the impact of artificial watering points on rangeland
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2008
WaterSmart Pastoral Product ion™ Project L i terature Reviews
AL HowesCA McAlpine
Working Paper
15
The Working Paper Ser ies
The impact of ar t i f ic ia l water ing points on rangeland biodiversi ty:
A review
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The impact of artif icial watering points on rangeland biodiversity:
A review
AL Howes
CA McAlpine
2008
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WaterSmart Pastoral Production™ project participants
Gail StevensonManager National Landcare Program www.daff.gov.au
Colleen JamesProject Officer WaterSmart Pastoral Production™
www.dcq.org.au
Andy BubbProject Manager www.primaryindustry.nt.gov.au
John GavinGeneral Manager www.saalnrm.sa.gov.au
Derek WhiteGreat Artesian Basin Coordinating CommitteeAustralian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts
www.gabcc.org.au
Information contained in this publication may be copied or reproduced for study, research, information or educational purposes, subject to inclusion of an acknowledgement of the source.
ISBN: 1 74158 053 6 (Web copy)ISSN: 1833-7309 (Web copy)
CitationHowes AL and McAlpine CA 2008, The impact of artificial watering points on rangeland biodiversity: A review, DKCRC Working Paper 15, The WaterSmart™ Literature Reviews, Desert Knowledge CRC, Alice Springs.
The Desert Knowledge Cooperative Research Centre is an unincorporated joint venture with 28 partners whose mission is to develop and disseminate an understanding of sustainable living in remote desert environments, deliver enduring regional economies and livelihoods based on Desert Knowledge, and create the networks to market this knowledge in other desert lands.
AcknowledgementsThe Desert Knowledge CRC receives funding through the Australian Government Cooperative Research Centres Programme; the views expressed herein do not necessarily represent the views of Desert Knowledge CRC or its Participants.
For additional information please contactDesert Knowledge CRCPublications OfficerPO Box 3971Alice Springs NT 0871AustraliaTelephone +61 8 8959 6000 Fax +61 8 8959 6048www.desertknowledgecrc.com.au
© Desert Knowledge CRC 2008
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Executive summary
This report describes the effects artificial watering points have on rangeland systems and their biota in Australia. One of the recent concerns regarding the large-scale spread of artificial watering points has been the effect that the increase in grazing pressure surrounding these focal points has on rangeland biodiversity. The loss of biodiversity in these regions has been attributed to the decline in landscape function as a result of human induced disturbances. As grazing pressure increases around these focal points, landscape function declines considerably, with a loss in vegetation cover, an increase in erosion, and a decrease in nutrient cycling.
Literature on the effects of grazing pressure surrounding artificial water sources was reviewed according to three main topics of interest.
1) The patterns displayed within the piosphere:
These patterns can be highly variable depending on grazing behaviour and forage conditions, the presence of fences, soil type, the salinity of water and climatic variables. A number of monitoring indices have been suggested; however, as there appears to be no universal pattern to the piosphere, researchers have been unable to agree on monitoring systems.
2) The degradation process, including soil compaction and erosion, and the effects on fauna and flora composition:
Soil erosion increases significantly within the first 2–3 km from water as a result of heavy traffic and vegetation stripping. A significant loss of functionality in this region alters the vegetation dynamics. This includes a decline in abundance and richness of palatable forage species. Feral herbivore species have increased in abundance, contributing to the pressure exerted within these regions. Native fauna species have mostly suffered declines as a result of increased pressure and habitat alterations.
3) Biodiversity monitoring:
This section covers more recent monitoring practices including remote sensing techniques and the use of Bayesian belief network models. These methods can monitor large areas and account for both temporal and spatial variation. Bayesian belief models can incorporate both empirical data and that of expert opinion, and can predict the response of a system to human disturbance. Both these models can be incorporated to produce a powerful monitoring tool.
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Desert Knowledge CRC Working Paper 15: The WaterSmart™ Literature Reviews
Contents Executive summary 1 List of figures 3 List of tables 3 1. Introduction 4
1.1 Background and history 4 1.2 Aims 5 1.3 Chapter summary 5
2. Key concepts 6 2.1 Disturbance 6 2.2 The piosphere 6 2.3 Landscape function 6 2.4 Functional integrity 6 2.5 Resistance 6 2.6 Resilience 6 2.7 Degradation 7
3. Patterns and indices 8 3.1 The variability in piosphere patterns 8 3.2 Monitoring indices 9 3.3 Chapter summary 12
4. Degradation processes 13 4.1 Soil compaction and erosion 13 4.2 Loss of landscape functionality 13 4.3 Effects of other herbivores 15 4.4 Chapter summary 15
5. Floristics of the piosphere 16 5.1 The major impacts 16 5.2 Variability in responses 16 5.3 Regional variability 17 5.4 Chapter summary 19
6. Fauna of the piosphere 20 6.1 Native versus feral animals 20 6.2 Invertebrates 21 6.3 Chapter summary 21
7. Ways forward 22 7.1 Biodiversity monitoring 22 7.2 Monitoring with remote sensing 22 7.3 Monitoring with expert knowledge 24 7.4 An example of the use of Bayesian belief network models: the Julia Creek dunnart project 25 7.5 Chapter summary 27
8. Conclusions 28 9. Appendix 1 29 10. References 34
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List of figures
Figure 1: Sections of the aerial photograph assembly used to study track patterns 9 Figure 2: Stylised patterns of cover change with increasing distance from water related to grazing 10 Figure 3: Influence of distance from water on track density for six paddocks in the north-eastern
goldfields of Western Australia 10 Figure 4: The linear distance of landscape patches (#/100m of line) with distance from water (km) 11 Figure 5: Attributes of recent cattle grazing in relation to distance from water 11 Figure 6: The sigmoid relationship between a grazing sensitive vegetation or soil measure and distance
from a watering point 12 Figures 7A and B: Photographs displaying the differences in functionality at two sites in Crows Nest,
QLD 14 Figure 8: Relative grazing intensity of cattle on plant communities around bores 17 Figure 9: Parameters used to describe the Band 4–Band 5 data space and to derive the PD54 index 24 Figure 10: The compiled network for the probability of dunnart occurrence in the Mitchell grasslands
26
List of tables
Table 1. Area and extent of land degradation for land systems grouped into vegetation types 18
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1. Introduction
1.1 Background and history
Over 70% of Australia’s mainland consists of arid and semi arid rangelands (James et al. 1999). This includes a diverse group of relatively undisturbed ecosystems such as tropical savannas, woodlands, shrublands and grasslands that harbour much of the country’s most distinctive fauna and flora (James et al. 1999, Woinarski and Fisher 2003, Smyth and James 2004). With the increase of human-induced disturbances following the settlement of pastoral grazing lands, management of rangeland biodiversity has become a real concern. Thirteen percent of Australia’s rangeland is degraded, 16% is affected by erosion, 17% is affected by woody weeds, and 25% of land cover is significantly disturbed (Smyth & James 2004). Pastoralism, altered fire regimes, the spread of pests and exotic species, and changes in water availability have been identified as the main contributors to this degradation (Woinarski and Fisher 2003). One of the more recent and pressing concerns regards the spread of artificial watering points. How the concentration of livestock around water points affects the biodiversity and sustainability of rangelands has been debated for years, with the development of many indices to monitor the process. No monitoring scheme has yet proven the most accurate and effective in determining the impact of grazing pressure around water points.
Prior to European settlement, the biota of Australia’s arid and semi arid rangelands was adapted to long periods of dry conditions. Advantage was taken of annual rainfall and the formation of temporary water sources, with significant fluctuations in abundance and distribution following seasonal rains. Flora richness and abundance usually responds well to rainfall, with the return of annual short lived forbs (Phelps 1999). Fauna species display similar correlations to the presence of rain, irrupting in abundance and extending in distribution.
The grazing potential of rangelands was recognised early in the 19th century for their ability to support sustainable and hardy pasture species, and grazing leases were released over much of eastern and southern Australia. Early grazing was dependent on water availability, and was predominately concentrated around permanent and semi-permanent water sources of the major waterways (James et al. 1999). Following the discovery of the Great Artesian Basin, large numbers of artificial water sources in the form of troughs, dams and bores were established by the 1950s (James et al. 1999). This extended the available grazing land to water-dependent livestock, and stocking rates intensified significantly. Today, artificial water sources are found at high densities throughout Australia’s grazing rangelands, with an average distance between points of less than 10 km (James et al. 1999).
The uneven distribution of cattle and grazing intensity has been recognised as a dominant problem since the 1920s (Lamon 1927, 1977 cited in Low et al. 1980) and a key threat to rangeland biodiversity (Pringle and Landsberg 2004). An important facet of biodiversity is the array of services it provides to the ecosystem. This includes gaseous compositions, amelioration of climates, fertility and stability of soils, disposal of wastes, cycling of nutrients and the natural control of pathogens and parasitic organisms (West 1993). This delicately balanced system supports an array of fauna and flora compositions and assists in the ability to deal with catastrophic events. Any disruption or alteration to this system will unbalance the production of the entire ecosystem, reducing its resistance to dramatic events. The loss of biodiversity can influence both the quality and quantity of ecosystems, while creating economic disruption (West 1993). Australia’s rangelands are heavily used as grazing lands, with strong economic inflows. Cattle and calf production generate $4.4 billion per year, while wool, sheep and lamb production generate $1 billion each year (Australian Collaborative Rangeland Information System 2001). Any alteration in the functional ability of these systems may reduce rangeland productivity, causing economic declines of a short-term or long-term nature depending on the scale of disruption.
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1.2 Aims
The aim of this review is to synthesise information on the effects of artificial watering points on rangeland systems and their biota within Australia. Literature on the effects of grazing pressure surrounding water sources will be reviewed according to three main topics of interest. These are:
• 1) the patterns displayed immediately surrounding the water source and the indices used to measure these patterns
• 2) the degradation processes including the effects on fauna and flora composition • 3) monitoring possibilities using remote sensing techniques and Bayesian models.
1.3 Chapter summary
• A large proportion of Australia consists of arid and semi-arid rangelands where the sustainability of biodiversity has become a real concern.
• Water points in rangelands have reached high densities since the discovery of the Great Artesian Basin.
• Today, the average distance between water points is less than 10 km. • With the provision of water, livestock densities and distribution have increased significantly. • Grazing pressure is a key threat to the loss of rangeland biodiversity, influencing the quality and the
quantity of the ecosystem.
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2. Key concepts
2.1 Disturbance
A disturbance, as defined by White and Pickett (1985), is any relatively discrete event in time that disrupts ecosystem community or population structure and changes resources, substrate variability, or the physical environment. Disturbances can be highly variable and include differences in scale, type, frequency, intensity and duration (McAlpine 1997). The state of the vegetation mosaic is often indicative of this variation in disturbance.
