THE ILLIAD

The Iliad is referred to as the Song of Ilion or Song of Ilium is an ancient Greek epic poem in dactylic hexameter, traditionally attributed to Homer. Set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy (Ilium) by a coalition of Greek states, it tells of the battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles. Homer is best known as the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey. He was believed by the ancient Greeks to have been the first and greatest of the epic poets. Author of the first known literature of Europe, he had a lasting effect on the Western canon.

THE ODYSSEY

The Odyssey  is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second oldest extant work of Western literature, the Iliad being the oldest. Scholars believe it was composed near the end of the 8th century BC, somewhere in Ionia, the Greek coastal region of Anatolia.

The poem mainly centers on the Greek hero Odysseus and his journey home after the fall of Troy. It takes Odysseus ten years to reach Ithaca after the ten-year Trojan War.In his absence, it is assumed he has died, and his wife Penelope and son Telemachus must deal with a group of unruly suitors, the Ministers or Proci, who compete for Penelope's hand in marriage.

1. Troy:

The Greeks win the 10-year Trojan War – helped by Odysseus’ “Trojan Horse”. It was time for Odysseus to head home to Ithaca. The gods supported the Trojans during the war and were angry with Odysseus. He did have the support of the goddess Athena but in spite of this, his journey back to Ithaca took ten years. After the victory at Troy, Odysseus and his men begin their journey home.

2. The Land of the Cyclones:

After leaving Troy, they stop to raid the tribe of Cyclones in the city of Ismarus for supplies. The Cyclones attack on horseback, and Odysseus loses 72 of his men.

3. The Island of the Lotus Eaters:

Driven off course by a violent storm, Odysseus’ ship reaches the Land of the Lotus-eaters. Some of his men sample the delicious but highly addictive lotus flowers and forget all thoughts of continuing their journey. Odysseus has to recover them and bring them back to the ships by force.

4. The Island of the Cyclopes:

Here, Odysseus and his men find a Cyclops' cave, lured by his cheese and wine. The cyclops, Polyphemus, traps them inside the cave and eats six of the men. Odysseus and the remaining six men ply the Cyclops with liquor and then gouge out his eye. They escape the cave by clinging to the bellies of the Cyclops’ sheep.

5. The Island of Aeolus:

Aeolus, the god of the winds, gives Odysseus a sack containing all of the winds needed to send him on his way home. Odysseus then sets the west wind free and it blows the ships swiftly towards Ithaca. His men, who suspected that he was concealing all kinds of treasure in Aeolus’ mysterious sack, then open the sack, with disastrous consequences. The winds burst out and swell into a heavy storm, driving the ships all the way back to Aeolus’ island.

6. The Island of the Laestrygonians:

The fleet continued to the land of the Laestrygonians, The Laestrygonians, a race of cannibals, eat the Greeks. Only the men on Odysseus' ship and himself survive.

7. Circe's Island:

With one ship, Odysseus reached Circe’s island – home of the enchantress, Circe. Circe turns Odysseus' men into pigs, but Odysseus is protected from her magic with the help of Hermes, who gives him a magical herb called Moly. Odysseus ends up staying there for what seems like a short time, but ended up being a couple of years. Before Odysseus departs, Circe finally tells him that he needs to find the blind prophet Teiresias in the Underworld.The Underworld: Odysseus consults the prophet Teiresias to ask how he can get home, and finds his mother there, who in her depression had killed herself. She gives him news of what has been happening in Ithaca during his absence. Teiresias warns Odysseus of the problems he will face in the future.

8. The Island of the Sirens:

Odysseus and his men pass here, an island with women singing their luring songs, trying to reel in sailors. The Sirens are bird-like creatures with girls’ faces and exquisite singing voices. Their singing is so enticing that anyone who hears it experiences an irresistible compulsion to sail up to their island , where they would then run their ships onto the rocks. To stop them from hearing,

Odysseus fills his men’s ears with beeswax, and he has them tie him to the mast so they can pass the dangerous island safely.

9. Scylla and Charybdis:

Odysseus chooses to sail for Scylla, a six-headed sea serpent, rather than Charybdis, a giant whirlpool. He does this because he knows that if he went to Charybdis, the whole ship would be destroyed. However, if he went towards Scylla, six men would die. A sacrifice the brave Odysseus decides to make.

10. The Isle of Thrinacia (Helios):

They stop here, and Odysseus falls asleep praying to Athena. While sleeping, his men once again go against his orders and eat Helios' cattle. This enrages the god, and he threatens never to rise again. As a punishment, Zeus throws a bolt of lightning at the ship, and turns it to splinters. Only Odysseus survives.

