heterogeneity that services have shown is
due to certain sources. These sources are as follows (Doğan and Tütüncü,
2003: 4-5):
• The heterogeneity of during service production process,
• The heterogeneity towards customers who are provided services
• Heterogeneity-based on the relationship between service producers and
customers,
• Heterogeneity of service depending on production time,
• Heterogeneity of service depending on production conditions,
• Heterogeneity due to the facilities of the service client or the
manufacturer.
5.1.4.3. Synchronization of Production and Consumption
The producers of the services and the people who offer the services to the
customers for sale are the same. Due to this feature, it is unlikely that these
persons will be separated from each other. From this point of view, the
service is being produced and consumed simultaneously. Apart from that, the
people who will benefit from the service must also be at the point of
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production when the service production is realized. This whole process leads
to the rapid emergence of feedback in services. All these features make it
possible to market these services during production (Akın, 2007: 5).
The distinctions between the production and consumption schedules of
goods and services are shown in Diagram 7.
Diagram 7. The Distinctions Between the Production and Consumption
Schedules of Goods and Services
Source: Mudie and Pirrie, 2006: 4.
5.1.4.4. Instability
The most important feature that enables services to be separated from
products is their inability to store or keep. This situation causes a large part of
the services to be short-lived. Moreover, in some services, the demand
disorder leads to an increase in the lack of resistance. Demand fluctuations
in services require various measures to be relevant to the supply of
institutions (Öztürk, 2003: 36). Private banks, the number of employees
including Istanbul 83276 Turkey, while in 2017 the province of the TRNC is
seen as the number 459. (https://www.tbb.org.tr/tr/bankacilik/banka-ve-
sektor-bilgileri/4)
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The instability of services causes some features about the services. These
characteristics can be expressed as follows (Kotler and Armstrong, 2004:
42):
• Storage, keeping or stocking of the service is not possible.
• The inability to hide services creates some problems in the creation of
appropriate supply development policies.
• The inability to stocking services creates some problems in the creation of
appropriate supply development policies. In the case of regular demand,
this does not occur. But the fluctuations in the demands bring big
problems in terms of institutions.
5.1.4.5. Being Unobtainable
Another important difference related to products and services is that services
cannot be possessed. When a product is purchased by the customer, the
customer owns the product, however, when services are provided, there is
no transfer of ownership from institution to the customer (Kotler and
Armstrong, 2004: 42).
5.2. Banking Sector
5.2.1. About Banking Sector
The word of bank comes out as a word derived from the word "banco" which
means "counter and table” in Italian. Historically, the Lombards who were
operating in the banking sector, have used the "banchum" idiom for their
business premises. These individuals were called "bancheri" themselves.
The individuals in question continued their activities on the wooden tables
called "banco" (Günal, 2001: 6).
Banks are very important in terms of economic and commercial relations in
today's conditions. They lend money on their own accounts, discounts on
accounts, and operate in a variety of other financial transactions, primarily
with funds provided by depositors. Banks are generally considered to be
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involved in collecting deposits and offering these deposits as loans, but they
perform many other operations (Takan, 2002: 12).
Some of the definitions made in the literature related to the banks are as
follows:
• The concept of Bank is defined as economic institutions that perform all
transactions related to credit, money and capital matters and regulate
them, dealing with public or private institutions and their activities to
provide all relevant needs related to these issues (Şendoğdu, 2006: 3).
• The Bank refers to institutions that provide funds borrowed to finance the
growth of individuals or institutions and to transfer them back to the needs
of others (Tugay, 1992: 13).
• The Bank is described as financial institutions that collect deposits from
institutions and individuals and offer them as loans (Bahar and Abuzer,
2003: 102).
It is possible that the activities carried out by the banking sector, in general,
can be expressed as follows (Ulukuş, 2011: 14):
• To create deposit money,
• To provide deposit facilities with different items and instruments,
• To provide loans to institutions to support them,
• To give credit to individuals to support them,
• Enable to discount,
• To provide time and follow-up advantages by realizing collections of notes
and checks,
• To remove the physical money transfer problem with the help of money
transfer, EFT transactions
• To mediate to carry out foreign trade transactions,
• To carry out safe deposit box activities,
• To provide Internet banking services,
• To be an intermediary for buying and selling securities,
• To provide the services which are about credit cards,
• To provide consultancy services on financial matters.
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5.2.2. Turkish Banking Sector
5.2.2.1. Historical Development of Turkish Banking Sector
It is possible to consider the development of the Turkish banking sector
before and after the declaration of the republic. In this respect, it would be
appropriate to evaluate the period before the declaration of the country at the
beginning.
The first banking activity in the Ottoman period was the Ottoman Bank which
was founded in 1856 with British capital. It is the first modern commercial
bank in terms of deposits and emerges in Turkey. Apart from this, in 1868
Mithat Pasha created a "Security Fund" with the aim of collecting deposits
and this fund was merged with Ziraat Bank, founded by Mithat Pasha, in
1888 (Bakan, 2001: 417).
In 1916 the Ziraat Bank became a public institution with the law. In this
respect, Ziraat Bank emerges as a strong Turkish bank that continues its
existence from the Ottoman period to the present day (Parasız, 2000: 30).
Apart from these developments, foreign banks generally operated in the
Turkish banking sector before the announcement of the republic, and they
have created an irregular structure.
After the proclamation of the Republic, one of the most important
developments related to the banking sector has been the establishment of
Türkiye İş Bank in 1924. However, in 1929, the world crisis experienced the
country's economy in a bad way and the banking activities had to slow down.
As it regards the 1930 Central Bank of Turkey (CBT) established joint-stock
companies and has been in active service when it comes to 1931 (Ulukuş,
2011: 18). When it came to 1934, the State carried out the policy of
industrialization with the effect of the first Five-Year Industrial Plan and this
policy was very positive for banking activities (Parasız, 2000: 32).
During the Second World War, it has influenced the slowdown in the world
economy has been adversely affected Turkey and also the banking sector.
However, the beginning of the emphasis on liberal politics is positively
reflected in the sector in this process.
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After the end of the war, the increase in the real sector has increased and
thus the functioning in the banking sector has increased. In 1954, the number
of banks in the private sector increased rapidly with the Foreign Capital
Incentive Law.
In addition to the development plans laid down between the years of 1960
and 1980, there were some restrictions related to the establishment of
development, investment, expert and commercial banks. In particular,
restrictions placed in this period led to a decline in the entry to commercial
banking. As a result, a large number of large banks and a large number of
branches were formed (Ulukuş, 2011: 19).
As a result of 24th January 1980 Decisions, banking activities in Turkey with
a liberalized economy began to gain momentum. With these decisions,
Turkish banking has begun to enter into international finance structure.
Especially on 01.07.1980, with the release of the interest rates and the
positive real interest rate application, the deposit and credit transactions
started to gain speed. However, it had the chance to Turkish banks to open
branches abroad, with the economy as a result of liberalization in the 1980
decision, also had the chance to open the following foreign banks in Turkey.
Another important development in this period is the establishment of the
"interbank" market within the CBRT (Öcal, 1992: 144).
Some of the changes made in the banking sector in the 1980s can be
expressed as follows (Ulukuş, 2011: 21):
• Establishment of the Capital Markets Board in 1982,
• Beginning to sold domestic government bonds with tender in 1985,
• The bank money markets were put into operation in 1986,
• The ability of the Central Bank to perform open market operations in
1987,
• The transition of the gold markets in 1989.
In the 1990s, some crises affected quite badly the banking sector in Turkey.
In particular, with the 1990 Körfez Crisis and then with the crisis on May 5,
1994, banks that did not have a strong financial position had to go bankrupt
and it makes the sector lose a great deal of power (Parasız, 2000: 113). With
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the influence of the closing banks, citizens' confidence in the bank has
decreased and in order to earn this trust, it became a matter of giving the
deposits 100% state security.
The crises that have taken place have revealed that the banking sector has
to be put in line with certain standards. In this context, the Law on Banks No:
4389, which was prepared in accordance with the criteria of the European
Union (BIS) and the European Union, was put into force in June 1999. In
accordance with this law, the Banking Supervision and Regulation Agency
(BRSA) was taken into operation (Ulukuş, 2011: 22).
In the 2000s, Turkey has had to face two crises. Important steps have been
taken in connection with the increase of the security of the Turkish banking
sector, especially with the 2001 crisis. With these steps, the Turkish banking
sector has gained strength. Thus, the effects of the global crisis experienced
in 2008 on the Turkish banking sector are rather limited. In 2000, internet
banking was launched and great developments were shown in this respect
(Ulukuş, 2011: 24).
5.2.2.2. Legislative Regulations
Legal substructure in the banking sector in Turkey is provided through laws
and the competent authorities to carry out an audit. In this respect, Banking
Law No: 4389 entered in force and published in the official gazette on 26th
June 1999. Within the scope of this law, it was decided to establish the
Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency (BRSA) in June 1999, and this
institution was active in August 2000. In addition, the Banking Law No. 5411
was established and published in the Official Gazette which was repeated
issue No: 25983 dated 11.01.2005. With this law, the Banking Law No. 4389
has been abolished.
According to the Banking Law No. 5411, the duties of the BRSA are;
ensuring stability and confidence in the financial markets along with the
authorities granted under the law, efficient operation of the credit system,
development of the financial sector, and protection of the interests and rights
of depositors (Banking Law, Article 93).