2.2 The piosphere
Osborn et al (1932) was the first in Australia to document the radial symmetry in grazing intensity that develops around watering points, and in 1969 Lange termed this grazing pattern ‘the piosphere’ (James et al. 1999). The central idea of the piosphere is that within large areas of pasture, the impact of livestock distribution in relation to water is patterned. Although the original term was based on the radial patterns extending from the focal water point, it has since been recognised that these patterns can be highly variable and depend not only on the behaviour of the animals, but also on the number of animals with or without free movement (Andrew 1988). This report will document the pattern variation observed within the piosphere and the factors that produce these responses.
2.3 Landscape function
This evaluates the biophysical processes that take place within a landscape. Healthy landscapes maintain the ability to retain water, soils, nutrients and organic matter. Vegetated areas act as obstructions to water flows and tend to support a richer and more productive flora composition (Ludwig 2004).
2.4 Functional integrity
A landscape with greater vegetation cover and richness often indicates good functional integrity and subsequently greater fauna and flora biodiversity (Ludwig 2004). Functional integrity measures the intactness of soil, native vegetation patterns and the processes that maintain these patterns (Ludwig 2004).
2.5 Resistance
In this report, resistance refers to the ability of flora species to survive grazing or browsing activity. Grazing resistance can be related to plant anatomy, chemistry or physiology and can be divided into avoidance or tolerance responses. Avoidance responses reduce the impact of grazing pressure by the species declining significantly in heavily grazed locations. Tolerance responses promote active growth following extensive grazing periods. The most grazing resistant plants are grasses, followed by forbs, deciduous shrubs and trees and evergreen shrubs and trees (Lyons & Hanselka nd).
2.6 Resilience
Resilience of pasture is an ability to respond to an outside pressure, shown by a strong tendency to return to its original state once the pressure has been lifted. The response changes are not fundamental to the functional ability of the system (Walker & Noy-Meir 1982).
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2.7 Degradation
Land degradation refers to the undesirable changes in plant composition, soil and land surface characteristics. Land degradation in response to grazing practices in Australia’s rangelands has accelerated, with serious concerns regarding soil erosion and significant changes in vegetation composition (Bastin & James 2002). Substantial degradation can be observed with increasing proximity to water.
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3. Patterns and indices
3.1 The variability in piosphere patterns
Livestock are limited in the distance they can travel due to their dependence on water (Foran 1980, James et al. 1999). Grazing impact is therefore significantly greater surrounding watering points within rangeland communities. It was originally perceived that in relatively uniform landscapes, such as chenopod shrublands, a radial grazing pattern representative of livestock movement would be observed (Lange 1969, Andrew 1988). Based on this idea of radial symmetry, the sacrifice zone immediately surrounding the water source was termed the piosphere (Figure 1). It has since been recognised that these grazing patterns can be highly variable and piospheres in the traditional sense are usually ‘warped’ by the presence of fences, grazing preferences, the salinity of water, climatic variables, and the availability of permanent and temporal water sources (Pringle & Landsberg 2004, James et al. 1999, Bastin & James 2002). These radial patterns become distorted into star shapes with axes of concentration extending into those landscape types that are preferred by the grazing animal (Pickup et al. 1998).
Differences exist in grazing behaviour between livestock species. This contributes to the uneven grazing pressure that spans the sacrifice zone. Sheep graze head first into prevailing winds and high temperatures reduce sheep grazing to just 3 km from a water source (Lange 1969). This pattern of behaviour increases the grazing pressure closer to the water source and in the direction of prevailing winds (Orr 1980). Wet conditions and lower temperatures permit foraging away from water points for extended periods of time. During this time sheep are dependent on ephemeral water and forage moisture (James et al. 1999) and grazing pressure extends further out from the water source.
In favourable forage conditions, cattle will graze just 3–4 km from a water source, and display a preference for riparian vegetative communities by grazing the same patch for hours (Hodder & Low 1978, James et al. 1999). Forage preferences may be altered in response to rainfall, and in drier conditions grazing distances may extend to 10 km (Low 1972 cited in Low et al. 1980). Water points act as the primary controlling factor in the distribution of cattle, with a ‘faithfulness’ displayed to a particular water point (Low et al. 1980, Hodder & Low 1978). This means repeated visits to the one water point, with the carving of distinctive tracks to and from that water source. Saline water and the presence of fences may also limit the distances livestock move from water. Saline conditions would increase the number of return visits, while the presence of fences reduces the area available for grazing, thus increasing the pressure observed within the piosphere. Each of these factors causes substantial variation within the piosphere (James et al. 1999) making monitoring processes difficult.
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Figure 1: Sections of the aerial photograph assembly used to study track patterns in a sheep bluebush-myall piosphere on Lincoln Gap Station, South Australia. (Left) The tank and trough upon which the pattern is centered (the black strip is Highway 1 to Western Australia); (center) track patterns among myall with large canopy; and (right) bluebush with small canopy. Scale = 1: 650. (Lange 1969).
3.2 Monitoring indices
As there appears to be no universal response to the impact of grazing on biodiversity, researchers have been unable to settle on adequate management solutions and monitoring schemes. The theory of non-equilibrium behaviour displayed within the rangeland system explains the variations observed in vegetative responses to rainfall and grazing influences on a spatial scale (DeAngelis and Waterhouse 1987 cited in Pickup et al. 1998). This theory considers the resilience and resistance of vegetative species and how they vary according to grazing pressure. Some species may be more tolerant to grazing pressures, and respond well to rainfall, while others may be restricted to water remote locations (Figure 2). This variable behaviour makes it difficult to determine whether land is continuing to degrade, remaining stable or improving (Pickup et al. 1998).
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Figure 2: Stylised patterns of cover change with increasing distance from water related to grazing The bottom curve illustrates cover levels in a dry period while the upper curve show cover responses following rain for undamaged (resilient) and degraded (non-resilient) landscapes. Each trend line represents a grazing gradient. ( Bastin & James 2002).
A number of indices have been used in an attempt to describe the grazing gradient that extends from the water point. These include density of herbivore tracks (Figure 3) (Pringle & Landsberg 2004), responses in vegetative cover (Figure 4) (Li & Reynolds 1993, McGarigal & Marks 1995, Ludwig et al. 1999, Bastin & James 2002), density of faecal matter (Figure 5)(Ludwig et al. 1999), and percent cover (Figure 6) (Graetz & Ludwig 1978).
Figure 3: Influence of distance from water on track density for six paddocks in the north-eastern goldfields of Western Australia (Pringle & Landsberg 2004)
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Figure 4: The linear distance of landscape patches (#/100m of line) with distance from water (km) For: (a) eucalypt savannas, Kidman Springs and (b) Mitchell grasslands, Mount Sanford, Northern Territory. Also illustrated is the cover of patches (%) for: (c) Kidman Springs and (d) Mount Sanford, and the total obstruction widths for patches (m/ 100m) for: (e) Kidman Springs and (f) Mount Sanford. (Ludwig et al. 1999).
Figure 5: Attributes of recent cattle grazing in relation to distance from water Graphs show dung-pats on (c ) Kidman Springs and (d) Mount Sanford sites, Northern Territory (Ludwig et al. 1999).
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Figure 6: The sigmoid relationship between a grazing sensitive vegetation or soil measure and distance from a watering point The sigmoid curve can be described by a logistic equation with parameters for an upper asymptote K, a lower asymptote zero, and a slope b. The curve is symmetrical about an inflection point GF. GF is the point of symmetry and points EG and FP, which are points of maximum slope change (Graetz and Ludwig 1978).
Each of these indices provides a correlation between grazing pressure and loss of functionality. Most of these correspond to the amount of time spent in a location and are unable to account for temporal variation. They do not accurately reflect the direct and present damage to the current system (Andrew 1988). For example, track density may be indicative of a past stocking rate and not attributable to the current grazing practices.
Vegetative indices such as the contagion index, interspersion index, and the inflexion index measure the response in vegetation cover and are more accurate in determining spatial and temporal variation. The contagion index (Li & Reynolds 1993) measures the clumping or dispersion (patchiness) of the landscape. The interspersion index (McGarigal & Marks 1995) indicates the intermixing of patches, while the inflexion index measures the extent to which vegetation is restored following good rainfall and describes the extent of grazing damage ( Bastin & James 2002). The longer a system takes to return to its natural state, the greater the damage.
3.3 Chapter summary
• Livestock movement is dependent on water, thus grazing impacts are often greatest around water sources.
• The grazing patterns observed within the piosphere can be highly variable and are dependent on the differences in livestock grazing and drinking behaviour, water condition, and the presence of fences.
• A number of indices have been used to describe the grazing gradient, providing a correlation between grazing pressure and loss of functionality. Most of these indices are unable to account for the temporal variation in vegetation responses.
• Vegetative indices may be more accurate in monitoring grazing pressures.
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4. Degradation processes
4.1 Soil compaction and erosion
Heavy stock trafficking areas within the first 2–3 km of a water source severely affects the soil stability. Soil erosion increases in these areas as result of vegetation stripping and heavy trampling (Landsberg et al. 1997, James et al. 1999), while livestock tracks intensify the natural drainage patterns and exacerbate the natural erosion process (Pringle & Landsberg 2004). Most nitrogen available to plants in rangeland soils, is held within the top 10 cm of the soil due to the breaking down of organic matter. Nitrogen-fixing algae are found in the cryptogamic crusts. Heavy trampling and vegetation removal breaks this crust, creating an unstable soil surface that is vulnerable to wind and water erosion. Regeneration of vegetation is also hindered by the removal of this nutrient rich soil layer (James et al. 1999).
Soil erosion in rangelands can seriously affect the productivity of the system. Sheet erosion involves the uniform removal of soil over large areas as a result of wind or water (Carey & Silbum 2006). This form of erosion is not always obvious, and results in the loss of productive soil. In some cases, the topsoil may be totally removed leaving a scalded surface layer.
4.2 Loss of landscape functionality
Erosion results in the loss of productive and nutrient rich topsoils. These scalded areas are more susceptible to higher temperatures, have lower porosity and less microbial activity (Carey & Silbum 2006) and often result in a subsequent decline in functional integrity. Higher rates of run-off occur in these areas, reducing the infiltration and nutrient cycling of the system (Figure 7) (Ludwig 2004). This loss in soil moisture and nutrients reduces the resilience of a system and its ability to deal with catastrophic events. The loss in functional integrity has been identified as one of the likely causes of extinctions and drastic declines in native flora, small mammals and granivorous birds (Woinarski 1999 cited in Ludwig 2004). This occurs as a result of the loss or alteration of habitat, shelter, and availability of food. With the removal of vegetation, fauna in these scalded areas may become more exposed to feral and native predators.
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Figure 7. A Figure 7. B
Figures 7A and B: Photographs displaying the differences in functionality at two sites in Crows Nest, QLD Figure 7A displays a landscape of high functionality: a) dominated by trees and large perennial grass tussocks, b) complex litter on the landscape surface, and c) soil under a tussock with crumb structure and open fabric. Figure 7B displays a location with much poorer functionality with: a) trees cleared to the creek line, b) greatly reduced litter and ground cover and c) soil with a massive crusted structure(Ludwig 2004).
