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NOW YOU KNOW MEDIA S T U D Y G U I D E

The History of the Mass

Presented by Fr. John F. Baldovin, S.J., Ph.D.

THE HISTORY OF THE MASS

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Fr. John F. Baldovin, S.J. Ph.D., Yale University

Professor, Boston College School of Theology

ohn F. Baldovin, S.J., has been teaching in university and

seminary settings for the past 28 years. He is currently Professor

of Historical and Liturgical Theology at the Boston College

School of Theology and Ministry. He has taught at Fordham

University and the Jesuit School of Theology at Berkeley. Fr. Baldovin

worked with the International Commission on English in the Liturgy

(ICEL) from 1994-2002. He is past president of the North American

Academy of Liturgy and the international ecumenical society Societas

Liturgica. He is currently president of the International Jungmann Society

for Jesuits and the Liturgy.

J


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Table of Contents

Course Information

Presenter Biography………………………………………………………………….i

Course Overview ......................................................................................................... 1

Course Materials

Topic 1: Why Study the History of the Mass? ............................................................ 2

Topic 2: The Earliest Liturgies: The Didache and Justin Martyr ................................ 6

Topic 3: The Beginnings of the Eucharistic Prayer ................................................... 11

Topic 4: The Development of the Entrance Rites and the Liturgy of the Word .... 16

Topic 5: The Classic Eucharistic Prayers .................................................................. 20

Topic 6: The Byzantine Liturgy ................................................................................. 24

Topic 7: The Roman Mass in the Middle Ages, Part I: The Late 7th Century Liturgy

of the Word ................................................................................................................ 28

Topic 8: The Roman Mass in the Middle Ages, Part II: Liturgy of the Eucharist .... 31

Topic 9: The Roman Mass in the Middle Ages, Part III: Medieval Developments in

the Mass ..................................................................................................................... 35

Topic 10: The Mass and the Protestant Reformation ................................................ 40

Topic 11: The Mass in the English Reformation, the Free-Church Protestant

Traditions, and the Roman Catholic Response .......................................................... 44

Topic 12: Liturgical Reform from the 18th Century to the Present ........................... 48

Supplemental Materials

Suggested Readings ................................................................................................... 52


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Course Overview

The Liturgy of the Eucharist, or Mass, is the most important liturgy we celebrate.

Each time we celebrate it, we act in obedience to Jesus’ command to “do this in

memory of me.”

But if you are like many intelligent Catholics, you have questions about how the

first Christians celebrated this liturgy, how and why it has changed over time, and

what has remained constant.

Where do current practices come from? What can we learn from New Testament

scripture? How was the Mass celebrated in the Church's first two centuries? Why

was the practice of the liturgy changed after the Second Vatican Council? You

will explore these questions and many more with one of America’s leading liturgy

experts, Fr. John Baldovin of Boston College, as your guide.

This series differs from Fr. Baldovin’s previous Now You Know Media series,

The Mass: Welcome to the Sacred Banquet, which focuses on the practice of the

Mass today. The History of the Mass tracks the practice and theology of the Mass

from the earliest Christian liturgies through Byzantine period and Middle Ages

and beyond. You’ll explore the challenge of the Protestant Reformation, the

Catholic response, and liturgical reform in the 18th through 20th centuries.

Along the way, you will learn a great deal of wider Church history and the

theological and cultural challenges which shaped current worship practices. We

highly recommend this series for anyone interested in gaining a deeper

understanding of Church history, theology, or liturgical practice.


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Topic 1: Why Study the History of the Mass?

Overview

n this series, we will explore the history of the Church’s celebration of the Eucharist. What can we

gain from learning about the history of our Christian worship? History is can be liberating; it frees

us by helping us to understand that things haven’t “always been this way.” History also helps us to

understanding the dynamics of change in human affairs from one region to another and from one

generation to the next. God gave the Church the inspiration to follow the command of Jesus: “Do this in

memory of me.” The history of the liturgy is the marvelous development of the church’s obedience to that

command.

I. Overview of the History of Our Christian Worship

By studying the history of the Mass, we can learn where a number of our current practices come from.