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In 1930, the Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey (CBRT) established joint-
stock companies and became active service when it comes to 1931 (Ulukuş,
2011: 18). The authority of emission is in the hands of the CBRT. The
authorities of the CBRT are regulated in accordance with the CBRT Law No.
1211. According to Article 4 of Law No. 1211, the main task of the CBRT is to
ensure price stability.
Another institution that regulates and supervises the legal sub-structure of
banking activities is the Savings Deposit Insurance Fund. This fund was
published in the Official Gazette dated 18.03.2004 numbered 25406 and
entered into force. The main task of this fund is to provide relevant
inspections and regulations with the safeguards of saving owners. Another
institution, the Banks Association of Turkey (BAT) assumed the task of
supervising the banking sector. This association was established in 1958 on
the basis of Article 79 of the Banking Law. The main duty of this union is to
make decisions in order to develop the banking system and to establish the
relevant standards with this system.
Some changes were made with the aim of creating relevant regulations for
participation banks. Participation banks, which are a professional
organization with the amendment made by the Law No. 4672 in the Banking
Laws No. 4389 for the establishment of the union of the Participation Banks,
gained the status of Union within the scope of the Decree of the Council of
Ministers dated 4 October 2001 and numbered 2001/3138. Then it has taken
the name of “Participation Banks” with the 5411 law,” and has continued its
operations as Participation Banks Association of Turkey (TKBB). This union
is basically responsible for supervising whether the participation banks act in
accordance with the banking legislation.
The Capital Markets Board (CMB) was established in 1982 in terms of
controlling, regulating and supervising the transactions in the capital markets.
The Board was established in accordance with the Capital Markets Law No.
2499 published in 1981. The Board is involved in supervising financial
instruments, making arrangements related to financial markets, and
supervising financial markets. In this regard, banks are also subject to the
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supervision of CMB related to these elements as they can act as
intermediaries in financial transactions (Günal, 2012: 145).
5.2.3. Banking Sector in TRNC
5.2.3.1. Historical Development
The banking sector in Cyprus dates back to the years before Turkey's
intervention in order to ensure peace, as of 1974. However, there is no
significant banking activity in Cyprus until the 1980s (Güngör, 1999). In Table
9, banks established in Cyprus up to the year 2000 are placed in
chronological order.
Table 9.
Banks Established In Cyprus Up To The Year 2000
Bank Name Date of Establishment
Turkish Bank Co. 1901
Limasol Turkish Cooperative Bank Co. 1939
Cyprus Turkish Cooperative Central Bank Co. 1959
Cyprus Credit Bank Co. 1978
Cyprus Foundations Banks Co. 1982
Cyprus Industry Bank Co. 1982
Cyprus Commerce Bank Co. 1982
Cyprus Fasial Islam Bank Co. 1982
Asbank Co. 1986
Mediterranian Garanti Bank Co. 1989
Cyprus Economy Bank Co. 1990
Cyprus Hürbank Co. 1992
Cyprus Euro Bank Co. 1992
Rumeli Bank Co. 1992
Everest Bank Co. 1993
Finba Financial Bank Co. 1993
Deniz Bank Co. 1993
Cyprus Altınbaş Bank Co. 1993
111
Cyprus Tunca Bank Co. 1994
Near East Bank Co. 1996
Yasa Bank Co. 1996
Med Bank Co. 1996
Cyprus Finance Bank Co. 1997
Hamza Bank Co. 1997
Erbank Bank Co. 1997
Akfinans Bank Co. 1997
Yeşilada Bank Co. 1997
Cyprus Continental Bank Co. 1997
Viya Bank Co. 1997
Universal Bank Co. 1998
The banking sector in the TRNC started to gain momentum in the 1980s, but
in 2000 it began to weaken. Nevertheless, the measures taken in the year
2000 have alleviated the problems in the banking sector and ensured an
atmosphere of confidence. As of 2005, the banking sector of the TRNC has
reached a balance sheet size of USD 3.1 million.
One of the most important developments in the TRNC banking sector is
coastal banking, established with related laws in the 1980s. However, the
desired growth has not been achieved in coastal banking. Coastal banking
reached up to the number of 59 by 2001. However, as they implemented
overnight interest benefited from legal gaps, the licence of 43 coastal banks
were canceled. Due to the problems in coastal banking practices, many
citizens were in a difficult situation and lost their money (Şansal, 2007).
5.2.3.2. Legislative Regulations
In the TRNC, inspections of banks operating within the boundaries of the
TRNC are carried out with the Law on Banks No. 39/2001. Within the scope
of the law, the banks established or to be established in the TRNC and
branches of foreign banks are audited.
112
Within the scope of the Banking Law No. 39/2001, "The Central Bank shall
ensure that the provisions of this Law and other related legislation are
enforced by making regulations in the framework of the powers shown in the
law, to supervise and conclude the application, to ensure that the savings are
secured and to use other authorities provided by the law, and to take and
implement the necessary decisions and measures to ensure that the credit
system operates effectively and to prevent any transactions and practices
that may jeopardize the rights and the operation of banks in a regular and
confident manner and which may cause significant harm to the economy"
(http: //www.kktcenterbankasi.org / sites / default / files / legislation /
bankalaryasa_0.pdf).
5.3. Human Resources in Banking Sector
5.3.1. Quality Workforce and Human Resources in Banking Sector
Nowadays, it is possible to adapt to the increasingly competitive environment
and developing technologies with high-quality workforce. The quality of the
workforce is an important factor in all sectors as it is in the banking sector. In
the banking sector, however, the knowledge, experience and equipment of
the workforce gain importance. Management of human resources plays an
important role in the recruitment and maintenance of the quality workforce.
Management of human resources develops and implements various
strategies to create quality workforce in the banking sector (Simsek and Öge,
2011). Especially with in-service training, it is aimed to increase the
knowledge and equipment of employees. Management of human resources
can bring the quality workforce into the banks by playing an active role in not
only improving the existing employees but also retaining existing employees
and recruiting new employees. Management of human resources optimizes
the alternative workforce and carries out various strategies in order to win the
quality workforce in the sector. The quality of the workforce is important in the
success of the banks and the management of the human resources is
responsible for this (Özgen and Yalçın, 2010).
113
5.3.2. Employee Activity and Human Resources in Banking Sector
Employee activity in the banking sector is important for banks' success. The
high level of work productivity and activities of the employees play an
important role in the improvement of bank performance (Çetin and Özcan,
2013). The management of human resources’ activities gains importance in
providing employee effectiveness. The management of human resources
should choose and implement the best tools to enhance the effectiveness of
employees. It is important for the management of human resources to
approach employee effectiveness with fair, performance-based and
motivating practices. The management of human resources should motivate
employees, increase their mood of commitment, and ensure that their
employees are satisfied. In this way, employees' organizational citizenship
perceptions will be strengthened and their performance and productivity will
be increased (Tortop et al., 2013).
5.3.3. The Problems of The Management of Human Resources in the
Banking Sector
The management of human resources plays the most important role in
increasing employee productivity. Employees' productivity gains more
importance, especially in the banking sector as customer satisfaction is
prioritized by working fast and effectively (Alayoğlu, 2010). However,
management of human resource sometimes fails to work effectively and
causes various problems. Feeling of confidence and the productivity of
employees will decrease due to reasons such as insufficient human
resources management, non-compliance with the principle of equality, non-
neutrality and lack of assurance (Simsek and Öge, 2011). For this reason, it
is important for the management of human resources to behave equally and
fairly in accordance with the aims and objectives of the organization, and to
have activities related to employees' performance and careers in terms of
employee productivity (Ertürk, 2011a).
114
5.4. Related Researches
Öz (2014) tried to measure the institutional commitment levels of the
students of theology faculty in his work. In this respect, 225 students from
Abant Izzet Baysal University Faculty of Theology attend the study. In the
study, it was emphasized that the concept of institutional commitment is a
factor that increases the motivation of the individuals and it is concluded that
the institutional commitment levels of the students are high as a result of the
measurements.
Etemoglu (2013) examined the motivation factors of industrial designers who
are employed in companies in Turkey in his study. While the concept of
motivation is discussed in this study, the effect of employees' level of
institutional commitment to motivation is also emphasized. In this respect, the
concept of commitment has been discussed under the ERG approach while
explaining motivation. Apart from that, he conducted a survey to examine the
motivational factors of industrial designers. As a result of the analysis made
after the survey, it was concluded that the factors that affect the motivation of
the individuals the most are the items related to the individuals’ workplaces
and themselves.
Aydın (2013) investigated the factors that affect the motivation of employees
in his work. The study was carried out through social facilities belonging to
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality. It is emphasized that it is beneficial to
organize motivation promoting activities to raise employees' corporate
commitments. A survey was conducted on 320 employees working in social
facilities belonging to the municipality. Surveys were evaluated by analysis
like factor analysis and frequency distribution analysis.
Coşkun (2009) examined teachers’ opinions on motivational tools in primary
schools and investigated their satisfaction levels. Institutional identity has
been considered as a concept to be assigned to employees in order to
provide motivation to employees. He mentioned that employees need to have
a sense of commitment so that the order can be provided in the institutions.