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4.3 Effects of other herbivores
The primary reason for the establishment of large numbers of artificial watering points in arid rangelands has been to support domestic livestock. An adverse affect of this has been the increase in water dependent herbivores other than livestock. The increase in the distribution and abundance of feral animals such as goats, pigs, camels, horses and donkeys, rabbits and cats is well documented (Landsberg et al. 1997, James et al. 1999). Macropods have also benefited greatly from the provision of water, and abundance of many species has increased dramatically. These animals are not restricted by fences, and grazing pressure exerted by kangaroos often matches that of livestock (Pringle & Landsberg 2004, McAlpine et al. 1999). The impact of these water dependent herbivores on the piosphere depends on individual grazing preferences, drinking behaviour and the animals’ ability to easily reach water supplies (presence of fences, the closing of water points, Finlayson troughs etc). These variations in grazing preferences and behaviour also contribute to the uneven grazing pressure that spans the sacrifice zone.
Competition for pasture between some herbivores has become a concern, and flora species that may otherwise escape domestic livestock pressure now incur heavy grazing pressure exerted by other herbivores. Kangaroos display strong preferences for particular vegetation types, with little overlap with that of domestic livestock (Landsberg & Stol 1996), and grazing by these animals can greatly retard vegetation growth even in the absence of other livestock (Hacker & Freudenberger 1997).
Rabbits have a profound effect on vegetation structure and significantly degrade the vegetation within the piosphere. Although rabbits obtain moisture from their diet and don’t depend on water sources, perennial grasses are often replaced by annuals as a result of intensive rabbit grazing and erosion caused by their burrowing (Hall & Lee 1980).
Feral goats have a wide dietary tolerance and contribute between 3 and 30% of the total grazing pressure in south-western Queensland (Thompson et al. 2002). Australia’s rangelands support 0.5–2 million goats in New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia (Pople et al. 1996 cited in Edwards et al. 2004). Goats inflict considerable damage to perennial vegetation while competing with domestic livestock for water and pasture (Edwards et al. 2004). They are also capable of grazing unstable, rocky areas that may otherwise provide a refuge for grazing sensitive flora (James et al. 1999). Camels, horses, donkeys and pigs also compete with livestock for forage, contribute to soil erosion, and foul and damage waterholes (Edwards et al. 2004).
4.4 Chapter summary
• Heavy livestock traffic severely affects the stability of the piosphere, particularly within in the first 2–3km from the water source.
• The removal and breakdown of the surface crust increases the erosion produced by wind and water. This removal of the nutrient rich topsoil severely affects the functional integrity of the area, and reduces the biodiversity.
• Livestock compete with other water dependent feral and native herbivores for both water and forage, increasing the grazing pressure exerted within this region.
• Macropods increase significantly in number with the provision of water and affect the grazing gradient significantly.
• The impact these animals have on the grazing gradient depends on grazing preferences, drinking behaviour and the ability to easily reach water.
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5. Floristics of the piosphere
5.1 The major impacts
One of the most documented approaches to studying the effects of grazing in rangelands has been to examine the changes in flora species composition, abundance and community structure along the grazing gradient, varying from a few hundred meters to several kilometres around an artificial water source (Foran 1980, Fusco et al. 1995, Landsberg et al. 1997, Ludwig et al. 1999, Bastin & James 2002, Landsberg et al. 2003, Ludwig 2004). A number of general patterns have emerged:
• The piosphere is often degraded as a result of heavy livestock use, leading to a decline in landscape functionality and an increase in dung and urine within these zones.
• This alters the vegetative dynamics of the piosphere considerably. This zone may be bare during dry conditions, and support short–lived, unpalatable and ‘trample resistant’ species following rain (James et al. 1999).
• There is often a zone of unpalatable woody weeds beyond the denuded area surrounding water.
Martin and Ward (1970, in Ludwig et al. 1999) found that this zone dominated the region within 500m from water. Substantial changes in species composition and vegetative cover occur within this zone, with a decline in abundance and richness of palatable forage species (Figure 8). These ‘decreaser’ species are mostly native species, and significantly outnumber those that increase within the piosphere (Landsberg et al. 2003).
Short term results of this change in vegetation composition include the loss or alteration of flora species, while long term changes include the irreversible alteration of habitat from arid zones into mallee savanna habitats and the restriction of grazing intolerant species to water remote locations ( Bastin & James 2002)
5.2 Variability in responses
The degree of pressure exerted on rangeland vegetation varies greatly with pasture type, distance and direction from water, grazing behaviour, and seasonal variation. If grazing were uniform we would observe zones of different vegetation conditions forming annuli around the water points (Foran 1980).
It has been documented that grazing at moderate levels improves species richness and pasture productivity (Orr 1975). Heavy grazing, however, severely impedes the regenerative ability of native pasture species and results in a decline in species richness (James et al. 1999, Orr 1975). Some species may display more of a gradual decline in their abundance, while others may be removed from the area altogether, only to be found in water remote locations ( Bastin & James 2002). These areas may become valuable regions of plant diversity supporting grazing sensitive species (Landsberg et al. 2003).
A number of indices have been proposed to describe the variation in flora responses to grazing pressures over both temporal and spatial scales. These include the contagion index (Li & Reynolds 1993), the interspersion index (McGarigal & Marks 1995) and the inflexion index (Bastin & James 2002). Systems with a higher proportion of palatable forage are most intensively stocked as a result of this productivity. These systems usually incur higher index values and are most adversely affected by grazing ( Bastin & James 2002). Alternatively, a higher contagion index for areas of lower productively indicates less patchiness and less intermixing, which signifies non- degraded areas (Bastin & James 2002). The interspersion index for both the land system and vegetation type are also lower for the non-degraded areas compared with the total grazing area. These results indicate homogeneity within the non-degraded locations, attributable to a higher proportion of pastorally less-productive land systems or vegetation types. These systems display minimal grazing impact and return to complete recovery following rainfall.
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Figure 8: Relative grazing intensity of cattle on plant communities around bores A: Sandy Bore, Napperby Station, Alice Springs during periods when majority of cattle were grazing within 3 km, 3–6 km and >6 km from bore. B: Charley and Currenjackie bores, Amburla Station, Alice Springs when cattle were grazing 0–3 km, 3–6 km and >6 km from bore (Hodder and Low 1978).
5.3 Regional variability
Australia’s arid rangelands consist of four main types of vegetation: spinifex on gibber plain, salt bush steppe, Mitchell grass tussocks and mulga shrublands. The latter two have been severely affected by grazing practices (Davies 1977). The most pastorally productive vegetation types include open woodland plains, alluvial fans and plains and floodouts, and are often the most degraded in terms of poor vegetation recovery following rainfall (Table 1). Mulga shrublands, hills and foothills, and salt lakes are less pastorally productive and display almost full recovery following rainfall ( Bastin & James 2002).
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Table 1. Area and extent of land degradation for land systems grouped into vegetation types Vegetation types are arranged in order of decreasing pastoral productivity (based on stratification of land systems used by Bastin et al. 1993). The ‘distance to inflexion point’ indicates that distance from water beyond which complete recovery in wet period vegetation cover occurred. %CPL (percentage of Cover Production Loss) values were assigned to the same categories of land degradation. ( Bastin & James 2002).
Past. Prod. Vegetation type Area (km2) Dist. to infl. point (km)
%CPL value Land degradation cat.
Very High alluvial fans & plains (open woodland) 1215.1 6.6 17 severe floodouts 920.8 6.2 16 severe cracking clay plain 54.3 5.0 13 high High plains with open woodland 325.0 5.6 50 severe calcareous slopes & plains 4487.8 3.4 3 slight granitic plains– open woodland 1343.8 5.0 8 moderate sattbush & myall 384.5 4.6 17 severe gidyea woodland 1129.8 4.6 5 moderate Moderate clayey stony slopes - Chandlers I.s. 2486.6 2.4 1 slight foothills, footslopes, colluvial fans & plains 942.8 2.6 2 slight southern mulga type 1946.6 7.2 16 severe Low sand dunes & plains 14901.8 1.0 inverse salt lakes 354.0 1.4 1 slight hills & ridges 464.8 1.6 1 slight mulga shrubland 3395.9 1.8 0 nil mulga terraces 144.3 3.2 5 moderate Total 34497.9
Biomass and palatable shrub species have shown to decrease rapidly within the zone of 0–400m from water in chenopod shrublands (James et al. 1999) and the dominant perennial shrub species (Atriplex and Maireana spp) are replaced by annual chenopod subshrubs, forbs or annual grasses (Osborn et al. 1932, Graetz & Ludwig 1978). Species richness in these areas does not seem to vary consistently with distance from water (James et al. 1999).
A major shift in the composition of understorey vegetation has been identified within Acacia dominated woodlands and shrublands. The palatable perennial grasses (Thyridolepis mitchelliana and Themeda australis) are replaced by unpalatable species such as Aristida species. Heavy and sustained grazing of pasture may deplete the seed bank, which leads to local extinctions (Hodgkinson 1992 cited in James et al. 1999).
Unpalatable native shrubs such as Eremophila, Senna, Dodonaea and Acacia species have begun to dominate acacia woodlands (James et al. 1999). These shrubs remove valuable nutrients and moisture from the soils, preventing grasses from re-establishing. Vegetation composition and cover along the gradient undergo major changes, showing a decrease in ground cover with increasing distance to water (Foran 1980, James et al. 1999).
Annual grasses appear to dominate the zones closer to water within the Mitchell grasslands. The perennial grasses (Astrebla spp) increase with distance from water and tolerate moderate to light grazing intensity, displaying a large degree of resilience (Orr 1980). The lightly grazed sites or those exclosed to grazing support a greater number of perennial species, higher than average percentage of ground cover and a greater cover pattern of diversity than sites closer to water (Orr 1980).
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5.4 Chapter summary
• A number of patterns have been identified in vegetative responses to grazing pressure within the piosphere: the piosphere is degraded with a loss of functionality; the vegetation dynamics are altered, with bare ground during dry conditions followed by short-lived unpalatable forage following rain; and a zone of unpalatable woody weeds dominates beyond the denuded zone. This area sees a decline in abundance and richness of palatable forage.
• There is a large degree of variation observed in vegetative responses as a result of pasture type, distance and direction from water, grazing behaviour and seasonal variation.
• The contagion index, interspersion index and inflexion point have been used to measure grazing pressure with distance to water. Regions with higher productivity incur higher index results.
• Regional variation in vegetation responses occurs as a result of varying tolerance levels to grazing pressures.
• The most pastorally productive systems are woodland plains, alluvial fans and plains and floodouts. Systems that are most severely affected by grazing practices are mulga shrublands and Mitchell grasslands.
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6. Fauna of the piosphere
6.1 Native versus feral animals
The increase in feral species surrounding water sources has been well documented. These animals increase in abundance and distribution with the provision of water, often competing with livestock for forage and water supplies. What is unknown is the response of native fauna species to the presence of artificial water points.