11. Ogygia (Calypso's Island):

Odysseus finds this island after drifting in the sea. It is an island of women. Odysseus has a seven-year affair with a nymph named Calypso. After the seven years, Hermes convinces Calypso to let Odysseus build a new ship so he could sail home.

12. The Island of the Phaeacians:

The Phaeacians accept Odysseus, and he explains his ten-year journey to them during a feast. They happily give him a ride home on one of their magical ships. Ithaca: Odysseus finally arrives home, and sees his son, Telemachus, for the first time in 15 years. He and Telemachus kill all of the suitors that want to marry his wife Penelope. Odysseus takes his place as king, once again, alongside his wife .

THE SONG OF ROLAND

The Song of Roland  is a heroic poem based on the Battle of Roncevaux in 778, during the reign of Charlemagne. It is the oldest surviving major work of French literature. It exists in various manuscript versions which testify to its enormous and enduring popularity in the 12th to 14th centuries. The date of composition is put in the period between 1040 and 1115: an early version beginning around 1040 with additions and alterations made up until about 1115. The final text has about 4,000 lines of poetry. The epic poem is the first[1] and with The Poem of the Cid one of the most outstanding examples of the chanson de geste, a literary form that flourished between the 11th and 15th centuries and celebrated the legendary deeds.

THE DIVINE COMEDY

The Divine Comedy is an epic poem written by Dante Alighieri between c. 1308 and his death in 1321. It is widely considered the preeminent work of Italian literature and is seen as one of the greatest works of world literature. The poem's imaginative vision of the afterlife is representative of the medieval world-view as it had developed in the Western Church by the 14th century. It helped establish the Tuscan language, in which it is written, as the standardized Italian.] It is divided into three parts: Inferno, Purgatories, and Paradise.

On the surface, the poem describes Dante's travels through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven; but at a deeper level, it represents, allegorically, the soul's journey towards God. At this deeper level, Dante draws on medieval Christian theology and philosophy, especially Thomistic philosophy and the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas. Consequently, the Divine Comedy has been called "the Summa in verse"

Dante alighieri’s concept of hell

First Circle (Limbo)

Dante’s First Circle of Hell is resided by virtuous non-

Christians and unbaptized pagans who are punished with eternity

in an inferior form of Heaven. They live in a castle with seven

gates which symbolize the seven virtues. Here, Dante sees many

prominent people from classical antiquity such as Homer,

Socrates, Aristotle, Cicero, Hippocrates and Julius Caesar.

Second Circle (Lust)

In the Second Circle of Hell, Dante and his companion Virgil find

people who were overcome by lust. They are punished by being

blown violently back and forth by strong winds, preventing them

to find peace and rest. Strong winds symbolize the restlessness

of a person who is led by desire for fleshly pleasures. Again,

Dante sees many notable people from history and mythology

including Cleopatra, Tristan, Helen of Troy and others who were

adulterous during their lifetime.

Third Circle (Gluttony)

When reaching the Third Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil find

souls of gluttons who are overlooked by a worm-monster Cerberus.

Sinners in this circle of Hell are punished by being forced to

lie in a vile slush that is produced by never ending icy rain.

The vile slush symbolizes personal degradation of one who

overindulges in food, drink and other worldly pleasures, while

the inability to see others lying nearby represents the gluttons’

selfishness and coldness. Here, Dante speaks to a character

called Ciacco who also tells him that the Guelphs (a fraction

supporting the Pope) will defeat and expel the Ghibellines (a

fraction supporting the Emperor to which Dante adhered) from

Florence which happened in 1302, before the poem was written

(after 1308).

Fourth Circle (Greed)

In the Fourth Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil see the souls of

people who are punished for greed. They are divided into two

groups – those who hoarded possessions and those who lavishly

spent it – jousting. They use great weights as a weapon, pushing

it with their chests which symbolizes their selfish drive for

fortune during lifetime. The two groups that are guarded by a

character called Pluto (probably the ancient Greek ruler of the

underworld) are so occupied with their activity that the two

poets don’t try to speak to them. Here, Dante says to see many

clergymen including cardinals and popes.

Fifth Circle (Anger)

The Fifth Circle of Hell is where the wrathful and sullen are

punished for their sins. Transported on a boat by Phlegyas, Dante

and Virgil see the wrathful fighting each other on the surface of

the river Styx and the sullen gurgling beneath the surface of the

water. Again, the punishment reflects the type of the sin

committed during lifetime. While passing through, the poets are

approached by Filippo Argenti, a prominent Florentine politician

who confiscated Dante’s property after his expulsion from

Florence.