1) For example, why does the priest drop a piece of the consecrated bread into the chalice at the time

of the fraction rite? Why does the Gospel come last among the readings? I’ll leave the answers

until later presentations.

Much of history consists of educated guesses, putting pieces of evidence together like a jigsaw puzzle.

As historians, we try to check our preconceived notions about how liturgy developed.

1) For example, some would like to think that the Mass has always looked the same. This is unlikely.

A number of scholars, such as Anglican liturgical historian Paul Bradshaw, posit that there was a

much greater deal of variety in the practices of the early Church than previously thought.

(a) Some communities may have used water instead of wine.

(b) Some may have only used bread.

(c) Some might have performed the sequence in 1 Corinthians 10, taking the wine before the bread.

It probably took some time for what we call the Catholic tradition of the Mass to take the shape that

we see today.

II. Sources

We can learn a great deal about the history of the Mass from the New Testament. Nonetheless, it is

important to remember that the various books of the New Testament were all written for specific

purposes. None were written in order to give specific directions concerning the liturgy.

1) What we can learn from the New Testament about the liturgy is indirect.

2) Most is ultimately guesswork.

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What can we learn from the New Testament?

1) First, the early Christians seem to have adopted a pattern of listening to the word and then

celebrating the Eucharist.

(a) We can guess this from a passage like the Emmaus story in Luke 24. First comes Jesus’

explanation of the Word, then the sacrament where the scriptures get their full meaning.

(b) Acts 8:26-39, where Philip meets the court official, follows a similar pattern. In this story,

baptism follows the explanation of the word.

2) Some early liturgical meetings of Christians seem to have included readings, hymns, prophecy,

and speaking in tongues as we learn from St. Paul in 1 Corinthians 14:26-40. In this passage, Paul

asserts that the worship of the Christian assembly should be done decently and in order.

3) Christians called their celebration of

the Eucharist by various names. For

example, St. Paul refers to it as “the

Lord’s Supper” in 1 Corinthians 11

while Luke calls it “the breaking of

bread” in the Acts of the Apostles. The

words “Eucharist” and “Mass” are not

actually used in the New Testament

when describing what they did.

4) We frequently find four verbs

repeated in the stories about Jesus

instituting the Eucharist as well as in

stories that reflect the importance of

the Mass for the earliest Christians,

the miraculous feeding stories, such as

the multiplication of the loaves in

Mark 6.

(a) Take

(b) Bless

(c) Break

(d) Give

5) These verbs became the backbone of

the Christian celebration of the

Eucharist. We prepare the altar (take),

pray the Eucharistic prayer (bless),

celebrate the Fraction Rite and pour the cups (break), and distribute and receive Holy Communion

(give).

The Institution of the Eucharist by Ercole de’ Roberti

(ca. 1490s)


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6) There is a good deal of controversy over whether Jesus’ Last Supper was a Passover meal.

(a) The synoptic gospels, Matthew, Mark, and Luke, explicitly state that Jesus ate a Passover

meal with his disciples on the eve of his Passion and death.

(b) John’s Gospel says that the Passover lambs were sacrificed at the hour of Jesus’ death,

meaning that his last suffer couldn’t have been a Passover meal.

(c) There have been many attempts to explain this discrepancy. We can be certain that Jesus

would have celebrated meals with his disciples according to Jewish religious custom.

(d) Every formal Jewish meal would have begun and ended with blessings. These blessings

would become an important part of the material making up the Eucharistic prayer.

(e) The Hebrew word for blessing is berakhah.


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Review Questions

1. What difference does it make that we have no precise descriptions of liturgy in the New Testament?

2. Why were the four verbs that describe Jesus’ Last Supper so important for the future of the Mass?

3. What is the basic pattern of worship that we find in the New Testament?


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Topic 2: The Earliest Liturgies:

The Didache and Justin Martyr

Overview

e will now proceed from what we learned from the New Testament to the earliest evidence

of the Mass in the second century. This evidence comes in the form of two important texts,

the Didache or The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, an early explanation of how to be a

Christian and organize a church, and an apology of the Christian faith by Justin Martyr, a mid-second

century writer who discusses the Mass in Rome. First, we will examine the architectural setting, which

will remain an important theme throughout the history of the Mass, often determining how the Mass

proceeds. We will then examine the shape of the service itself, as well as the various actors who took part

in this tradition.