Australia’s rangelands are unique systems that support an abundance of native fauna species, each adapted to long periods of dry conditions. Reptile and mammal species find shelter in vegetation and cracks produced in soils to avoid extreme temperatures, and often irrupt in abundance and distribution following seasonal rainfall. Natural water sources and drainage lines (billabongs, clay pans, duricrusts) support an increase in biodiversity, and encourage the return of migratory birdlife (Ford 2001, Pringle & Landsberg 2004).
Although no reptile species are known to have become extinct in the arid and semi-arid zones of Australia, a number are listed as endangered or threatened and are disadvantaged by pastoral activities. The scincid species Morethia boulengeri and Ctenotus regius are associated with leaf litter in western New South Wales and where heavy grazing removes the ground cover, these species may be locally absent (James unpublished data). A weak trend of increasing reptile species richness with increasing distance from water in the Mitchell grasslands was found by Fisher (1996); however other authors (Smith et al. 1996) have found no effect on species richness (James et al. 1999).
Most authors report declines in the geographic range of birds in response to grazing pressure. In particular, ground dwelling birds of riparian and chenopod habitats have declined greatly. Granivorous birds are largely listed as threatened bird species, with declines observed in the tropical and sub-tropical savannas and arid zones (Reid & Fleming 1992). Franklin (1999), reports that granivorous birds within tropical savannas are in a state of considerable flux. The paradise parrot (Psephotus pulcherrimus) has suffered significant range contraction and is probably extinct, while the golden- shouldered parrot (Psephotus chrysopterigus) has declined and is now considered endangered. The Gouldian finch (Erythrura gouldiae) is also endangered. Families most affected by grazing practices include pigeons, doves, finches and parrots (Franklin 1999).
While many native species have shown significant declines, some have also benefited as a result of available water. Temporary and replenished natural water sources support an increase in biodiversity, including water dependent and migratory birds (Ford 2001). The presence of water has significantly increased the abundance and distribution of emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae), which now exploit food sources from previously limited regions. Bourke’s parrot (Neopsephotus bourkii), once rare, is now common throughout the mulga zone. The crested pigeon (Ocyphaps lophotes), zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata), and galahs (Cacatua roseicapilla) have also increased in abundance (Davies 1977, Noble et al. 1998). This increase in abundance and distribution is thought to be attributable to water and the clearing of land for grazing, which spreads seed sources.
Mammal species of Australia’s rangelands have also declined, with numerous extinctions among medium sized (35–5500g) animals in response to altered vegetative dynamics and grazing pressures (Davies 1977, James et al. 1999, Ludwig et al. 1999). The long haired rat (Rattus villosissimus) and Forrest’s Mouse (Leggadina forresti) of the Mitchell grasslands are good examples of species that irrupt in abundance in response to the onset of rains (Mifsud 1999). Both of these species are now listed as ‘vulnerable’ as a result of heavy grazing practices, the loss of suitable habitat through erosion and vegetation damage, and the introduction of feral species.
With the change in vegetation structure and the increase in water dependent herbivores, piospheres have become hunting and scavenging grounds for feral cats (Felis catus), foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and
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dingoes (Canis lupus) (James et al. 1999). Cats are capable of prey switching, and don’t display any strong correlations with the abundance of a particular food source. Typical densities for feral cats in rangelands extend from 0.1 to 0.6 animals/km2, although densities as high as 6.3/km2 have been recorded in the Mitchell grass downs (Edwards et al. 2004). There is no current published literature surrounding how these animals use water points and the types of prey most affected. It is thought, however, that cats may focus their hunting effort around water points where birds are an easy target. The diet of foxes is mostly mammalian carrion, but birds, reptiles and amphibians may also be targeted around water. Dingoes prey on kangaroos around water, while carcasses of sheep and cattle during drought periods help maintain dingo and fox populations (James et al. 1999).
More research is required to determine the effects artificial watering points and the increase in grazing pressure have on Australia’s native fauna. Many species have displayed drastic declines; others have indicated a tolerance, while some have benefited from the provision of water and the spread of seeds. It is unclear how these responses influence rangeland biodiversity.
6.2 Invertebrates
The few studies that have investigated invertebrate responses to increased grazing pressure are highly variable and depend on taxonomic level, season of sampling, nature of changes and vegetation composition (James et al. 1999). Ants are good indicators of taxa disturbance, as abundance and species richness appear to alter under varying grazing pressures. Their usefulness in monitoring grazing pressures, however, is still in its infancy (James et al. 1999). Spiders also display significant differences in abundance and richness between areas with varying grazing intensities; however responses also vary among families. Termite richness has shown no direct response to grazing, and termite mounds either increase or decrease with low to moderate levels of grazing (Watson et al. 1973, Braithwaite et al. 1988, both cited in James et al. 1999).
A study conducted by Ludwig et al (1999) found that grasshopper density decreased with decreasing distance to water. The study suggests strong linkages between landscape function, biodiversity and impacts of cattle grazing and trampling. The decline in grasshopper density most likely corresponded with that of a decline in flora cover and richness, indicating a loss in landscape function. These interactions displayed between plants, animal, soil and the landscape processes need to be better understood to achieve a balance between rangeland production and conservation (West 1993, Ludwig et al. 1999).
6.3 Chapter summary
• A large degree of uncertainty still surrounds the response of native fauna to the presence of water points.
• Reptile species are threatened and disadvantaged by pastoral activities. • Most authors report declines in the geographic range of birds in response to grazing pressure. In
particular, granivorous birds have suffered great declines. • Other native bird species have benefited with the provision of water and the spreading of seed
sources through pastoral activities. • Most medium-sized mammals have declined with numerous extinctions observed in rangelands. • The loss of habitat and vegetation, and the introduction of feral animals have had a significant
impact on these animals. • Little is known regarding the invertebrate community and its response to grazing pressures and
results appear to be highly variable. • A better understanding of fauna responses to the presence of water points is required to achieve a
balance between rangeland production and conservation.
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7. Ways forward
7.1 Biodiversity monitoring
Regular observations and monitoring are an integral part of management and may contribute to the understanding of how an ecosystem responds to a particular pressure, or can be used to analyse previous decisions and outcomes (Australian Collaborative Rangeland Information System 2001). For land managers, accurate information is required to make economic and ecologically viable decisions. In order to do this, managers need to be able to distinguish between the distribution of pressure, grazing induced change, seasonal fluctuations and other influencing variables (Pringle & Landsberg 2004). Monitoring processes established over the last 30 years have not always considered how these variables relate to production, biodiversity, society, economics and culture. These monitoring processes have generally consisted of ground-based data collection with a focus on pasture response to grazing domestic stock. Until now monitoring of biodiversity has received very little consideration (Australian Collaborative Rangeland Information System 2001, Smyth et al. 2003).
Recent discussions surrounding the suitability of current monitoring practices have acknowledged the need for adequate biodiversity programs that foster long term administration and public support (Smyth et al. 2003). The primary purpose of monitoring is to detect the magnitude and direction of change over long periods of time, not to establish causality. To monitor the sustainability and health of rangeland biodiversity, a number of values require consideration. These include composition (species, population, community and genetic), structure (habitat and landscape), function (functional processes, resilience, integrity and sensitivity to threats) and social perception (Smyth et al. 2003).
One method for assessing the relative condition of a system involves the use of biodiversity indicators. These indicators are a set of biotic, environmental, pressure and landscape attributes that best signal the effects of human-exerted pressures on biodiversity within the rangeland. Biotic response attributes include actual or derived measurements of biotic entities that are collected in the field using ground-based sampling techniques. They can be used to indicate the state or condition of biodiversity (species richness, the abundance of targeted species). Environmental attributes are biophysical measures of the environment (climate, topography, soil properties, vegetation or habitat characteristics) that can be measured in the field or remotely. These usually measure variables that drive biotic responses or can be used to derive landscape measures. Pressure attributes provide a measure of a threatening process caused by human activities that affect biota. The variables measured are likely to interactively affect environmental and biotic response attributes (e.g. extent and rate of clearing, change in human population density, abundance of foxes). Landscape attributes use remote-sensing techniques (satellite imagery, airborne photo/videography, GIS mapping) and measure the environmental and pressure attributes of ecosystems at multiple spatial scales. These may be used as surrogate measures of biodiversity at broad scales (leakiness index, mapping of artificial water points, habitat complexity scores) (Smyth et al. 2003). A number of indicators may be required to accurately monitor the many dimensions of biodiversity including the trends observed in the variety of ecosystems, landscapes, flora and fauna of interest.
7.2 Monitoring with remote sensing
Vegetation indices, currently used to monitor the decline in vegetation and land functionality as a result of grazing pressure, presume that the relationships between an index and vegetation cover remain constant over time (Pickup et al. 1993). This is rarely the case and suitable indices are needed to recognise both spatial and temporal variability. Pickup (1989) described how grazing induced degradation can be separated from natural variability in the landscape, and short term change due to rainfall, using spatial and temporal patterns of relative cover coupled with grazing distribution models. Pickup et al (1998) also argue that these consistent patterns of change over long periods in response to rainfall are more indicative of the true condition of the landscape, than the immediate response to major rainfall events.
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A number of authors have proposed the use of Landsat Multispectural Scanner (MSS) as a means of identifying historical cover change within arid and semi-arid rangelands (Pickup et al. 1993, Karfs et al. 2000). Landsat satellite imagery provides information on vegetation responses to rainfall and allows an assessment of landscape function. Images may be selected based on climate or season history and can be used to provide a historical measure of vegetation cover and change over time (Australian Collaborative Rangeland Information System 2001).
The Audit Rangeland Implementation Project (Karfs et al. 2000) is one example of how remote sensing techniques may be implemented with the use of land resource property infrastructure, detailed monitoring sites, ancillary data, and with summaries of vegetation change derived from multi-scale Landsat Satellite data. These methods may be used to implement benchmarks and long-term operational rangeland monitoring systems. The method was trialed in Australia’s Tropical Savannas a project titled ‘Landscape Cover Change Analysis’ (LCCA), and holds the potential for further development within other rangelands systems (Karfs et al. 2000). The method is based on statistical brightness and trends through time of indices related to vegetation cover, and is used to infer land condition and to identify change within the landscape (Karfs et al. 2000). Additional outputs include temporal satellite datasets, basic stratification of land resources, identification of problem areas and their history, data on vegetation cover trends, coordinated monitoring databases derived from satellite and ground-based monitoring, increased knowledge of landscape processes and their responses to variable seasons, fire, and grazing impact and the consequences on biodiversity (Karfs et al. 2000).
Pickup et al (1993) also discussed the use of three basic approaches to vegetation cover estimation from Landsat MSS – mixture models, calibrated cover radiance relationships, and generalised vegetation indices. Mixture models separate green vegetation components, but are unsuitable for the dry components often found in arid and semi-arid rangelands. Cover radiance is derived empirically and provides absolute values for the percentage of vegetation cover. This can be costly and time consuming as data are collected through ground sampling (Pickup et al. 1998). Thirdly, generated vegetation indices provide information on the relative amount of cover present and relative changes that occur over time, rather than absolute values. The use of this data, however, is based on the assumptions that these correlations remain stable over time (Pickup et al. 1993), which rarely occurs.