Survey is used as a method in the study. The questionnaires were applied to
216 teachers working in 8 primary schools in the province of Silivri in
115
Istanbul. As a result of the analysis, it is seen that the teachers give
importance to economic motivation tools. Apart from this, managerial
motivation tools are seen as more effective tools than psycho-social tools.
Uslu (2012) examined primary school students’ commitments to their schools
in his study. He examined the relationship of the students with their peers as
a factor affecting the students' commitment to the school and he emphasized
that this fact influences the academic motivation of the students at the same
time. In this respect, the institutional commitment and motivation of the
students are discussed indirectly in this study. In the study, "cluster sampling"
method was used. Analyzes were evaluated by multiple and stepwise
regression analysis.
In his study Doğan (2013) examined the religious officials’ commitments,
vocational burnout situations and viewpoints about in-service training.
Institutional commitment has been regarded as a key to maintaining the
services of religious officials. In this sense, the concept of institutional
commitment is regarded as one of the conditions for religious officials to be
successful. In this regard, institutional commitment is considered as a
motivation tool for religious officials in this study. The survey was done in the
study.
Ertürk (2011) studied the relationship between personality, job satisfaction
and stress with sense of devotion in terms of commitment to the institution.
Ertürk considered the concept of motivation as a relevant concept for job
satisfaction. In this respect, expectation theories based on motivation are
included in studying job satisfaction. Motivation is considered here both as a
result of job satisfaction and as a cause of job satisfaction. As a method, a
questionnaire study was carried out and factor analysis was done as an
analysis.
Özdemir, Bozkurt and Aydin (2015) studied the humanistic competencies of
school administrators. In the scope of the study, criteria such as increasing
the motivation of the employees and providing the institutional commitment
were used to evaluate the humanistic competencies of the school
administrators. Semi-structured interview technique was used in the study.
116
As a result of the study, institutional commitment, and motivation are the
factors that increase the school administrators’ humanistic competencies.
Öztop (2014) emphasized the effects of organizational commitment
awareness on employees' perceptions of organizational change. It is
mentioned that employees' motivations and institutional commitments
increase when employees' interests and opinions are valued. There is also
an increase in the institutional commitments of employees who make their
work highly motivated. A survey study was conducted on 479 employees in
the study. As for the analysis, frequency distribution and crossover analysis
were preferred. As a result of the study, it was concluded that employees
whose institutional commitment perception was high had also positive
change perception.
Gün (2016) tried to determine the motivation levels of the employees working
in Bitlis province hotel enterprises. In this study, it is mentioned that
employees need to acquire institutional commitment in order to provide
motivation. In this respect, it is emphasized that the concept of social
participation is important in terms of providing commitment. A survey study
was conducted on the employees working in some hotels in Bitlis. In
statistical analysis, one-way ANOVA was used with t-test. As a result of the
study, it is seen that the managers who work in the hotels in Bitlis have more
motivation than the employees.
Kıdak and Aksaraylı (2009) studied the motivation factors in health services.
In terms of motivation factors in the study, institutional commitment was
considered as a factor. A questionnaire study was conducted on 155 health
workers in the study. In the study, t test and one-way variance analysis were
performed.
Kanbur (2005) studied the factors affecting the motivation of employees in
total quality management enterprises. The research has also been conducted
through businesses operating in the furniture and food industries. In the
study, the concept of institutional commitment was taken as an effective
factor in the emergence of motivation. However, the concept of institutional
commitment has not been mentioned in detail but is considered only as a
117
phenomenon in the emergence of motivation. The study was carried out on
the questionnaire and evaluated by the chi-square, variance and frequency
analysis.
Zeynel and Çarıkçı (2015) emphasized the effect of professional motivation
on organizational commitment and job satisfaction. In the study, the concept
of institutional commitment was considered as a component of organizational
commitment. In this respect, it is suggested that there is a meaningful
relationship between professional motivation and organizational commitment,
which is one of the research hypotheses. 378 academicians working at the
Department of Business Administration of public universities participated in
the research. Survey method was used as a method and the questionnaire
data were evaluated using t test, anova test, correlation and regression
analysis. As a result of the work, professional motivation has positive and
strong influence on organizational commitment.
Künarcı (2016) focused on the analysis of the factors affecting the motivation
of health professionals in his work. Institutional commitment 6that affects the
motivation in the study is considered as a factor together with the social
needs. In the study, a questionnaire study with 44 questions was conducted
on the health workers. Factor analysis and regression analysis were used as
the analysis method.
White (2005) studied the influence of involvement, institutional commitment
and status in volunteer professional organizations. While the employees’
work in the voluntary organizations were examined, the motivations of the
employees, their institutional commitments and the involvement in institution
were examined at the same time. In this regard, a study was conducted on
1441 people working in an association named the Association for
Communication Excellence in Agriculture, Natural Resources, and Life and
Human Sciences (ACE) between the years 1991 and 2004. The data were
tested using descriptive statistics, bivariate correlation, simple linear
regression, and so on.
118
H1 H2
H3
Organizational Democracy
Job Satisfaction Organizational Citizenship
Behavior
Organizational Belonging
CHAPTER 6
6. METHOD
6.1. Models of the Work and Hypotheses
In this study, the impact of organizational democracy and organizational
commitment on job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior
relationship was examined on private banks in the TRNC and Turkey. In this
context, the research model is formed as follows.
H6
H4
H5 H7
Diagram 8. The Model of the Research
119
Hypotheses within the model of the researcher are as follows:
H1: There is a statistically significant relationship between job satisfaction
and organizational citizenship behavior.
H2: There is an effect of organizational democracy in the relation between
job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior.
H3: There is an effect of organizational commitment in the relation
between job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior.
H4: The perception of organizational democracy affects the perception of
job satisfaction.
H5: Organizational commitment affects the perception of job satisfaction.
H6: The perception of organizational democracy affects the perception of
organizational citizenship behavior.
H7: The perception of organizational commitment affects the perception of
organizational citizenship behavior.
6.2. Population and Sample
The population of the work is the staff working in private banks located in
Istanbul and the TRNC.
Yazicioglu and Erdogan (2004) stated that the sample size of 384 persons is
sufficient for the endless sample at the 5% sampling error. For this reason, it
was aimed to reach at least 384 people in the survey and the survey was
mailed from March 2017 to May 2017. 500 questionnaires were shared via
mail and these questionnaires were requested to be filled. 439 people were
returned.
6.3. Data Collection Tool
Questionnaire will be used as the data collection tool. The questionnaire is
based on the following questions:
• Demographic information - 6 questions
• Organizational citizenship behavior scale - 24 questions
120
• Commitment scale - 6 questions
• Organizational democracy scale - 28 questions
• Job satisfaction scale - 20 questions
Organizational Citizenship Scale: Developed by Podsakoff et al. (1990) and
its reliability and validity in Turkish was made by Ünüvar (2006). The scale is
one-dimensional. In this study, Cronbach's alpha coefficient is 0.80. The
Organizational Citizenship Behavior Scale consists of 24 questions in total.
The scale is in likert form of 5. Scoring of the scale is made in the following
way: "I absolutely disagree" 1, "I disagree" 2, "Undecided" 3, "I agree" 4 and
"I strongly agree" 5. Having high total scores indicates that Organizational
Citizenship perceptions of participants are high. The Cronbach's Alpha
coefficient of the scale was 0.712.
Commitment Scale: The Perceived Commitment Scale was developed by
Stamper and Masterson (2002) and consists of 6 words. Participants' degree
of acceptance of these statements will be measured by the 5-point Likert
scale. The scale is one-dimensional. The Commitment Scale consists of 6
questions in total. The scale is in likert form of 5. Scoring of the scale is made
in the following way: "I absolutely disagree" 1, "I disagree" 2, "Undecided" 3,
"I agree" 4 and "I strongly agree" 5. Having high total scores indicates that
Commitment perceptions of the participants are high. The Cronbach's Alpha
coefficient of the scale was 0.724.
Organizational Democracy Scale: A measure of organizational democracy
scale consisting of 28 items that have been validated and credited by Geçkil
and Tikici (2015). The scale consists of 5 sub-dimensions. These are
Criticism, Transparency, Justice, Equality, and Accountability. This scale is
formed to measure organizational democracy perception with the subscales,
Criticism (8 items: 1-8 items), Transparency (6 items: 9-14 items), Justice (5
items: 15-19 items), Equality (6 items: 20-25 ) and Accountability (3 items:
items 26-28). The scale is in likert form of 5. Scores of the scale are made in
the following way: "I absolutely disagree" 1, "I disagree" 2, "Undecided" 3, "I
agree" 4 and "I strongly agree" 5. Cronbach's Alpha coefficients were found
to be 0.751 for the criticism subscale, 0,711 for the transparency subscale,
121
0,708 for the justice subscale, 0,698 for the equality subscale, and 0,732 for
the Accountability subscale. For organizational democracy scale, it was
determined as 0,712.
Job Satisfaction Scale: To measure job satisfaction, Minnesota Satisfaction
Scale which was developed by Weiss, Davis England and Lofquist (1967)
and adapted to Turkish by Oran (1989) was used. The scale consists of 3
sub-dimensions. These are internal satisfaction, external satisfaction, and
general satisfaction. Internal Satisfaction sub-dimension consists of 12
questions, External Satisfaction sub-dimension consists of 8 questions and
General Satisfaction sub-dimension consists of 20 questions. Scores of the
scale are made in the following way: "I absolutely disagree" 1, "I disagree" 2,
"Undecided" 3, "I agree" 4 and "I strongly agree" 5. Cronbach's alpha
coefficients were 0.802 for the internal satisfaction subscale, 0.784 for the
external satisfaction subscale, and 0.795 for the general satisfaction
subscale.