I. Architectural Setting

Contrary to popular belief, the earliest

Christians did not do all their worship in

the catacombs, among the tombs and

cemeteries outside the major cities.

For the most part, private houses were the

focus of worship.

1) Houses generally had an entryway

into an open area.

2) The entryways led into small dining

rooms that could hold around fifteen

people.

3) Regular houses were sometimes

transformed into religious spaces. We

find an excellent example of a

Christian house of worship in Dura-

Europos, in Syria. In the 1900s,

excavators found an ancient house that had been transformed for Christian use.

(a) One side of the atrium contained a baptistery with a pool set into the end.

(b) In the middle was a room that was most likely used for instruction or catechesis.

(c) Opposite the baptistery is the room that seems to have been used for the Eucharist.

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"DuraEuropos-Church". Licensed under Creative Commons

Attribution-Share Alike 2.5 via Wikimedia Commons


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4) There is another myth that Christian spaces of worship were all poor and simple. In fact, most did

not celebrate with the simplicity we think of as characteristic of early Christians.

II. The Shape of the Service in the Didache (2nd c. C.E.)

This is the main work that gives directions on worship and how to organize the church.

In its first part, the Didache presents a long catechetical instruction called “The Two Ways,” the way

of life and the way of death.

The ninth and tenth chapters give us blessings for meals. Birkat-ha-mazon means blessing of the meal.

1) Prayers before and after the meal take on a three-part structure.

(a) Thanksgiving for Revelation

(b) Thanksgiving for Creation/Food

(c) Supplication for the Church

2) Each of the elements begins with a repetition of the beginning, “Glory to You forever more.

Blessed be God forever.”

3) This exact pattern is followed in Jewish prayer in the first and second centuries.

(a) Blessings for food

(b) Thanksgiving for Land

(c) Supplication for Jerusalem

Episcopal scholar Thomas Talley suggests that Christians rewrote the traditional Jewish blessing after

meals in light of Christ. They tended to use the term “thanksgiving” rather than “blessing.”

The prayers make reference to the elements of the meal, food and drink. Therefore, they seem to be a

kind of Eucharistic prayer.

1) Institution narrative: on the night he was betrayed, Jesus took bread, said the blessing, broke the

bread, gave it to his disciples and said, “Take this, all of you, and eat it, for this is my body, which

will be given up for you.” Together with the words over the cup, this is the institution narrative.

Earliest prayers had no Institution narrative, but they seemed to have a scriptural basis. These

references to scripture act as a reason for the celebration. In these prayers, we find a Christianized

version of Jewish blessings.

Some scholars do not think that these chapters of the Didache represent a form of Eucharistic prayer,

especially because there is no institution narrative. Instead, they think that these passages represent a

regular community meal.


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Chapter fourteen of the Didache certainly refers to the Eucharist: “On the Lord’s day, come together,

break bread, and give thanks, having first confessed your transgressions, that your sacrifice may be

pure. But let none who has a quarrel with his companion join with you until they have been reconciled,

that your sacrifice may not be defiled. For this is that which was spoken by the Lord. ‘In every place

and at every time, offer me a pure sacrifice, for I am a great King,’ says the Lord, ‘And my name is

wonderful among the nations.’” Here, the writer is quoting Malachi 1:11. This will appear in a number

of classic Eucharistic prayers.

1) Receiving Holy Communion means being in communion, or reconciled with one’s neighbor.

2) Even at the end at of the first century, Christians were adopting the vocabulary of sacrifice.

III. Justin Martyr’s 2nd c. C.E. Description in His 1 Apology 66-67

The text we will examine now is an apology, or explanation, of Christian faith written to the emperor

in the middle of the second century. It is not a liturgical text as such.

In chapters 66-67 of his Apology, Justin writes, “No one may share the Eucharist with us unless he

believes that what we teach is true, unless he is washed

in the regenerating waters of baptism for the remission

of sins, and unless he lives in accordance with the

principles given us by Christ. We do not consume the

Eucharistic bread and wine as if it were ordinary food

and drink. For we have been taught that as Jesus Christ

our Savior became a man of flesh and blood by the

power of the word of God, so also our food that our flesh

and blood assimilates for its nourishment becomes the

flesh and blood of the incarnate Jesus, by the power of

his own words contained in the prayer of Thanksgiving.