One approach to estimating vegetation cover changes over time has been suggested by Graetz and others (Graetz & Gentle 1982; and Graetz et al. 1983, 1986, all cited by Pickup et al. 1998). They present the theory of the soil ‘cover line’ that extends through shadow, litter and shrubs at low radiance values, compared with bright bare soil at higher values. An increase in vegetation cover (unless green) shifts data towards the soil line (Pickup et al. 1993). While this may be adequate for single rangeland types, comparisons are unable to be made between rangelands, due to variations in soil radiance and vegetation brightness. The PD54 index (Pickup et al. 1993) is derived from the radiance properties of soil and vegetation that form a triangular structure in the four-dimensional Landsat MSS data space. The data space limits are described as the slope of the soil line (indicating the upper limit of the soil band), its offset, and the perpendicular distance to the vegetation line (Figure 9). This index is capable of denoting different levels of cover, depending on the soil background characteristics, making it one of the better indices for rangelands (Pickup et al.1993).
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Figure 9: Parameters used to describe the Band 4–Band 5 data space and to derive the PD54 index (Pickup et al. 1993)
Remote sensing is a good monitoring tool as image databases consist of objective and consistently processed data, it allows monitoring over a range of scales and environments, it can be integrated with ground data to detect change and identify function in rangelands, it is cost effective, and can be applied across large areas (Australian Collaborative Rangeland Information System 2001).
7.3 Monitoring with expert knowledge
To develop an adequate biodiversity monitoring system, it is necessary to identify the core factors that may be driving the change, identify the changes occurring and what significance these changes hold for the biodiversity values, and include people with relevant expertise (Smyth et al. 2003). With the use of hierarchical models it is possible to infer the transformation of a rangeland system as a result of human or climatic alterations, while considering the uncertainty associated with this change (Gelfand et al. 2006).
The uses of Bayesian belief network models are proving to be successful tools in ecological decision making and management practices. Bayesian models are compact hierarchical models with the ability to represent all of the environmental variables and human induced disturbances that may be present within a particular system at a particular point in time. The model provides the ability to collate all forms of data and information (both empirical and hypothesised from expert opinion) and formulates the most appropriate management strategy based on this available information. It determines the degrees of confidence we have in various possible conclusions, based on an obtained body of evidence. The primary advantage of the model is the ability to predict a response to a particular event and the ability to rerun the model with different alternatives and new assumptions (Taylor 2003).
A Bayesian belief network is composed of three core elements:
1) A set of nodes representing the variables within the system, each with a finite set of mutually exclusive states that can be either discrete or continuous. 2) A set of links representing the causal relationship between these nodes. Links follow the direction from cause to effect.
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3) A set of probabilities for each node specifying the belief that a node will be in a particular state, according to the states of those nodes that affect it directly (its parents). This relationship is displayed in a conditional probability table and accounts for the uncertainty surrounding the problem under investigation (Cain 2001).
7.4 An example of the use of Bayesian belief network models: the Julia Creek dunnart project
The Julia Creek dunnart (Sminthopsis douglasi) is an endangered marsupial confined entirely to the Mitchell Grass Downs and Gulf Plains bioregions of north-western Queensland (Lees 1999). The distinctive cracking clay soils and the abundance of adequate ground cover produced by the Mitchell grasses form an essential component of this species habitat preference. It is thought that the extensive cracks formed in dry, ashy, clay soils provide protection and shelter from extreme temperatures and predation by native and feral animals. As these soils become waterlogged with the onset of heavy rains, new grasses and forbs continue to provide this animal with shelter (Woolley 1992).
A number of threatening processes have contributed to the decline of this species. These include climatic factors, inappropriate grazing and land use pressures, and the impact of feral predators (Lundie-Jenkins & Payne 2002). The invasion of prickly acacia (Acacia nilotica) is also considered a significant threat as this weed competes with native vegetation, often resulting in a decline in cover and abundance of native species.
In a research project to identify and map the core areas of habitat critical to the survival of S. douglasi, a Bayesian belief network model was developed to represent the Mitchell grass system. This model was later linked to GIS data obtained for the region. Information relating to the key correlates within the Mitchell grass system was obtained from both empirical data and expert opinions. A number of experts were interviewed and surveyed and responses were used to build the model. The modeling program Netica (Norsys) was selected as the developing tool for the model. Netica has the ability to perform standard belief updating which solves the network by finding the marginal posterior probability for each node. A posterior probability is the likelihood that some parameter will be in a particular state, such as ground cover being low, given the input parameters, conditional probabilities and the rules governing how the probabilities combine (Marcot et al. 2001).
The states for each of the nodes along with the conditional probability tables were completed based on expert opinion. A number of government bodies provided GIS data for the main components of the system under investigation. This included land tenure, presence of water points, prickly acacia abundance, and soil and vegetation composition. This information was used to complete a map of the study location within the Mitchell grasslands.
Figure 10 shows the Bayesian belief network model for the Julia Creek dunnart. Although this model targets a specific species, it can be used across a range of fauna types, or may be used to display changes observed in floristic composition with distance from water points. The model can be altered on a case-by-case basis and can incorporate time scales in its output. Although some level of uncertainty surrounds the generated probabilities, these models are useful in expressing the likelihood of risk where uncertainty or bias may exist in expert judgment and where deficiencies exist in empirical data.
The information produced in this Bayesian output was used to map the likely distribution of the dunnart within the Mitchell grasslands. The Bayesian model was linked with the GIS data to produce maps of this rangeland system and the response of S. douglasi to the disturbances present within these locations.
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Figure 10: The compiled network for the probability of dunnart occurrence in the Mitchell grasslands Each node displays the probability of it falling into a particular state. For example, the probability that grazing pressure is low is 52.9% and that feral animal predation is medium is 62.8%. Based on these probabilities, the likelihood of that S. douglasi would occur in any locality is 24%.
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7.5 Chapter summary
• Monitoring and regular observations play an integral part in management practices. • Managers need to be able to distinguish between pressure, grazing induced change, seasonal
fluctuations and other variables. • To date, the monitoring of rangeland biodiversity has received little consideration. • To adequately monitor this, the composition, structure, function and social perception of the
ecosystem needs to be considered. • Biodiversity indicators assist in the assessment of relative ecosystem condition. These include
biotic, environmental, pressure and landscape attributes. • Suitable indicators are needed that recognise spatial and temporal variation. Landsat MSS
techniques have been proposed as a means of identifying historical change. • Various approaches to the assessment of vegetation cover have been built on this technique,
evaluating cover radiance, vegetation mixture and the development of various vegetation indices. • The PD54 index was derived from the radiance properties of soil and vegetation and is used to
indicate the different levels of cover depending on the soil characteristics. • Expert knowledge is also helpful in the absence of adequate empirical data. • Bayesian belief network models are useful in ecological decision making and management
practices. They can predict the response of a system to a certain pressure, based on prior observations.
• An example of the use of this model is given for the Julia Creek dunnart in the Mitchell grasslands.
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8. Conclusions
The establishment of artificial water sources since pastoral development in Australia’s rangelands has resulted in large-scale loss of biodiversity and landscape functionality. The number and spacing of artificial water sources across the arid and semi-arid zones dramatically alters the landscape. The piosphere is the zone that immediately surrounds the water source and provides a measure of increased erosion, loss of palatable forage and an increase in unpalatable woody weeds. These negative impacts decline with distance from the water source. Native and feral animal species have increased in geographic range and abundance as a result of water availability and contribute to the grazing pressure exerted in these regions.
A number of factors determine the degradation patterns observed within the piosphere. These include the species grazing preferences, drinking behaviour, ability of free movement, resistance and resilience of vegetation species, and seasonal fluctuations.
Although some native bird species have appeared to benefit from the provision of water and the spreading of seed sources in these arid lands as a result of grazing practices, most native fauna species have displayed significant declines in abundance and distribution. The loss of landscape functionality has been attributed to the large scale loss of biodiversity within rangelands.
It is difficult to monitor change in rangeland systems by human induced activity, due to the large areas involved and the limited availability of suitable empirical data ( Bastin & James 2002). A number of monitoring indices have been proposed to measure this decline in functionality moving along the grazing gradient; however, most of these are unable to account for spatial and temporal variation. The development of remote sensing techniques (Pickup et al. 1993, Karfs et al. 2000, Bastin & James 2002) has provided the ability to monitor changes in vegetation cover across vast sections of rangeland and over varying intervals of time. Bayesian belief network models may also provide a management tool when suitable empirical data is lacking. This model incorporates both empirical data and expert opinion and provides the ability to predict the response of a particular system to human induced disturbances.
The concern regarding the spread of artificial watering points and the subsequent spread of grazing pressure is relatively new to Australia’s rangelands. Little empirical data is available regarding the loss of biodiversity within these regions, and although a number of negative speculations have been made, surprisingly little is known about the effects on biota (Landsberg et al. 1997). To date there is no agreed method for determining the effects grazing pressure has on biodiversity, nor the best approach to managing this. This review discussed the current knowledge about the effects water points have on rangeland biodiversity. It also identified the large gaps in knowledge surrounding suitable monitoring techniques. We briefly discussed the usefulness of remote sensing and hierarchical modeling which may hold potential for future research.
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9. A
ppen
dix
1
Revie
w of
stud
ies co
nduc
ted
into
the e
ffect
s of a
rtific
ial w
ater
ing
poin
ts o
n ra
ngela
nd d
egra
datio
n, an
d fa
una a
nd fl
ora c
ompo
sitio
n.
Ma
jor f
indi
ngs
Reso
urce
St
udy c
ondu
cted
La
nd d
egra
datio
n Fl
ora
Faun
a Ba
stin a
nd Ja
mes
2002
Th
is ca
se st
udy c
over
s 16 p
astor
al lea
ses
betw
een t
he T
ropic
of C
apric
orn a
nd th
e Sou
th Au
strali
an bo
rder
. Lan
d ass
essm
ent w
as
base
d on L
ands
at MS
S an
d spa
ns 2
perio
ds of
ma
jor ve
getat
ion gr
owth
at the
regio
nal s
cale
throu
gh th
e 198
0s.
The P
D54 i
ndex
was
used
to ca
lculat
e mu
ltitem
pora
l cov
er. T
his in
dex i
s der
ived f
rom
radia
nce p
rope
rties o
f soil
and v
egeta
tion.
Graz
ing gr
adien
t ana
lysis
and %
of C
over
Pr
oduc
tion L
oss w
as us
ed to
deter
mine
the
exten
t of la
nd de
grad
ation
. Indic
es us
ed w
ere
the co
ntagio
n ind
ex, in
tersp
ersio
n ind
ex an
d the
infle
xion p
oint.