6.4. Premises
The premises of the research are as follows:
• It is assumed that the results of the questionnaire which will be applied in
selected banks in Istanbul and TRNC, will be the same in case it is
applied in all banks in Turkey and TRNC.
• It is assumed that the participants will answer the questions sincerely and
correctly.
• It is assumed that what the researcher meant while forming the questions
in the questionnaire will be understood in the same way by the
participants.
• It is assumed that the participants who will answer the questionnaire will
be in a rational manner.
122
6.5. Data Analysis
Data analysis in the study was done in SPSS 16 package program. In the
analysis of the data, descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage,
averaging and relationship analysis were used. For testing the relationship
between demographic and work characteristics and Organizational
Citizenship Perception, Organizational Commitment Perceptions, Job
Satisfaction Perceptions and Organizational Democracy Perceptions,
imprecision tests were applied. When applied imprecision tests, the scales
whose alpha (α) values were below p = 0,05 were subjected to the non-
parametric tests (Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal Wallis H) and the scales
whose alpha (α) values were above p = 0,05 were subjected to parametric
tests (T-Test and Anova).
The least squares method and the Pearson correlation test were applied in
testing the hypothesis of the study. With the least squares method, the
effects of independent variables which are organizational commitment and
organizational democracy perceptions on dependent variables which are
organizational citizenship behavior and job satisfaction are measured.
Pearson correlation test was used to determine the relationship between two
dependent variables, organizational citizenship behavior, and job satisfaction
perceptions. The value of R² gives the power to explain the independent
variable in the regression model. The fact that the R² value is close to 1
indicates that the independent variables explain the dependent variable to a
high extent. P-value is the statistical probability value. A p-value of less than
0.05 for the ANOVA and t-test indicates that there is a statistical significance
between the means of the variables.
123
CHAPTER 7
7. FINDINGS
7.1. Findings Related to Personal Information
Table 10 shows findings related to the demographic characteristics of the
participants. 52,8% of the bankers participating in the research is male and
their 47.2% is female. Participants’ 38,7% were between 40 and 49 years old
and their 32,8% were between 30 and 39 years old and their 38,7% were 50
and over and their 11,4% were between 20 and 29 years old. 58.5% of them
are undergraduate and their 24.6% have bachelor’s degree and their 16.9%
have the associate degree. Their 67% are married and their 33% are single.
Table 10.
Findings Related to Demographic Characteristics
Frequency % Gender
Female
207
47,2 Male 232 52,8 Total 439 100,0
Age 20-29
50
11,4
30-39 144 32,8 40-49 170 38,7 50 and over 75 17,1 Total 439 100,0
Educational status
Associate Degree 74 16,9 Bachelor’s Degree 257 58,5
Post/Graduate 108 24,6
Total 439 100,0
Marital status Single
145
33,0 Married 294 67,0
Total 439 100,0
124
Table 11 shows findings related to the employment status of participants.
Participants’ 39% have experiences 6-10 years and their 30.5 % have11-15
year and their 19,1% have 16 years and over. Participants’ 7.3% have been
working in the banking sector for the 1-5 year and at the same time, bankers’
4.1% have been working in the sector for 1 year and less. Bankers’ 73.6%
work in the private banks in Turkey and their 26,4 work in the private banks in
TRNC
Table 11.
Findings Related to Employment Status
Frequency % Experience in the Banking Sector
Less than 1 year 18 4,1
1-5 year 32 7,3
6-10 year 171 39,0 11-15 year 134 30,5 16 years and over 84 19,1
Total 439 100,0
The Region of the Bank Turkey
323
73,6
TRNC 116 26,4
Total 439 100,0
7.2. Findings Related to Organizational Citizenship Behavior
Table 12 shows descriptive statistics related to organizational citizenship
behavior. When the averages of organizational citizenship behavior are
examined, it is seen that they all are above 3. This shows that bank
employees mostly give an answer “I agree” to the questions about
organizational citizenship behavior perceptions. Total score average of bank
employees’ perception of organizational citizenship behavior is 3.52. This
indicates that bank employees’ perception of organizational citizenship
behavior is in the positive direction.
125
Table 12.
Descriptive Statistics Related to Organizational Citizenship Behavior
N
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Std. Deviation
1. I help people with 439
1 5 3,87 1,030
2. I act as in the phrase
of ‘squeaking wheel 439 1 5 3,47 1,022
gets the oil’
3. I believe that I need to 439
1 5 3,41 1,073
4. I spend a lot of time
complaining of 439 1 5 3,61 1,073
quiddity.
5. I avoid problems with 439
1 5 3,51 1,257
6. I follow the
developments and I 439 1 5 3,60 1,214
hear about them
7. I am not prone to make
a mountain out of a 439 1 5 3,80 1,046
molehill
8. I consider the effect my
behavior create on my 439 1 5 4,15 ,654
colleagues
9. I participate in the
important meetings 439
1 5 4,21 ,763
imperative
10. I always ready to help 439 1 5 4,01 ,912
my colleagues
11. I participate in activities that would be beneficial for corporate 439 image although it is not imperative.
1
5
3,98
1,078
12. I follow and read announcements, messages and other 439
1
5
3,92
,829
written materials about my company
126
13. I help my colleagues who do not come to the office.
14. I do not violate others rights
15. I voluntarily help my colleagues having problems with the job.
16. I always focus on the
mistakes instead of positive things.
17. I take precautions to prevent problems with other employees
18. My job attendance is above average.
19. I always nag my company’s actions
20. I consider how my behaviors affect other people’s actions
21. I do not have an extra
break
22. I observe the rules an regulations of the company even though no one knows
23. I help beginners to adapt though it is not must
24. I am one of the most conscientious employees.
Organizational Citizenship Behavior
When results of the Kolmogorov- Smirnov test of the organizational
citizenship behavior scale was examined, it determined that the scale confirm
normal distribution hypothesis (p> 0,05). In this case, T-test and ANOVA will
439
1
5
3,10
1,318
439 1 5 3,39 1,286
439 1 5 3,61 1,007
439
1
5
3,96
,809
439
1
5
3,32
1,226
439 1 5 3,33 1,113
439 1 5 3,79 ,979
439 1 5 4,12 ,794
439
1
5
3,21
1,344
d
439
1
5
3,35
1,051
439
1
5
3,12
1,134
439
1
5
3,45
1,052
439
1
5
3,52
0,97
127
be carried out in testing indifferences between demographic characteristics
and working status of organizational citizenship behavior scale.
Table 13.
Results of Kolmogorov – Smirnov Test of Organizational Citizenship Behavior
Scale/Dimension A.O. S.H. Normal Distribution
“Z”
Sig.
Organizational Citizenship Behavior 3,52 0,97 ,672 ,758
In Table 14. Organizational Citizenship Behavior Perception was studied in
terms of demographic characteristics. When the relationship between
perception of organizational citizenship behavior and demographic
characters is examined, it is seen that there is no significant relationship
between organizational citizenship behavior and participants’ gender, age,
educational status, marital status (p>0,05).
Bankers’ perception of organizational citizenship behavior does not differ
depending on their gender, age, educational status, and marital status.
Table 14.
Perception of Organizational Citizenship Behavior According to Demographic
Characteristics
Organizational Citizenship Behavior Gender Mean t p
Female 3,24 0,795 0,427
Male 3,20 Age Mean F p
20-29 3,26
30-39 3,09
40-49 3,31 0,975 0,404
50 and üzeri 3,25
Education Status Mean F p
Associate’s degree 3,11
Bachelor’s degree 3,29 2,127 0,121
Masters’ Degree 3,13
Marital Status Mean t p
Single
Married
3,16
3,25 0,548 0,584
128
In Table 15, the perception of organizational citizenship behavior is examined
for employment status. When the perception of organizational citizenship
behavior and bankers’ employment status are analyzed, it is observed that
there is no significant relationship between the year of experience and region
of the bank and organizational citizenship behavior perception (p>0,05). How
many year bankers work in the banking sector has no effect on the
perception of organizational citizenship behavior. Also, the perception of
organizational citizenship behavior of the banker who works in the region of
Turkey and TRNC is not different.
Table 15.
Perception of Organizational Citizenship Behavior According to Employment
Status
Experience in the Banking Sector
Organizational Citizenship Behavior
Mean F p
Less than 1 year 3,08
1-5 year 3,29
6-10 year 3,17 0,719 0,541
11-15 year 3,24
16 years and over 3,22
Region of Bank Mean t p
Turkey 3,23
1,448 0,149
TRNC 3,22
7.3. Findings Related to Organizational Commitment
In Table 16, there are descriptive statistics about organizational commitment.
When findings of organizational commitment are analyzed, it is seen that all
mean value is above 3,5. This shows that bank employees mostly give an
answer as “Agree” and “Absolutely Agree” to the questions about perceptions
of organizational commitment. Bank employees’ total score mean is 3.52.
The fact that mean is above 3 indicates that bank employees’ perception of
organizational commitment is in a positive direction.