The apostles, in their recollections, which are called

gospels, handed down to us what Jesus commanded

them to do. They tell us that Jesus took bread, gave

thanks, and said, ‘Do this in memory of me, this is my

body.’ In the same way, he took the cup. He gave thanks

and said, ‘This is my blood.’ The Lord gave this

command to them alone… Ever since we have

constantly reminded one another of these things. The

rich among us help the poor and are always united. For

all that we receive, we praise the Creator of the universe

through his Son Jesus Christ and through the Holy Spirit.

One Sunday, we have a common assembly of all of our

members, whether they live in the city or the outlying

districts. The recollections of the apostles or the writings

of the prophets are read, as long as there is time. When the reader has finished, the president of the

assembly speaks to us. He urges everyone to imitate the examples of virtue we have heard in the

readings. Then we all stand up together and pray. On the conclusion of our prayer, bread and wine and

Justin Martyr by Theophanes the

Cretan (ca. 1546)


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water are brought forward. . . . The Eucharist is distributed. Everyone present communicates and the

deacons take it to those who are absent. . . . The collection is placed in the custody of the president,

who uses it to help the orphans and widows and all, who for any reason, are in distress. . . .”

1) This is an example of the Mass as it was celebrated in Rome in Justin’s time.

Principle things we learn from Justin:

1) Apostles handed down tradition.

2) The rich must help the poor.

3) Sunday: common assembly of all members

(a) There are readings from Apostles and writings of Prophets so long as time permitted.

(b) The president gives interpretation of readings.

(c) The president prays and people assent.

(d) Everyone present communicates.

(e) The collection is taken for the poor. Celebrating the Eucharist and caring for those in need go

hand in hand.

2) Second century Christians recognized the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist.

3) Early liturgical prayers were not set in stone. The presider was free to pray as he wished. There

was probably a set structure or sequence that was filled in according to the appropriate

circumstance.

4) The group had a number of officers and a great deal of popular participation.

5) Christians were composing their own hymns and psalms.


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Review Questions

1. Where did the earliest Christian celebrate the Eucharist?

2. How did Christian prayers evolve from Jewish prayers?

3. What about Justin’s description of a second-century C.E. Eucharist reminds you of how we

celebrate today?


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Topic 3:

The Beginnings of the Eucharistic Prayer

Overview

n this presentation, we will consider three of the earliest Eucharistic prayers. In the previous section,

we examined the prayers preceding and following the meal found in the Didache, which seem to

constitute what we now call a Eucharistic prayer, without, of course, the Institution narrative. Now,

we turn to three other prayers originating in the first to third centuries, before the acceptance of Christianity

as a legal religion in the fourth century under the rule of Constantine.

I. The Papyrus Strasbourg: From 3rd c. Egypt

This prayer was found on a single page of Papyrus leaf. It was first published in 1928. As with many

early documents, the first few lines of the text are missing. The first words we have are “To bless you

night and day,” similar to the preface of what we might call a Eucharistic prayer. The prayer continues

with an acknowledgement of God as Creator of the universe, “who created through the true light our

Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ.”

1) Enrico Mazza, one of the top contemporary scholars of the Eucharistic prayer, notes that there are

a number of parallels between this reference to Christ as the light of the world and the blessing for

light in traditional Jewish morning prayer.

The prayer goes on to say that we give thanks through Christ and “Offer this reasonable sacrifice and

this bloodless service which all the nations offer you.”

1) The prayer is considered to be a sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving along the lines of Romans

12:1, “Offer your bodies as a sacrifice. This is your spiritual sacrifice.”

2) As we saw in our consideration of the Didache, each prayer requires a scriptural basis or warrant,

a guarantee of its authenticity. In this case, Malachi 1:11 refers to a “pure sacrifice.”

The final section of the prayer is a series of intercessions, for the Church, the land, and the dead. This

embryonic Eucharistic prayer contains three paragraphs: two of thanksgiving, and the intercessions.