Most
pasto
rally
usefu
l land
syste
ms ar
e wi
thin g
razin
g ran
ge of
wate
r, wh
ile
signif
icant
area
s of c
ountr
y with
low
pasto
ral
value
are p
rotec
ted by
dista
nce f
rom
water
. A
very
small
prop
ortio
n of to
tal ar
ea of
ve
getat
ion ty
pes w
ith hi
gh pa
stora
l pr
oduc
tivity
is no
n-de
grad
ed. M
ore o
f the
highly
prod
uctiv
e cou
ntry i
s clos
e to w
ater
and i
s mor
e inte
nsive
ly gr
azed
. Non
-de
grad
ed ar
eas a
re m
ore h
omog
eneo
us as
the
y con
tain a
high
er pr
opor
tion o
f pas
torall
y les
s pro
ducti
ve la
nd sy
stems
. Lan
d de
grad
ation
sepa
rates
patch
es an
d red
uces
the
amou
nt of
inter
mixin
g with
patch
es of
oth
er sy
stems
.
Most
pasto
rally
prod
uctiv
e sys
tems (
open
woo
dland
pla
ins, a
lluvia
l fans
and p
lains
and f
loodo
uts) h
ave t
he
highe
st %
CPL
and a
re th
e mos
t deg
rade
d in t
erms
of
lack o
f veg
etatio
n rec
over
y foll
owing
rainf
all. P
astor
ally
less p
rodu
ctive
mulg
a shr
ublan
ds, h
ills, fo
othills
and
salt l
akes
, sho
w co
mplet
e veg
etatio
n rec
over
y foll
owing
ra
infall
. Sy
stems
conta
ining
a hig
her p
ropo
rtion o
f pala
table
forag
e hav
e high
er in
dex v
alues
and a
re m
ost
adve
rsely
affec
ted by
graz
ing. A
high
er co
ntagio
n ind
ex
in no
n-de
grad
ed ar
eas s
ugge
sts le
ss pa
tchine
ss an
d les
s inte
rmixi
ng.
Inter
sper
sion v
alues
are l
ower
for n
on-d
egra
ded a
reas
of
all ve
getat
ion ty
pes.
This
indica
tes re
duce
d int
ermi
xing o
f patc
hes.
Th
e gra
zing g
radie
nt me
asur
es an
incre
ase i
n ve
getat
ion co
ver w
ith in
creas
ed di
stanc
e fro
m wa
ter.
Graz
ing in
toler
ant s
pecie
s are
usua
lly w
ater r
emote
. 5–
10%
of th
e biot
a are
graz
ing in
toler
ant o
f eve
n ligh
t gr
azing
. Mos
t veg
etatio
n typ
es ha
ve le
ss th
an 10
% of
tot
al ar
ea be
yond
10km
from
wate
r poin
t. Gra
zing
distrib
ution
is un
even
in bo
th tim
e and
spac
e.
Rece
nt re
sear
ch in
dicate
s tha
t ran
gelan
d fau
na an
d flor
a exh
ibit a
rang
e of
resp
onse
s to t
he ef
fects
of wa
ter po
ints.
Fora
n 198
0 Th
e effe
ct of
distan
ce fr
om w
ater p
oints
on
rang
eland
cond
ition w
as ex
amine
d for
2 ra
ngela
nd ty
pes i
n cen
tral A
ustra
lia. T
hese
we
re op
en w
oodla
nd co
mmun
ities a
nd m
ulga
annu
al co
mmun
ities.
Rang
eland
cond
ition w
as
asse
ssed
with
STA
RC m
ethod
whic
h co
mpar
es sp
ecies
comp
ositio
n to t
hat o
f a
benc
hmar
k reli
ct sit
e.
A sig
nifica
nt de
creas
e in c
ondit
ion w
ith
distan
ce fr
om w
ater w
as ob
serve
d for
both
rang
eland
type
s. Th
e pios
pher
e effe
ct ca
n be
attrib
utable
to m
any f
actor
s othe
r tha
n gr
azing
and s
tockin
g inte
nsity
, e.g.
wind
dir
ectio
n, sh
ade a
vaila
bility
, type
of
rang
eland
, pala
tabilit
y, cli
matic
effec
ts,
distan
ce, s
hape
of w
ater p
oint, e
tc.
Most
chan
ges i
n veg
etatio
n com
posit
ion to
ok pl
ace
withi
n 2 km
of th
e wate
r sou
rce. G
razin
g of p
astur
es is
se
ldom
unifo
rm an
d var
ies w
ith pa
sture
type
, dist
ance
an
d dire
ction
from
wate
r poin
t. Hod
der a
nd Lo
w (1
978)
fou
nd th
at ca
ttle w
ill gr
aze u
p to 3
–4 km
in lo
w to
mode
rate
forag
e con
dition
s. If g
razin
g was
unifo
rm w
e wo
uld se
e zon
es of
diffe
rent
vege
tation
type
s for
m an
nuli a
roun
d the
wate
rs, bu
t this
is no
t the c
ase.
Des
ert K
now
ledg
e C
RC
Th
e im
pact
of a
rtific
ial w
ater
ing
poin
ts o
n ra
ngel
and
biod
iver
sity
: A re
view
29
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Ma
jor f
indi
ngs
Reso
urce
St
udy c
ondu
cted
La
nd d
egra
datio
n Fl
ora
Faun
a Fu
sco e
t al. 1
995.
The l
ong t
erm
influe
nces
of liv
estoc
k gra
zing
were
stud
ied on
2 up
land C
hihua
huan
dese
rt ra
nges
in N
ew M
exico
. One
rang
e was
co
nser
vativ
ely st
ocke
d, wh
ile th
e othe
r was
sto
cked
mor
e hea
vily.
Linea
r Reg
ress
ion
Analy
sis w
as us
ed to
evalu
ate st
andin
g cro
p da
ta po
oled a
cross
year
s.
The e
ffects
of gr
azing
pres
sure
star
ts to
dimini
sh 10
00m
from
water
. The
rese
arch
int
o lon
g-ter
m us
e of li
vesto
ck ar
ound
the
piosp
here
is la
cking
. The
bree
d of c
attle
may
be im
porta
nt.
The d
ata co
llecte
d sho
w tha
t long
-term
conc
entra
tion o
f ca
ttle ca
uses
a de
cline
in pe
renn
ial gr
asse
s with
a de
creas
e in d
istan
ce fr
om w
ater.
Wee
ds an
d ann
ual
forbs
domi
nate
the zo
ne un
der 5
00m
from
water
. Ma
rtin an
d War
d (19
70) f
ound
that
regu
lating
acce
ss to
wa
ter po
ints c
ould
be ef
fectiv
e in i
ncre
asing
pere
nnial
gr
ass p
rodu
ction
, com
pare
d with
that
of co
ntinu
ous
graz
ing. R
otatin
g acc
ess t
o wate
r poin
ts do
ubled
the
yield
of pe
renn
ial gr
asse
s ove
r an 8
year
perio
d. Mo
st im
prov
emen
t occ
urre
d with
in 30
0m of
wate
r.
Hodd
er an
d Low
19
78
Cattle
wer
e obs
erve
d ove
r a pe
riod o
f 5 ye
ars
on 3
sites
near
Alic
e Spr
ings,
to de
termi
ne ho
w dif
feren
t plan
t com
munit
ies ar
e utili
sed.
The m
axim
um di
stanc
e catt
le we
re ob
serve
d fro
m wa
ter du
ring d
ry co
nditio
ns w
as 13
km.
The d
istan
ce ca
ttle gr
aze o
ut fro
m wa
ter
relat
ed to
the q
uality
and t
he qu
antity
of fo
od.
Cattle
wer
e rar
ely se
en be
yond
8 km
from
wa
ter. T
his de
pend
ence
on w
ater r
estric
ts the
for
age a
rea.
Extre
me dr
ough
t con
dition
s see
mo
veme
nt of
up to
20km
. Catt
le ap
pear
fai
thful
to a p
artic
ular w
aterin
g poin
t, only
ab
ando
ning i
t whe
n othe
r tem
pora
ry su
rface
wa
ter is
avail
able.
With
the a
bsen
ce of
surfa
ce w
ater,
cattle
graz
e clos
er to
wa
ter. T
hey m
ove o
ut as
feed
cond
itions
deter
iorate
. In
good
cond
itions
, catt
le dis
play a
mar
ked p
refer
ence
for
ripar
ian co
mmun
ities.
Land
sber
g and
Stol
19
96
The d
ensit
ies an
d dist
ributi
on of
shee
p, ka
ngar
oos a
nd fe
ral g
oats
were
asse
ssed
from
ex
tensiv
e dun
g sur
veys
follo
wing
dry,
mode
rate
and g
reen
seas
ons i
n thr
ee la
rge p
addo
cks i
n the
woo
ded r
ange
lands
of no
rth-w
ester
n NSW
.
Gr
azing
by ka
ngar
oos i
mped
es re
gene
ratio
n afte
r the
re
mova
l of li
vesto
ck. T
he to
tal gr
azing
pres
sure
de
pend
s not
only
on de
nsity
, but
on ho
w gr
azing
ac
tivitie
s are
distr
ibuted
amon
gst d
iffere
nt ve
getat
ion
types
. Ka
ngar
oos s
howe
d stro
ng se
lectiv
ity fo
r veg
etatio
n typ
es
and v
ery l
ittle o
verla
p with
goats
and s
heep
. The
y wer
e mu
ch m
ore s
electi
ve ab
out th
e env
ironm
ent in
whic
h the
y gr
aze.
Anim
al de
nsity
was
sign
ifican
tly re
lated
to
vege
tation
cove
r for
mos
t spe
cies i
n mos
t se
ason
s. Up
per c
over
(tre
es an
d shr
ubs)
was i
mpor
tant fo
r goa
ts, ot
her w
ise th
ere
were
no pr
efere
nces
. Go
ats co
ntribu
te to
as m
uch o
r mor
e tha
n sh
eep t
owar
ds th
e tota
l gra
zing p
ress
ure
durin
g the
dry s
easo
n. Ka
ngar
oos
contr
ibuted
the l
east.
Th
e dist
ributi
on of
goats
and k
anga
roos
was
co
rrelat
ed w
ith sh
eep d
istrib
ution
durin
g the
dr
y sea
son b
ut no
t at o
ther t
imes
. The
gr
eates
t com
petiti
on w
as be
twee
n she
ep
and g
oats.
Des
ert K
now
ledg
e C
RC
Th
e im
pact
of a
rtific
ial w
ater
ing
poin
ts o
n ra
ngel
and
biod
iver
sity
: A re
view
30
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Ma
jor f
indi
ngs
Reso
urce
St
udy c
ondu
cted
La
nd d
egra
datio
n Fl
ora
Faun
a La
ndsb
erg e
t al.
2003
St
udy m
easu
red t
he fr
eque
ncy o
f occ
urre
nce
of all
plan
t spe
cies a
t site
s alon
g wate
r cen
tred
graz
ing gr
adien
ts in
centr
al an
d sou
thern
Au
strali
a. Fo
ur gr
adien
ts we
re m
easu
red i
n ch
enop
od sh
rubla
nd an
d aca
cia w
oodla
nds.