129
Table 16.
Descriptive Statistics Related to Organizational Commitments
N Minimum Maximum Mean
Std. Deviation
1) I feel that I am a part of 439
the company. 1 5 3,50 1,260
2) The company that I am
working on makes me 439
believe that I belong to 1 5 3,59 1,219
this company
3) In my business, feel like 439 1 5 3,81 1,045
alienated
4) I do not feel like the
member of business I 439 work for
1 5 4,17 ,663
5) I feel that I belong to the 439 company which I work for
1
5
4,21
,759
6) The company which I
work for making me feel 439
that I am out of this 1 5 4,01 ,913
company
Organizational Commitment 439 1 5 3,35 0,88
In table 17, the result of the Kolmogorov- Smirnov Test of organizational
commitment exist. When the results of the Kolmogorov Smirnov test about
Organizational Commitment are analyzed, it is seen that it confirms the
normal distribution hypothesis. In this case, T-test and ANOVA will be used
for testing indifferences of commitment scales between demographic
characteristics and working status.
Table 17.
The Result Of Kolmogorov- Smirnov Test Of Organizational Commitment
Scale/Dimension A.O. S.H. Normal Distribution
Sig. “Z”
Organizational Commitment 3,35 0,88 ,872 ,420
130
Table 18 shows the perception of organizational commitment according to
demographic characteristics. When the relationship between organizational
commitment and demographic characteristics is analyzed, the statically
significant relationship between perception of organizational commitment and
participants’ gender, age, educational status and marital status was not found
(p>0,05). Bankers’ perception of organizational commitment does not differ
depending on their age, gender, educational status, marital status.
Table 18.
Perception of Organizational Commitment According to Demographic
Characteristic
Organizational Commitment
Gender Mean t p
Female 3,35 1,646 0,101
Male 3,50
Age Mean F p
20-29 3,52
30-39 3,35 0,734 0,532 40-49 3,49
50 and over 3,37
Educational Status Mean F p
Associated Degree 3,30
Bachelor’s Degree 3,49 2,334 0,098
Graduated 3,37
Marital Status Mean t p
Single Married
3,39 3,45
0,724 0,470
Table 19 indicates the perception of organizational commitment according to
employment status. When relationship between the perception of
organizational commitment and bankers’ employment status is analyzed, it is
observed that while the significant relationship between experience year in
banking sector and perception of organizational commitment was found
(p<0,05); The significant relationship between region of bank and perception
of the organizational commitment was not found (p>0,05). Bankers’
experience year affects their perception of organizational commitment. In
131
order to see which years cause differences, Tukey Post Hoc test was used.
According to test results, employees who have been working in the banking
sector for 6 years and over have more perception of the organizational
commitment than employees who have been working for 5 years and less.
Also, bankers’ perception of organizational commitment does not differ from
Turkey to TRNC.
Table 19.
Perception of Organizational Commitment According to Employment Status
Experiences in the Banking Sector
Organizational Commitment
Mean F p
Less than 1 year 3,14
1-5 year 3,16
6-10 year 3,57 4,234 0,006
11-15 year 3,60
16 years and over 3,62
Region of Bank Mean t p
Turkey 3,44
0,508 0,612
TRNC 3,36
7.4. Findings Related to Job Satisfaction
Table 20 indicates the descriptive statistics related to job satisfaction. When
the mean values related to job satisfaction is analyzed, it is seen that all
means are above 3. This shows that bank employees give an answer “Agree”
to the questions about perception of job satisfaction. Total score mean of
bank employees’ perception of job satisfaction is 3.20 for intrinsic, 3.30 for
extrinsic, and 3.24 for general satisfaction. The fact that the mean score is
above 3 shows that bank employees’ perception of satisfaction is positive.
132
Table 20.
Descriptive Statistics related to Job Satisfaction
1. To provide me the
occupation
2. In terms of having the opportunity to work single- handed
3. In terms of having a chance to do different activities sometimes
4. To give me the chance to be worthy in society
5. In terms of my chief’s administration manner.
6. For my chief’s decision- making ability.
7. In terms of having a chance to do actions whic are not unconscionable.
8. In terms of providing me
with job assurance
9. In terms of having an opportunity to do something for someone else
10. In terms of having the chance to tell people what they do.
11. In terms of having the chance to do something which I success by using my own abilities.
12. In terms of putting
N Minimum Maximum Mean
Std. Deviation
decisions related to job into 439 1 5 3,95 ,814
effect
13. In terms of price which I 439 get for my turnover
1
5
3,11
1,320
14. In terms of having the 439
promotion opportunity
1
5
3,39
1,284
439 1 5 3,87 1,025
439
1
5
3,46
1,024
439
1
5
3,39
1,083
439
1
5
3,61
1,067
439 1 5 3,50 1,260
439 1 5 3,60 1,216
h 439
1
5
3,81
1,045
439
1
5
4,16
,659
439
1
5
4,22
,756
439
1
5
4,01
,913
439
1
5
3,97
1,088
133
15. In terms of having the
independence of
439
1
5
3,62
1,009
decision.
16. In terms of providing me the chance to use my own 439
1
5
3,96
,800
method
17. In terms of working conditions. 439 1 5 3,33 1,229
18. In terms of the fact that my colleagues get on with
439
1
5
3,32
1,117
each other
19. In terms of being appreciated for my good
439
1
5
3,80
,976
job.
20. For the sense of achievement at the end of 439
1
5
4,13
,756
my job.
Intrinsic Satisfaction 439 1 5 3,20 0,98
Extrinsic Satisfaction 439 1 5 3,30 0,82
General Satisfaction 439 1 5 3,24 0,87
In table 21, there are the results of the Kolmogorov –Smirnov test related to
job satisfaction. When the results of the Kolmogorov –Smirnov test related to
job satisfaction is examined, intrinsic satisfaction, extrinsic satisfaction, and
general satisfaction sub-dimensions confirm the normal distribution
hypothesis (p>0,05). In this situation, the T-test and ANOVA test will be used
to test indifferences between sub-dimensions of extrinsic, intrinsic and
general satisfaction.
Table 21.
Result of Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test Related to Job Satisfaction
Scale/Dimension A.O. S.H. Normal Distribution
Sig. “Z”
Intrinsic Satisfaction 3,20 0,98 ,712 ,408
Extrinsic Satisfaction 3,30 0,82 ,828 ,325
General Satisfaction 3,24 0,87 ,935 ,284
134
Table 22 indicates the perception of job satisfaction according to
demographic characteristics. When the relationship between perception of
job satisfaction and demographic characteristics were analyzed, the statically
significant relationship between participants’ gender, age, educational status
and marital status and their perception of intrinsic satisfaction, extrinsic
satisfaction, general satisfaction was not found (p>0,05). Banker’s
perceptions of extrinsic, intrinsic and general satisfaction do not differ
depending on their age, gender, educational status and marital status.
Table 22.
Perception of Job Satisfaction According to Demographic Characteristics
Intrinsic Satisfaction
Extrinsic Satisfaction
General Satisfaction
Gender
Female 3,30 3,09 3,21 Male 3,38 3,20 3,32 T 1,380 1,589 1,536 P 0,168 0,113 0,125
Age
20-29 3,36 3,20 3,34 30-39 3,30 3,12 3,17 40-49 3,38 3,19 3,33 50 and üzeri 3,36 3,09 3,28 F 1,109 0,313 0,616
P 0,345 0,816 0,605
Educational Status Associate’s Degree
3,30
3,04
3,19
Bachelor’s Degree 3,39 3,20 3,32
Master’s Degree 3,28 3,11 3,22 F 2,339 1,083 1,900 P 0,098 0,340 0,151
Marital Status Single
3,35
3,13
3,25
Married 3,34 3,16 3,28 T 0,514 0,252 0,195
P 0,607 0,801 0,845
Table 23 shows the perception of job satisfaction according to employment
status. When relationship between job satisfaction and bankers employment
status is analyzed, it is observed that while the significant relationship
between bankers’ employment status and their perceptions of extrinsic and
135
intrinsic and general satisfaction is found (p<0,05); The statically significant
relationship between region of bank and perceptions of extrinsic, intrinsic and
general satisfaction is not found (p>0,05). Bankers’ experience in the banking
sector influences extrinsic satisfaction, intrinsic and general satisfaction. In
order to see which years’ cause differences, Tukey test was used from
among post hoc tests. According to test results, employees who have been
working for 5 years and less have less intrinsic, extrinsic, general satisfaction
than employees who have been working for 6 years and more. Employees’
perception of intrinsic, extrinsic and general satisfaction do not differ between
in Turkey and TRNC.
Table 23.