Sixth Circle (Heresy)

When reaching the Sixth Circle of Hell, Dante and Virgil see

heretics who are condemned to eternity in flaming tombs. Here,

Dante talks with a couple of Florentines – Farinata degli Uberti

and Cavalcante de’ Cavalcanti – but he also sees other notable

historical figures including the ancient Greek philosopher

Epicurus, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Pope Anastasius II.

The latter, however, is according to some modern scholars

condemned by Dante as heretic by a mistake. Instead, as some

scholars argue, the poet probably meant the Byzantine Emperor

Anastasius I.

Seventh Circle (Violence)

The Seventh Circle of Hell is divided into three rings. The Outer

Ring houses murderers and others who were violent to other people

and property. Here, Dante sees Alexander the Great (disputed),

Dionysius I of Syracuse, Guy de Montfort and many other notable

historical and mythological figures such as the Centaurus, sank

into a river of boiling blood and fire. In the Middle Ring, the

poet sees suicides who have been turned into trees and bushes

which are fed upon by harpies. But he also sees here profligates,

chased and torn to pieces by dogs. In the Inner Ring are

blasphemers and sodomites, residing in a desert of burning sand

and burning rain falling from the sky.

Eight Circle (Fraud)

The Eight Circle of Hell is resided by the fraudulent. Dante and

Virgil reach it on the back of Geryon, a flying monster with

different natures, just like the fraudulent. This circle of Hell

is divided into 10 Bolgias or stony ditches with bridges between

them. In Bolgia 1, Dante sees panderers and seducer. In Bolgia 2

he finds flatterers. After crossing the bridge to Bolgia 3, he

and Virgil see those who are guilty of simony. After crossing

another bridge between the ditches to Bolgia 4, they find

sorcerers and false prophets. In Bolgia 5 are housed corrupt

politicians, in Bolgia 6 are hypocrites and in the remaining 4

ditches, Dante finds hypocrites (Bolgia 7), thieves (Bolgia 7),

evil counselors and advisers (Bolgia 8), divisive individuals

(Bolgia 9) and various falsifiers such as alchemists, perjurers

and counterfeits (Bolgia 10).

Ninth Circle (Treachery)

The last Ninth Circle of Hell is divided into 4 Rounds according

to the seriousness of the sin though all residents are frozen in

an icy lake. Those who committed more severe sin are deeper

within the ice. Each of the 4 Rounds is named after an individual

who personifies the sin. Thus Round 1 is named Caina after Cain

who killed his brother Abel, Round 2 is named Antenora after

Anthenor of Troy who was Priam’s counselor during the Trojan War,

Round 3 is named Ptolomaea after Ptolemy (son of Abubus), while

Round 4 is named Judecca after Judas Iscariot, the apostle who

betrayed Jesus with a kiss.

DON QUIXOTE

Don Quixote, fully titled The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha, is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra. It follows the adventures of a nameless hidalgo (at the end of Part II given the name Alonso Quixano) who reads so many chivalric novels that he loses his sanity and decides to set out to revive chivalry, undo wrongs, and bring justice to the world, under the name Don Quixote. He recruits a simple farmer, Sancho Panza, as his squire, who often employs a unique, earthy wit in dealing with Don Quixote's rhetorical orations on antiquated knighthood. Don Quixote, in the first part of the book, does not see the world for what it is, and prefers to imagine that he is living out a knightly story. The story implements various themes, such as intersexuality, realism, metatheatre, and literary representation.

The TWO BROTHERS

It is about two foolish boys who have their own opinions about what an inscription means. Both go different ways and both have different outcomes that leave them neither richer nor poorer. Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy 9, also known as Leo Tolstoy, was a Russian novelist, short story writer, essayist, playwright and philosopher who primarily wrote novels and short stories. Tolstoy was a master of realistic fiction and is widely considered one of the greatest novelists of all time. He is best known for two long novels, War and Peace (1869) and Anna Karenina (1877). Tolstoy first achieved literary acclaim in his 20s with his semi-autobiographical trilogy of novels, Childhood, Boyhood, and Youth (1852–1856) and Sevastopol Sketches (1855), based on his experiences in the Crimean War. His fiction output also includes two additional novels, dozens of short stories, and several famous novellas, including The Death of Ivan Ilyich, Family Happiness, and Hajji. In addition to novels and short stories, he also wrote plays and philosophical essays on Christianity, nonviolent resistance, art and pacifism.

THE JUST JUDGE

The Just Judges or The Righteous Judges is the lower left panel of the Ghent Altarpiece, painted by Jan van Eyck or his brother Hubert Van Eyck between 1430–32. It is believed that the panel shows portraits of several contemporary figures such as Philip the Good, and possibly the artists Hubert and Jan van Eyck themselves. The panel was stolen in 1934 and has never been found.[1]