Bare
grou
nd an
d gra
ss co
ver w
ere
signif
icantl
y affe
cted b
y dist
ance
to w
ater.
Bare
grou
nd an
d gra
ss co
ver d
ecre
ased
with
dis
tance
. For
b cov
er sh
owed
little
varia
tion
betw
een b
iome o
r dist
ance
zone
.
Some
spec
ies ar
e adv
antag
ed by
mod
erate
leve
ls of
distur
banc
e, wh
ile ot
hers
hold
no to
leran
ce. N
ative
sp
ecies
disp
lay m
ore o
f a de
cline
and a
re re
strict
ed to
mo
re w
ater r
emote
loca
tions
. The
decre
aser
spec
ies
outnu
mber
the i
ncre
aser
spec
ies. F
or ne
utral
spec
ies,
this m
ay re
pres
ent e
nviro
nmen
tal di
ffere
nces
. The
re
was a
larg
e deg
ree o
f spa
tial v
ariat
ion in
plan
t spe
cies
comp
ositio
n. Si
nglet
on sp
ecies
occu
r fur
ther a
way f
rom
water
. Few
area
s rem
ain fa
r eno
ugh a
way f
rom
water
to
supp
ort s
ensit
ive bi
ota. S
uch a
reas
are v
aluab
le ar
eas
of pla
nt div
ersit
y.
Low
et al.
1980
Di
stribu
tion o
f catt
le gr
azing
the r
ange
land
comm
unitie
s in c
entra
l Aus
tralia
was
de
termi
ned f
rom
aeria
l sur
veys
at fo
rtnigh
tly
inter
vals
over
a 4.5
year
perio
d. Ch
ange
s in
graz
ing in
tensit
y, as
indic
ated b
y den
sity o
f ca
ttle, w
ere e
xami
ned u
nder
diffe
rent
forag
e co
nditio
ns
Uneq
ual d
istrib
ution
of ca
ttle an
d gra
zing
inten
sity h
as be
en re
cogn
ised a
s a do
mina
nt pr
oblem
sinc
e 192
0 (Lo
w 19
72).
It is
nece
ssar
y to u
nder
stand
graz
ing
comm
unitie
s and
inten
sities
to in
terpr
et ch
ange
s in r
ange
land c
ondit
ion.
Low
(197
2) fo
und t
hat c
attle
alter
their
prefe
renc
es in
ac
cord
ance
with
rainf
all an
d for
age c
ondit
ions.
Wate
r po
ints a
ct as
the p
rimar
y fac
tor in
contr
olling
distr
ibutio
n of
cattle
. Occ
asion
al alt
erati
ons w
ere o
bser
ved i
n gr
azing
patte
rns d
ue to
envir
onme
ntal c
hang
es. T
he
longe
st an
d mos
t inten
sive g
razin
g per
iod oc
curs
an
hour
and a
half a
fter d
ay br
eak.
Cattle
graz
e fre
quen
tly
at the
same
patch
for m
any h
ours
and o
nly ch
ange
in
poor
er co
nditio
ns.
Ludw
ig et
al. 19
99
This
study
quan
tifies
the d
ensit
y, co
ver a
nd
obstr
uctio
n widt
h of v
egeta
tion p
atche
s, the
ro
ughn
ess o
f land
scap
e sur
faces
and t
he
diver
sities
of pl
ants
and g
rass
hopp
ers w
ith
distan
ce fr
om ca
ttle w
aterin
g poin
ts. D
istan
ce
from
water
was
used
as a
surro
gate
for a
grad
ient in
graz
ing pr
essu
re. F
ourte
en s
tudy
sites
wer
e loc
ated i
n the
Vict
oria
Rive
r Dist
rict
of no
rther
n Aus
tralia
A ro
ugh s
urfac
e ten
ds to
slow
wate
r run
-off
and i
ncre
ase t
he tim
e for
wate
r infilt
ratio
n an
d soil
wate
r stor
age.
Surfa
ce ro
ughn
ess
decli
nes n
ear w
ater.
Over
graz
ing ca
n cau
se
a los
s of la
ndsc
ape p
atche
s and
exce
ssive
so
il ero
sion.
In ar
id an
d sem
i-arid
en
viron
ments
, live
stock
conc
entra
te ar
ound
wa
ter so
urce
s, an
d the
n rad
iate o
ut to
feed.
A de
creas
e occ
urs i
n the
soil c
rusts
with
in the
se re
gions
. Den
sity o
f dun
g and
hoof
s are
high
est in
sacri
fice z
ones
.
A de
creas
e in p
alatab
le pla
nts w
as ob
serve
d clos
e to
water
. Dec
lines
wer
e obs
erve
d jus
t 200
m fro
m wa
ter.
Graz
ing gr
adien
t res
pons
es fo
r land
scap
e patc
hes d
o oc
cur w
ith un
palat
able
forbs
and g
rass
es in
creas
ing
near
wate
r. Di
versi
ty of
both
plant
and g
rass
hopp
er
spec
ies de
cline
d nea
r wate
r and
incre
ased
furth
er
away
, befo
re le
vellin
g off.
Gras
shop
per r
ichne
ss an
d den
sity
decli
ned w
ith th
e dec
line i
n veg
etatio
n clo
ser t
o wate
r. Th
ese d
eclin
es su
gges
t str
ong l
inkag
es be
twee
n lan
dsca
pe pl
ant
functi
on, b
iodive
rsity
and i
mpac
ts of
cattle
graz
ing an
d tra
mplin
g. Fe
w stu
dies
on di
stanc
e fro
m wa
ter h
ave l
ooke
d at
the ef
fects
on bi
odive
rsity.
Des
ert K
now
ledg
e C
RC
Th
e im
pact
of a
rtific
ial w
ater
ing
poin
ts o
n ra
ngel
and
biod
iver
sity
: A re
view
31
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Ma
jor f
indi
ngs
Reso
urce
St
udy c
ondu
cted
La
nd d
egra
datio
n Fl
ora
Faun
a Lu
dwig
et al.
2004
Ex
ample
s tak
en fr
om pu
blish
ed lit
eratu
re
docu
ment
that a
t fine
r patc
h and
hill-s
lopes
sc
ales s
ever
al ind
icator
s of la
ndsc
ape
functi
onal
integ
rity ha
ve be
en id
entifi
ed, e
ach
relat
ed to
biod
iversi
ty.
Func
tiona
l integ
rity is
the i
ntactn
ess o
f soil
an
d nati
ve ve
getat
ion an
d the
proc
esse
s tha
t ma
intain
thes
e. Fu
nctio
nal in
tegrity
patte
rns
have
been
mod
ified t
hrou
gh gr
azing
, cle
aring
and f
ire. G
raze
d are
as di
splay
a ra
pid de
cline
in fu
nctio
nality
for s
urfac
e sta
bility
, infilt
ratio
n and
nutrie
nt cy
cling
. Fu
nctio
nal in
tegrity
varie
s with
soil t
ype,
graz
ing an
d dist
ance
to w
ater.
Plan
t rich
ness
and g
rass
hopp
er de
nsity
was
lowe
r nea
r wa
ter po
ints.
The i
ncre
ases
in sp
ecies
near
wate
r are
sh
orter
lived
herb
s. Na
tive s
pecie
s disp
lay m
ore o
f a
decli
ne w
ith gr
azing
pres
sure
. Und
ersto
rey p
lants
and
birds
are m
ore a
ccur
ate in
dicato
rs of
graz
ing in
tensit
y.
Biod
iversi
ty sh
ould
be st
rong
ly re
lated
to
integ
rity.
Pick
up et
al. 1
998
This
pape
r sho
ws ho
w tre
nds i
n ran
gelan
d co
nditio
ns ca
n be i
denti
fied f
rom
chan
ges o
ver
time i
n the
patte
rn of
vege
tation
grow
th ac
ross
gr
azing
grad
ients
of dif
fering
inten
sity.
Graz
ing
inten
sity w
as m
easu
red u
sing d
istan
ce fr
om
water
, and
vege
tation
grow
th wa
s der
ived f
rom
remo
tely s
ense
d veg
etatio
n ind
ex va
lues b
efore
an
d afte
r larg
e rain
falls.
A ve
getat
ion re
spon
se
was d
erive
d by c
ompa
ring a
reas
less
than
4km
away
from
wate
r with
benc
hmar
k are
as fu
rther
aw
ay. T
he ve
getat
ion in
dex P
D54 d
erive
d fro
m La
ndsa
t MSS
data
was u
sed t
o mea
sure
cove
r.
Anim
al mo
veme
nt to
and f
rom
water
ing po
ints
prod
uces
radia
l patt
erns
in un
iform
coun
try,
with
graz
ing im
pact
decre
asing
with
dista
nce
from
water
. In no
n-un
iform
coun
try th
ese
patte
rns a
re di
storte
d into
star
shap
es w
ith
axes
of co
ncen
tratio
n exte
nding
into
those
lan
dsca
pes m
ost p
refer
red b
y the
graz
ing
anim
al. V
egeta
tion r
espo
nse a
lso de
pend
s on
land c
ondit
ion. S
ome a
uthor
s hav
e arg
ued
that th
e app
eara
nce o
f the l
ands
cape
fol
lowing
rainf
all is
a go
od in
dicati
on of
its
state.
Pick
up et
al. s
ugge
st tha
t this
is sk
ewed
towa
rds u
nusu
al cli
matic
situa
tions
an
d cou
ld ma
sk un
derly
ing tr
ends
. Tre
nds i
n ra
nge c
ondit
ions s
hould
be de
fined
as a
cons
isten
t patt
ern o
f cha
nge i
n the
abilit
y of a
lan
dsca
pe to
resp
ond t
o rain
fall e
vents
over
on
e or t
wo de
cade
s.
Plan
t cov
er no
t only
chan
ges t
hrou
gh tim
e with
rainf
all,
but a
lso va
ries i
n spa
ce bo
th as
a fun
ction
of gr
azing
an
d as a
resu
lt of n
atura
l var
iabilit
y. Pl
ant g
rowt
h in a
rid
and s
emi-a
rid ar
eas o
ccur
s as a
serie
s of p
ulses
fol
lowed
by pe
riods
of de
cline
as ve
getat
ion is
co
nsum
ed by
graz
ing an
d los
t by n
atura
l dec
ay.
Chan
ges i
n puls
e mag
nitud
e thr
ough
time s
hould
ind
icate
chan
ges i
n lan
dsca
pe re
silien
ce an
d if th
ey va
ry sy
stema
ticall
y alon
g gra
zing g
radie
nts, m
easu
re gr
azing
ind
uced
degr
adati
on or
reco
very.