Perception of Job Satisfaction According to Employment Status
Instrinsic Satisfaction
Extrinsic Satisfaction
General satisfaction
Experience in the Banking Sector
Less than 1 year 3,44 3,44 3,48 1-5 year 3,45 3,43 3,49 6-10 year 3,90 3,71 3,77 11-15 year 3,79 3,55 3,69 16 years and over 3,83 3,55 3,67 F 4,036 2,208 3,465 P 0,008 0,007 0,016
Region of Bank Turkey
3,78
3,62
3,71
TRNC 3,73 3,54 3,65 T 0,573 0,784 0,693
P 0,567 0,434 0,489
7.5. Findings Related to Organizational Democracy
In Table 24, there are descriptive statistics related to organizational
democracy. When findings related to organizational democracy is examined,
the mean value of perception is found as below 3. The matters in scale are
“When decisions are made at our company, everyone who will be affected by
those decisions has the right to speak", administrations consider the
criticisms of employees ", "I could easily criticize decisions and politics that I
find wrong", "In our company, performance evaluated in accordance with the
136
principle of transparency", "My company support employees’ development by
getting training". This indicates that everyone does not have the right to
speak, the decision which is considered as is not criticized, performance
evaluation is not transparent and training are not supported. Mean value of
the total score of the bank employee’s perceptions of organizational
democracy is 3.28 for criticism, 3,63 for transparency, 3.34 for fairness, 3.21
for equality and 3.54 for accountability. The fact that mean is above 3 shows
that bank employees’ perception of organizational democracy is high.
Table 24.
Descriptive Satatistics Related to Organizational Democracy
N
Minimum
Maximum
Mean
Std. Error
1. Managers encourage me to participate in organizational
439
1
5
3,45
1,248
decisions
2. Majority’s opinions are
considered while 439 1 5 3,00 1,338
institutional decision
3. Everyone has a right to speak while making 439
1
5
2,65
1,308
the decision.
4. Managers respect the
decision of the 439 1 5 3,53 1,299
do not like.
5. I could easily criticize
the decisions and 439 1 5 2,82 1,248
wrong.
6. Management encourages
439
1
5
3,42
1,304
employees to criticize.
7. Management considers employees’ 439
1
5
2,62
1,232
criticism
8. It is acceptable to
criticize management 439 1 5 3,23 1,128
137
9. In a meeting, everyone could express his/her opinions
439 1 5 3,11 1,260
10. Managers organize the informative meeting about important development
11. There are two way and open communication in my company
12. In my company, the performance evaluated in accordance with the principle of transparency"
439 1 5 3,28 1,114
439 1 5 3,36 1,099
439 1 5 3,07 1,110
13. My company support employees’ development by getting training’
14. In my company, there is a fair reward system.
15. Employees’ price and other income are determined by considering their contribution
16. Qualification is considered in work distribution.
17. In our company, the evaluation criteria are standardized.
18. Inferiors’ opinions are important while determining superiors’ success level.
439 1 5 2,99 1,163
439
1
5
2,84
1,159
439
1
5
3,39
1,286
439
1
5
3,61
1,007
439
1
5
3,39
,809
439
1
5
3,32
1,226
138
19. There is no gender discrimination in our company.
20. In recruiting personnel, their political ideas and worldviews are effective.
21. Instead of subjects, the ideas are considered in meetings
22. There is discriminatio
among employees.
23. There is no any
discrimination on employees’ language, beliefs.
24. I think that my
company is democratic
25. In my company,
policies and procedures could be criticized by employees.
26. In my company, every
439 1 5 3,33 1,113
employee in every
level of the company could be called to
439 1 5 3,98 1,078
account.
27. In my company,
accountability is developed.
439 1 5 3,92 ,829
28.The culture of accountability
439
1
5
3,10..
1,31810
has developed
in my institution.
Criticism 439 1 5 3,28 0,85
Transparency 439 1 5 3,63 0,92
Fairness 439 1 5 3,34 0,84
Equality 439 1 5 3,21 0,76
Accountability 439 1 5 3,54 0,92
439 1 5 3,79 ,979
439
1
5
4,12
,794
n 439
1
5
3,21
1,344
439
1
5
3,35
1,051
439
1
5
3,12
1,134
439
1
5
4,01
,912
139
In Table 25, there are results of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for
organizational democracy. When Kolmogorov-Smirnov test related to
organizational democracy scale is analyzed, it is seen that criticism, fairness,
equality, transparency and accountability sub-dimensions confirm the normal
distribution hypothesis (p>0,05). In this case, the ANOVA test and T-test will
be used to test indifference between employees’ criticism, transparency,
fairness, equality, accountability and their demographic characteristics and
employment status.
Table 25.
Results of Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test for Organizational Democracy
Scale/Dimensions A.O. S.H. Normal Distribution
Sig. “Z”
Criticism 3,28 0,85 0,620 0,782
Transparency 3,63 0,92 0,724 0,391
Fairness 3,34 0,84 0,836 0,312
Equality 3,21 0,76 0,751 0,358
Accountability 3,54 0,92 0,962 0,251
Organizational Democracy
(OD) 3,40 0,85 0,941 0,363
In table 26, the perception of organizational democracy according to
demographic characteristics exists. When the relationship between
perception of organizational democracy and demographic characteristics is
analyzed, the statically significant relationship between employees’ gender,
age, educational status, marital status and their perceptions of criticism,
transparency, fairness, equality, accountability and organizational democracy
is not found (p>0,05). Bankers’ criticism, transparency, fairness, equality,
accountability and their perceptions of organizational democracy do not differ
from depending on their gender, age, educational status, and marital status.
140
Table 26.
Perception of Organizational Democracy According to Demographic
Characteristics
Criticism Transparency Fairness Equality Accountability OD
Gender
Female 2,37 2,50 3,23 3,23 3,36 3,36 Male 2,53 2,54 3,22 3,25 3,44 3,44
t 0,592 0,094 0,396 0,351 1,396 1,291
p 0,555 0,925 0,692 0,726 0,163 0,251
Age
20-29 2,68 2,56 3,26 3,38 3,42 3,06 30-39 2,38 2,48 3,19 3,23 3,38 2,93 40-49 2,50 2,56 3,29 3,25 3,46 3,01
50 and over 2,35 2,49 3,12 3,15 3,31 2,88
F 0,881 0,504 0,451 1,088 0,864 1,098
p 0,451 0,680 0,717 0,354 0,460 0,341
Educational Status Associate’s 2,26 2,39 3,18 3,20 3,30 2,87
Degree
Bachelor’s 2,49 2,58 3,27 3,31 3,44 3,02 Degree
Master’s 2,50 2,47 3,16 3,11 3,39 2,93 Degree
F 1,142 2,444 0,667 1,708 0,554 0,951
p 0,320 0,088 0,514 0,183 0,575 0,412
Marital Status
Single 2,34 2,47 3,19 3,21 3,39 2,92 Married 2,51 2,55 3,24 3,26 3,41 2,99
t 1,281 0,828 0,576 0,032 0,111 0,921
p 0,201 0,408 0,565 0,974 0,912 0,395
In Table 27, there is the perception of organizational democracy according to
employment status. When the relationship between perceptions of
organizational democracy and bankers’ employment status is examined, the
significant relationship between bankers’ criticism, transparency, fairness,
equality, accountability, and perception of organizational democracy and their
experiences years and region of the bank is not found (p>0,05). Bankers’
working year in the banking sector has no effect on their perception of
criticism, transparency, fairness, equality, and accountability. Also, Bankers’
perceptions of criticism, transparency, fairness, equality, accountability,
organizational democracy do not differ between Turkey and TRNC.
141
Table 27.
Organizational Democracy Perception According To Employment Status
OD
Experience in the Bank Less than 1 year
ing Secto 2,28
r 2,42
3,08
3,14
3,30
2,84 1-5 year 2,53 2,55 3,29 3,32 3,47 3,03
6-10 year 2,37 2,43 3,16 3,16 3,34 2,89
11-15 year 2,52 2,68 3,30 3,26 3,44 3,04
16 years and over 2,45 2,52 3,23 3,24 3,40 2,97 F 0,704 1,315 1,745 1,243 0,675 1,120 P 0,550 0,269 0,157 0,294 0,567 0,305
Region of Bank Turkey
2,48
2,54
3,24
3,25
3,43
2,99
TRNC 2,31 2,44 3,15 3,18 3,28 2,87 T 0,646 0,830 0,860 0,877 1,292 1,310
P 0,518 0,407 0,390 0,381 0,197 0,182
7.6. The Effect of Organizational Democracy and Organizational
Commitment on Job Satisfaction
In this part of the paper, the effect of organizational democracy and
organizational commitment on job satisfaction will be studied. Within this
scope, three models which are the three dimensions of job satisfaction were
set and analyzed. These models are internal satisfaction, external
satisfaction, and general satisfaction.
In table 28, there are the results of the regression analysis related to the
effect of organizational commitment and organizational democracy on
intrinsic satisfaction.
The effect of organizational democracy and organizational commitment on
intrinsic satisfaction was examined and it is determined that criticism,
transparency and equality subdimensions in organizational democracy scale
Cri
tic
ism
Tra
nsp
are
nc
y
Ju
sti
ce
Eq
uali
ty
ac
co
un
tab
ilit
y
142
and organizational commitment perception influence intrinsic
satisfaction (F:302,797-p=000<0,05). Transparency, criticism, equality,
and organizational commitment perception affect the perception of
intrinsic satisfaction positively. As bankers’ transparency, equality and
organizational commitment perception increase, their perception of intrinsic
satisfaction also increases. R²0,962 is found; thus, Organizational
democracy and organizational belonging explain the intrinsic satisfaction
of 96.2%.
Table 28.
The Effect of Organizational Democracy and Organizational Commitment on
Intrinsic Satisfaction (Regression analysis)
Table 29 indicates the results of the regression analysis related to the effect
of organizational democracy and organizational commitment on extrinsic
satisfaction. The effect of organizational democracy and organizational
commitment on extrinsic satisfaction was examined and it is determined that
transparency, fairness, and accountability subdimensions of organizational
democracy scale and perception of organizational commitment affect
extrinsic satisfaction (F:119,750-p=000<0,05). Transparency, fairness,
accountability, and perception of organizational commitment affect extrinsic
job satisfaction positively. As bankers’ transparency, fairness, accountability
and perceptions of organizational commitment increase, their extrinsic
satisfaction also increases.R²0,817 is found; thus, Organizational democracy
and organizational belonging explain the extrinsic satisfaction of 81.7%.
Relationship Std error
t p
Organizational Criticism -0,064 0,032 2,000 0,046
Democracy Transparancy 0,121 0,041 2,950 0,003
Fairness 0,081 0,052 1,391 0,165
Equality 0,123 0,047 2,605 0,010 Accountability -0,005 0,088 0,053 0,958 OD 0,024 0,054 1,251 0,195
Organizational Commitment R2: 0,962
1,646 0,032 5,030 0,000
F: 302,797
p=000<0,05
143
Table 29.
The Effect of Organizational Democracy and Organizational Commitment
on Extrinsic Satisfaction (Regresyon analysis)
Relationship Std Error
t p
Organizational Criticism 0,031 0,050 0,620 0,536 Democracy Transparancy 0,129 0,065 1,985 0,048
Fairness 0,450 0,092 4,893 0,000 Equality 0,077 0,075 1,129 0,304 Accountability 0,388 0,139 2,790 0,006 OD 0,214 0,052 1,021 0,451
Organizational Commitment R2: 0,817
0,807 0,050 6,138 0,000
F:119,750
p=000<0,05
Table 30 shows the results of regression analysis related to the effect of
organizational democracy and organizational commitment to general
satisfaction. The effect of organizational democracy and organizational
commitment was analyzed and it is found that fairness subdimension in
organizational democracy scale and perception of organizational commitment
affect general satisfaction (F:234,524-p=000<0,05). Fairness and
organizational commitment perception affect general satisfaction positively.
As bankers’ perception of fairness and organizational commitment increase,
their perception of general job satisfaction also increases. R²0,928 is found;
thus, organizational democracy and organizational belonging explain the
overall satisfaction of 92.8%.
144
Table 30.
The Effect of Organizational Democracy and Organizational Commitment on
General Satisfaction (regression analysis)
Relationship Std t p Error
Organizational Criticism 0,033 0,073 0,448 0,654 Democracy Transparancy 0,008 0,094 0,083 0,934
Fairness 0,531 0,132 4,013 0,000 Equality 0,046 0,108 0,429 0,668 Accountability 0,383 0,200 1,917 0,056 OD 0,254 0,121 0,524 0,561
Organizational Democracy R2: 0,928 F: 234,524 p=000<0,05
2,456 0,072 8,093 0,000
7.7. The Effect of Organizational Democracy and Organizational
Commitment on Organizational Citizenship Behavior
In this part of the paper, the effect of organizational democracy and
organizational commitment on organizational citizenship behavior is viewed.
Table 31 shows the results of regression analysis related to the effect of
organizational democracy and organizational commitment on organizational
citizenship behavior. The effect of organizational democracy and
organizational citizenship behavior was examined. It is understood that
equality subdimension of organizational democracy scale and perception of
organizational commitment influence organizational citizenship behavior
(F:46,186-p=000<0,05). Equality and organizational commitment perception
affect the perception of organizational citizenship behavior positively. As
bankers’ perception of equality and organizational commitment increase, the
perception of organizational citizenship behavior also increases. R² 0,64,6 is
found, thus explains 64.6% on organizational democracy and organizational
citizenship behavior of organizational belonging.
145
Table 31.
The Effect of Organizational Democracy and Organizational Commitment on
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (Regression analysis)
Relationship Std t p Error
Organizational Criticism -0,297 0,188 1,579 0,115 Democracy Transparancy 0,200 0,244 0,820 0,413
Fairness 0,565 0,350 1,615 0,107 Equality 1,071 0,283 3,783 0,000 Accountability 0,534 0,527 1,013 0,312 OD 0,654 0,321 1,215 0,123
Organizational Democracy R2: 0,646 F:46,186
1,331 0,203 6,566 0,000
p=000<0,05
7.8. Relation Between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship
Behavior
In table 32, the relation between job satisfaction and organizational
citizenship behavior is observed. When the relationship between job
satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior is examined, the
significant relationship is found between the perceptions of intrinsic
satisfaction, extrinsic satisfaction and general satisfaction (p<0,05). There is
a positive relationship between bankers’ perception of job satisfaction and
organizational citizenship behavior. Bankers’ perception of job satisfaction
and organizational citizenship behavior support each other. R²0,64,6 is
found, thus explains 64.6% on organizational democracy and organizational
citizenship behavior of organizational belonging.
Table 32.
Relation Between Job Satisfactıon And Organizational Citizenship Behavior
Intrinsic Satisfaction
Extrinsic Satisfaction
General Satisfaction
r ,566** ,547**
,579**
Organizational Citizenship p ,000
Behavior ,000 ,000
n 392 392 392
146
7.9. Control of Hypothesis
In table 33, there are test results related to the hypothesis. In the table, there
are 4 parts titled as explanations of a hypothesis, analyze to use to tests a
hypothesis, test results, and interpretations
Table 33.
Control of Hypothesis
Hypothesis Result Interpretation
H1: There is the significant relationship between job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. H2: Organizational democracy affects the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior
H3: organizational commitment affects job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior
H4: Organizational democracy perception affects job satisfaction
H5: Organizational commitment perceptions affect perception of job
Accepted
Accepted
Accepted
Partially Accepted
Accepted
At the end of correlation analysis, it is founded that two variable affect significantly each other including all subdimensions in a positive way.
In the relation between job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior, fairness sub-dimension of organizational democracy influences general satisfaction. Equality sub- dimension of organizational democracy influences organizational citizenship behavior. In the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior, organizational commitment has statically significant and positive effect on both job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. Transparency, criticism and equality subdimensions of organizational democracy affect intrinsic satisfaction. Transparency fairness and accountability sub- dimensions affect extrinsic satisfaction. Fairness sub- dimension affects general satisfaction. Perception of organizational commitment influences the level of intrinsic satisfaction, extrinsic satisfaction, and general
147
satisfaction. satisfaction. H6: Perceptions of organizational democracy affects perceptions of organizational citizenship behavior.
Partially Accepted
Equality subdimension of organizational democracy affects organizational citizenship behavior.
H7: Perception of organizational commitment affects organizational citizenship
Accepted Perception of organizational commitment affects organizational citizenship behavior.
148
DISCUSSION
The impact of organizational democracy and organizational belonging on
organizational citizenship behavior is examined and it has been determined
that the equality sub-dimension of organizational democracy and the
perception of organizational belonging affect organizational citizenship
behavior. The hypothesis has been partially accepted. Perceptions of
equality and organizational belonging positively affect the perception of
organizational citizenship behavior. Bankers' perception of organizational
citizenship behavior increases as their perception of equality and
organizational belonging increases. When the relationship between job
satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior is examined, there is a
statistically significant relationship between organizational citizenship
behavior and perceptions of internal satisfaction, external satisfaction and
general satisfaction. There is a positive relationship between the perceptions
of job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior of bankers. Bank
employees' perceptions of job satisfaction and organizational citizenship
behavior support each other. Şahin (2011) stated that there are many factors
that affect the emotions of employees' job satisfaction. It was stated that
especially the positive attitude of the employees in the organization and the
feeling of belonging to the organization affect the feelings of job satisfaction
positively. Budak (2006) stated that the feedbacks of the organization as a
result of the organizational activities and performances of the employees is
effective on the employees. It has been stated that democratic approaches
affect employee satisfaction in a positive way, especially in evaluations
regarding employee performance. Mohammed et al. (2009) stated that the
activities of organizations such as rewarding and performance evaluation are
significant in the success of their employees. It has been stated that the
adoption of democratic approaches, especially in rewarding employees,
positively affects employee satisfaction.
149
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This research was conducted to present bankers’ perception of
organizational citizenship behavior, job satisfaction, commitment, and
democracy. Bankers who working in Turkish and TRNC banking sector
participate in this research. In the research, it observed whether the banker’s
perception of organizational citizenship behavior, job satisfaction, belonging
and democracy differ depending on their demographic characteristics and
working conditions. Also, within the main hypothesis, the effect of
commitment and democracy perception on organizational citizenship
behavior and job satisfaction is analyzed.
52,8% of the bankers participating in the research is male and their 47.2% is
female. Participants’ 38,7% were between 40 and 49 years old and their
32,8% were between 30 and 39 years old and their 38,7% were 50 and over
and their 11,4% were between 20 and 29 years old. 58.5% of them are
undergraduate and their 24.6% have bachelor’s degree and their 16.9% have
an associate degree. Their 67% are married and their 33% are single. 39% of
the bankers participating in the survey have been working for 6-10 years,
their 30,5% is for 11-15 years, their 19,1% is for 16 years and over, their
7,3% for 1-5 years and 4,1% has been working in the banking sector for less
than a year. Bankers’ 73,6% have been working in a private bank in Turkey
and 26,4% of them in TRNC.