One
way
of
stand
ardis
ing th
e veg
etatio
n res
pons
e for
diffe
rent
rainf
alls m
ay be
to ex
amine
how
the ve
getat
ion
resp
onse
to ra
infall
chan
ges o
ver t
ime a
cross
the
grad
ient. A
s a la
ndsc
ape b
ecom
es de
grad
ed th
e are
a clo
sest
to wa
ter w
ould
show
the g
reate
st re
ducti
on in
re
spon
se to
rainf
all. U
sing t
he G
IS da
ta, th
e veg
etatio
n re
spon
se is
calcu
lated
by su
btrac
ting a
vege
tation
inde
x ma
p sho
wing
cove
r befo
re a
grow
th pu
lse an
d afte
r a
grow
th pu
lse.
Des
ert K
now
ledg
e C
RC
Th
e im
pact
of a
rtific
ial w
ater
ing
poin
ts o
n ra
ngel
and
biod
iver
sity
: A re
view
32
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Des
ert K
now
ledg
e C
RC
Th
e im
pact
of a
rtific
ial w
ater
ing
poin
ts o
n ra
ngel
and
biod
iver
sity
: A re
view
33
Ma
jor f
indi
ngs
Reso
urce
St
udy c
ondu
cted
La
nd d
egra
datio
n Fl
ora
Faun
a Pr
ingle
and
Land
sber
g 200
4 Us
ing re
sear
ch re
sults
from
the G
oldfie
lds of
W
ester
n Aus
tralia
, dist
ance
from
wate
r was
inc
orpo
rated
into
mode
ls of
graz
ing hi
story
at dif
feren
t site
s with
in the
padd
ock.
Stoc
k tra
ck de
nsitie
s dec
lined
with
dista
nce
from
water
sour
ces a
nd ar
e us
ed to
es
timate
graz
ing pr
essu
re. T
his m
ay al
so
refle
ct pa
st pa
stora
l acti
vity a
s it is
diffic
ult
to de
termi
ne re
cent
beha
viour
. Are
as of
hig
h tra
ck de
nsity
refle
ct pa
st he
avy u
sage
; it r
eflec
ts a l
onge
r tim
e fra
me an
d is e
asier
to
samp
le. T
rack
dens
ity de
cline
s rap
idly
with
distan
ce fr
om w
ater.
The l
ivesto
ck
paths
may
inten
sify t
he na
tural
drain
age
patte
rns a
nd ex
acer
bate
the er
osion
pr
oces
s. W
ater u
se de
pend
s on t
he an
imal,
ag
e, se
x, wa
ter sa
linity
, temp
eratu
res,
size
and s
hape
of pa
ddoc
k, av
ailab
ility o
f na
tural
water
sour
ces,
etc.
Heav
ily gr
azed
area
s are
desir
able
habit
at for
the
spre
ad of
exoti
c spe
cies.
Fire a
ppea
rs to
impr
ove
pastu
res,
but g
razin
g nee
ds to
be co
ntroll
ed.
Comp
etitio
n betw
een l
ivesto
ck an
d mac
ropo
ds oc
curs
arou
nd pr
eferre
d pas
tures
and w
ater p
oints.
Ma
cropo
ds ar
e not
conta
ined b
y fen
ces.
The l
oss o
f na
tural
water
sour
ces e
ncou
rage
s the
conc
entra
tion o
f fau
na ar
ound
perm
anen
t wate
r sou
rces.
Rabb
its do
no
t dep
end o
n wate
r but
do se
vere
ly aff
ect th
e ve
getat
ion. F
eral
anim
als ar
e attr
acted
to th
e reg
ion,
yet a
ll use
the l
ands
cape
diffe
rentl
y.
Ther
e app
ears
to be
no un
iversa
l re
spon
se in
biod
iversi
ty to
the im
pact
of
graz
ing. A
regio
nal a
ppro
ach i
s nee
ded.
Drain
age f
eatur
es (b
illabo
ngs,
clay
pans
, dur
icrus
ts, et
c) oft
en su
ppor
t the
most
biodiv
ersit
y. Na
ture a
nd
distrib
ution
of fe
ral a
nimals
vary
betw
een s
pecie
s and
regio
ns. G
oats
rely
on w
ater,
but u
se th
e cou
ntry
differ
ently
to sh
eep a
nd ca
ttle. R
ootin
g ac
tivitie
s by p
igs ca
use d
amag
e to t
he
water
sour
ce.
Read
1999
Th
e effe
ct of
2 puls
es of
heav
y catt
le gr
azing
on
chen
opod
shru
bland
plan
ts an
d inv
erteb
rates
was
asse
ssed
over
a 2-
year
tria
l in S
outh
Austr
alia.
Stud
y loc
ation
co
nsist
ed of
sand
dune
s veg
etated
with
larg
e sh
rubs
and s
mall t
rees
. Stoc
k gra
zing h
ad
been
abse
nt be
fore s
tudy.
Both
plant
and
inver
tebra
te co
mmun
ities w
ere s
tructu
red b
y su
b-ha
bitats
defin
ed by
edap
hic an
d wate
r dis
tributi
on fe
ature
s. Du
ng co
unts
were
used
to
meas
ure r
elativ
e gra
zing p
ress
ure.
Soil s
urfac
e on t
he du
nes a
nd ru
n-on
area
s we
re se
vere
ly dis
turbe
d, bu
t micr
obiot
ic cru
sts re
maine
d lar
gely
intac
t.
The c
over
of m
ost c
ommo
n plan
t spe
cies c
hang
ed
follow
ing gr
azing
. Atri
plex v
esica
ria an
d Mair
eana
as
trotri
cha (
two o
f the m
ost d
omina
te ve
getat
ion
spec
ies) d
eclin
ed si
gnific
antly
follo
wing
graz
ing. T
he
cove
r of s
horte
r-live
d unp
alatab
le ch
enop
ods
gene
rally
incre
ased
at gr
azed
sites
. A nu
mber
of pl
ant
spec
ies in
creas
ed in
the g
raze
d are
as, p
artic
ularly
fol
lowing
good
rains
. The
se in
clude
d a nu
mber
of
unpa
latab
le sp
ecies
.
Cattle
, rab
bit an
d par
ticula
rly ka
ngar
oo
dung
wer
e mos
t abu
ndan
t at r
un-o
n sit
es an
d lea
st ab
unda
nt at
run-
off si
tes.
Dune
base
sites
typic
ally s
uppo
rted a
hig
her a
bund
ance
of in
verte
brate
s. Ru
n-off
sites
wer
e gen
erall
y imp
over
ished
in
inver
tebra
tes in
comp
ariso
n with
run-
on
sites
.
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Desert Knowledge CRC Working Paper 15: The WaterSmart™ Literature Reviews
10. References
Andrew MH 1988, ‘Grazing impact in relation to livestock watering points’, Trends in Ecology and Evolution, Vol. 3, pp. 336–339.
Australian Collaborative Rangeland Information System 2001, Rangelands – Tracking Changes, National Land and Water Resources Audit, Canberra.
Bastin GN and James C 2002, Assessment of Biodiversity Condition in a Rangelands Environment Using Remote Sensing, CSIRO Centre for Arid Zone Research, Alice Springs.
Cain J 2001, Planning improvements in natural resources management: Guidelines for using Bayesian networks to support the planning and management of development programmes in the water sector and beyond, Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, Oxon, UK.
Carey B and Silbum M 2006, Erosion control in grazing lands, Fact Sheet, Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Water.
Davies SJJF 1977, ‘Man’s Activities and Birds’ Distribution in the Arid Zone’, Emu, vol. 77, no. 4, pp 169–172.
Edwards GP, Pople AR, Saalfeld K and Caley P 2004, ‘Introduced mammals in Australian Rangelands: Future threats and the role of monitoring programmes in management strategies’, Austral Ecology, vol. 29, pp. 40–50.
Foran B 1980, ‘Change in range condition with distance from watering point and its implication for field survey’, The Australian Rangeland Journal vol. 2, pp. 59–66.
Ford F 2001, Mitchell grass downs (AA0707), in WWFund, editor. Terrestrial Ecoregions. http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/aa/aa0707_full.html.
Franklin DC 1999, ‘Evidence of disarray amongst granivorous bird assemblages in the savannas of northern Australian, a region of sparse human settlement’, Biological Conservation, vol. 90, pp. 53–68.
Fusco M, Holechek J, Tembo A, Daniel A and Cardenas M 1995, ‘Grazing influences on watering point vegetation in the Chihuahuan desert,’ The Journal of Rangeland Management, vol. 48, pp. 32–38.
Gelfand AE, Silander JA, Wu S, Latimer A, Lewis PO, Rebelo AG and Holder M 2006, ‘Explaining species distribution patterns through hierarchical modeling’, Bayesian Analysis, vol. 1, pp. 41–92.
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Hall TJ and Lee GR 1980, ‘Response of an Astrebla spp grassland to heavy grazing by cattle and light grazing by sheep in north-west Queensland’, The Australian Rangeland Journal, Vol. 2, pp. 83–93.
34 Desert Knowledge CRC The impact of artificial watering points on rangeland biodiversity: A review
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Desert Knowledge CRC Working Paper 15: The WaterSmart™ Literature Reviews
Hodder RM and Low WA 1978, ‘Grazing distribution of free-ranging cattle at three sites in the Alice Springs District, Central Australia’, The Australian Rangeland Journal, Vol. 1, pp. 95–105.
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Landsberg J, James C, Morton S, Muller WJ and Stol J 2003, ‘Abundance and composition of plant species along grazing gradients in Australian rangelands’, Journal of Applied Ecology, Vol. 40, 1008–1024.
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Lundie-Jenkins, G and Payne, A 2002, Recovery plan for the Julia Creek dunnart (Sminthopsis douglasi) 2000-2004, Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, Brisbane.
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Marcot BG, Holthausen RS, Raphael MG, Rowland MM and Wisdom MJ 2001, ‘Using Bayesian belief networks to evaluate fish and wildlife population viability under land management alternatives from an environmental impact statement’, Forest Ecology and Management, Vol. 153, pp. 29–42.
The impact of artificial watering points on rangeland biodiversity: A review Desert Knowledge CRC 35
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Desert Knowledge CRC Working Paper 15: The WaterSmart™ Literature Reviews
McAlpine CA 1997, ‘Ecology and Spatial Modelling of Kangaroo Populations in Mosaic Landscapes of Queensland’s Semi-Arid Rangelands’, PhD Thesis, The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
McAlpine CA, Grigg GC, Mott JJ and Sharma P 1999, ‘Influence of landscape structure on kangaroo abundance in a disturbed semi-arid woodland of Queensland’, The Rangeland Journal, Vol. 21, pp.104–135.
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Mifsud G 1999, ‘Ecology of the Julia Creek dunnart, Sminthopsis douglasi, (Marsupialia: Dasyuridae)’, Masters Thesis. La Trobe University, Bundoora.
Noble JC, Greene RS and Muller WJ 1998, ‘Herbage production following rainfall redistribution in semi-arid mulga (Acacia anuera) woodland in western New South Wales’, The Rangeland Journal, Vol. 20, pp. 206–226.
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The impact of artificial watering points on rangeland biodiversity: A review Desert Knowledge CRC 37
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