When the relation between organizational citizenship behavior and
demographic characteristics and employment status was analyzed, the
statically significant relationship between organizational citizenship behavior
and employees’ gender, age, educational status, marital status was not
found. Banker’s organizational citizenship behavior perception does not differ
depending on gender, age, educational level, and marital status. How many
year bankers work in the banking sector does not affect organizational
citizenship behavior perception. Besides, there are no differences between
banker in Turkey and in TRNC in terms of their organizational citizenship
behavior perception. When the relationship between commitment perception
and demographic characteristics is analyzed, it is seen that there is no
150
significant relationship between organizational commitment perception and
bankers’ gender, age, educational status, and marital status. Bankers
organizational commitment does not differ depending on their gender, age,
educational status, and marital status.
When the relation between organizational commitment perception and
bankers’ employment status is analyzed, it is not found the significant
relationship between the region of the bank and organizational commitment
perception, while it is found the significant relationship between
organizational commitment perception and experience duration in the
banking sector. Bankers’ experience in the banking sector affects their
organizational commitment perception. Bankers who have been working for 6
years and over have more organizational commitment perception than
bankers who have been working for 5 years and less. As employees’
experience in the banking sector increases, their commitment to the
organization also increases. Individuals working in the same sector for many
years feel that they belong in the organization. When the relationship
between demographic characteristics and job satisfaction is analyzed, the
significant relationship is not observed between bankers’ gender, age,
educational status and marital status and their intrinsic, extrinsic and general
satisfaction. Bankers’ perception of intrinsic satisfaction, extrinsic satisfaction
and general satisfaction do not differ depending on their gender, age,
educational status and marital status.
When relationship between job satisfaction and bankers’ employment status
is analyzed, it is seen that while there is significant relationship between
experience duration in baking sector and bankers’ perception of intrinsic
satisfaction, extrinsic satisfaction and general satisfaction; there is no
significant relationship between bank region and bankers’ perception intrinsic
satisfaction, extrinsic satisfaction and general satisfaction. Bankers working
years in banking sector affect the perception of intrinsic satisfaction, extrinsic
satisfaction, and general satisfaction. Intrinsic satisfaction, extrinsic
satisfaction and general satisfaction of employees who have been working
for 6 years and over are higher than employees who have been working for 5
years and less. The sense of satisfaction of individuals who work in the
151
banking sector for many years is higher. When the relationship between
organizational democracy perception and demographic and working,
characteristics is analyzed, a significant relationship is not found between
employees’ perception of criticism, transparency, fairness, equality, and
accountability and their gender, age, educational status and marital status.
Bankers’ perceptions of criticism, transparency, fairness, equality and
accountability do not differ depending on their gender, age, educational
status, marital status. The significant relationship between experience
duration in the banking sector and bankers’ criticism, transparency, fairness,
equality and accountability perceptions is not found. Bankers’ experience
duration in the banking sector does not affect their criticism, transparency,
fairness, equality and accountability. Also, there are no differences between
bankers in Turkey and bankers in TRNC, in terms of criticism, transparency,
fairness, equality, accountability.
The effect of organizational democracy and commitment to intrinsic
satisfaction was analyzed and it is understood that criticism, transparency
and equality subdimensions in the scale of organizational democracy and
organizational commitment affect intrinsic satisfaction. The hypothesis is
partially accepted. Perception of transparency, equality, and organizational
commitment affect the perception of intrinsic satisfaction positively. As
bankers’ transparency, equality and organizational commitment increase,
their intrinsic satisfaction also increase. The effect of organizational
democracy and organizational commitment on extrinsic satisfaction was
analyzed and it was found that transparency, fairness and accountability sub-
dimensions in organizational democracy scale and organizational
commitment perception affect extrinsic satisfaction. Transparency,
fairness, accountability and organizational commitment perceptions
affect extrinsic satisfaction perception positively. As bankers’
transparency, fairness, accountability and organizational
commitment perception increase, extrinsic satisfaction perception
also increases. The effect of organizational democracy and
organizational commitment on general satisfaction was examined and it
is observed that sub-dimension of fairness in organizational
demography scale and organizational commitment perception influence
general satisfaction. Justice
152
and perception of organizational commitment affect the perception of general
satisfaction positively. As bankers’ perception of organizational commitment
and justice increase, their general satisfaction also increases. When the
effect of organizational democracy and organizational commitment to
organizational citizenship behavior is analyzed, it is observed that equality
sub-dimension in organizational democracy scale and organizational
commitment dimension influence organizational citizenship behavior.
The hypothesis was partially accepted. Equality and organizational
commitment perception affect organizational citizenship behavior perception
positively. As bankers’ equality and organizational commitment perception
increase, their perception of organizational citizenship behavior also
increases. When the relation between job satisfaction and organizational
citizenship behavior was examined, it is recognized that there is a significant
relationship between organizational citizenship behavior and bankers’
intrinsic, extrinsic and general satisfaction perception. There is the positive
relationship between bankers’ perception of job satisfaction and
organizational citizenship behavior. Bankers’ perception of job satisfaction
and organizational citizenship behavior perception support each other.
As a result of the research, it is recognized that bank employees’ perception
of organizational democracy and commitment affect their perception of job
satisfaction and organizational citizenship behavior. It is also found that there
is a relationship between organizational citizenship behavior and perception
of job satisfaction. High organizational demography and perception of
organizational commitment affect employees’ organizational citizenship
behavior and their perception of job satisfaction positively.
8.1. Recommendations
Recommendations related to finding are as below:
In-service training and seminars could be organized in order to
develop bank employees’ perception of organizational behavior
positively.
153
Issues such as job security, performance evaluation, rotation, career
planning and promotion should be given importance to increase bank
employees’ organizational commitment.
It is important to have the same attitudes to all employees in the same
level to support bank employees’ perceptions of demography
Rewarding employees sufficiently and as they deserve will affect their
job satisfaction perception positively.
To provide organizational demography in the job environment, it is
necessary not to make favoritism.
To increase the employer’s perception of satisfaction, two points are
important: 1-) Developing the human resources policy which meets the
employers’ needs 2-) The employees’ problems should be tackled in
the solution-based way.
For enhancing the perception of organizational democracy in the bank,
employees should participate in the decisions.
Activities which can provide unity and solidarity could be organized to
both enhance employees’ perception of satisfaction and to reinforced
positively their perception of commitment by ensuring that they are in
communication with each other.
In the company, communication with all employees should be clear
Employees should be informed about possible or existing changes
and innovations adequately. Also, employees’ opinions should be
asked about these innovations and changes.
Administrators should generate ideas and put them into practice to
improve the quality of working life. Especially, at this point, issues
such as good working conditions, satisfactory pay levels, security and
social rights in the workplace could be worked on.
To encourage employees about organizational citizenship behaviors
and to prevent them from negative attitudes towards the organization
and working life, human resources management could develop
employee oriented policy.
In the company, managers could create the culture based on
information sharing. In the company, for information sharing, a system
154
could be set up. Through the instrument of this system, employees
can reach the information they want. This affect employees’
perception of organizational citizenship behavior positively.
An administration should adopt fairness as a principle. It is important
to have the solution based, impartial and fair approach towards the
employees when they have conflict.
To make new employees adapt, it could be used the adaptation
strategies between former employees and a new hire. Training
programs and social activities could be organized within this scope.
8.2. Recommendations for future research are as below:
This research was conducted in the only banking sector. In future
research, a comparative analysis could be made by searching
perceptions of employees from different sectors.
This research was carried out in banks in Turkey and TRNC. In future
research, perceptions differences could be measured by conducting a
questionnaire to employees in the bank located abroad. Thus, the
attitudes and behaviors of individuals coming from different cultures
could be compared and gauged.
In this research, data were collected via questionnaire and quantitative
data analysis techniques were used. For future research, qualitative
data analysis techniques could also be used by interviewing bank
managers.
Experimental studies could be conducted about enhancing
organizational democracy in banks. It could be observed and gauged
how employees’ perception of commitment, satisfaction, and
organizational citizenship behavior differ from democratic organization
to less democratic organization.
To determine the effect of organizational behavior on company
success, issues such as employees’ performances, company
productivity, activity could be added to research.
155
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RESUME
I was born on December 11, 1985 in Erzincan. I completed my primary
education at Ziya Gökalp Primary School. I completed my high school
education at Kazım Karabekir High School. In 2010, I graduated from
Eskişehir Anadolu University, Faculty of Business Administration. In 2014,
I graduated from the management and organization department of Ahmet
Yesevi University. I worked as a manager in the call center sector for five
years and as a portfolio manager in the banking sector for one year. In
2016, I started my PhD studies at Near East University.
182
PLAGIARISM REPORT
THE INFLUENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEMOCRACY AND ORGANIZATIONAL BELOGINGNESS ON THE JOB SATISFACTION AND ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR RELATIONSHIP: A STUDY OF THE BANKING SECTOR - ÖZHAN TOKAY
183
ETHICS COMMITEE APPROVAL
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE
10.01.2020
Mr. Özhan Tokay,
Your question about your study named “The Influence of Organizational
Democracy and Organizational Belogingness on The Job Satisfaction and
Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Relationship: A Study of The
Banking Sector" has been evaluated. No ethics committee permit is required as
your work took place before SREC becomes active.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Direnç Kanol
Reporter of SREC