It ends with a doxology, a glorification of God.

As with the prayers from the Didache, we can’t be sure that the papyrus represents a complete

Eucharistic prayer. There are a number of missing elements, such as the institution narrative and the

threefold holy or “Sanctus.” We could never come to the conclusion that this is a Eucharistic prayer

unless we combine it with the other pieces of our historical jigsaw puzzle.

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II. Three Fundamental Features

These features characterize Eucharistic prayers from the earliest Church to the present:

1) The entire context of the prayer is one of thanksgiving, praise, and blessing of God in Christ. The

thanksgiving is what gives the Mass its traditional and most universal name, the Eucharist. We use

the technical term anamnesis, or “memorial,” to describe this aspect of Christian prayer. We

“remember” what God has done for us.

(a) A good way to remember anamnesis is that it is the opposite of amnesia.

2) The idea of offering is found in each prayer. The precise formulation changes from prayer to prayer

and from tradition to tradition.

3) Like the Jewish grace before and after meals, each prayer contains an element of petition or

intercession.

We acknowledge who God is, what God has done for us in Christ, and call on God to continue to be

generous and kind to us.

III. The Anaphora of Addai and Mari: East Syria, 3rd century

What is an Anaphora?

1) Literally, in Greek, Anaphora means “lifting up.” It has come to mean the prayer of lifting up or

offering.

2) This term is still used by the Church of the East, which broke off from the Catholic Church after

the Council of Ephesus in 430 C.E. The prayer we are now considering predates this division.

The Anaphora of Addai and Mari, also called the Anaphora of the Apostles, seems to have very ancient

roots, reaching back to third century Syria, one of the earliest centers of Christianity. The prayer

originated in Edessa, a city on the northeastern frontier of the Roman Empire.

The prayer has a number of notable elements.

1) The prayer begins with an invitation dialogue similar to contemporary Eucharistic prayers.

2) The first part of the prayer leads into the threefold “Holy,” which has now become universal.

3) Part of the prayer is addressed directly to Christ. This is unusual in official liturgical prayers, which

are normally addressed to the Father through the Son, in the Holy Spirit. The Anaphora of Addai

and Mari contains an explicit request that the Holy Spirit “Come and rest upon this offering of

Your servants and bless and sanctify it, that it may be to us, Lord, for remission of debts,

forgiveness of sins, and the great hope of resurrection from the dead and new life in the Kingdom

of Heaven, with all who have been pleasing in Your sight.”


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4) Presumably, the Church’s offering or sacrifice is the bread and wine upon which the Holy Spirit

is invoked. However, the only verb of offering in the prayer comes at the end and refers to the

praise, glory, and honor we give to God.

5) Finally and most significantly, like the Didache and the Papyrus Strasbourg, the prayer contains

no institution narrative. Instead, it says, “We have received, through tradition, the form which is

from You, rejoicing, glorifying, exalting, commemorating, and celebrating this great mystery of

the passion, death, and resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ.” It is worth noting that, in 2002, the

Vatican Council for the Unity of Christians, in conjunction with the Congregation for the Doctrine

of the Faith, issued a statement stating that this ancient prayer is a valid Eucharistic prayer, even

though it does not explicitly contain the words of institution.

(a) It is through our historical understanding of prayers that our theological understanding of the

Eucharist has developed.

IV. The Apostolic Tradition

This prayer is from third or fourth century. It is probably the most well-known of the three we examine

in this section. It is the basis of Eucharistic Prayer II. The document has some elements that go back

to the third century, as early as the year

215.

The document isn’t easy to decipher. We

do not have the original Greek version and

the first manuscript comes from the late

fourth century and is in Latin.

The Apostolic Tradition is a manual for

church order and discipline, much like the

Didache. It instructs leaders on topics such

as appointing ministers, celebrating the

liturgy, and preparing catechumens for

initiation. In the document, the Eucharistic

prayer is suggested for use by a bishop

after his ordination.

1) The compiler writes, “Let each pray

according to his ability.” Today, we

have many rules and regulations

regarding our liturgical prayers and

gestures. It seems that the Church of

the first three centuries allowed a good

deal of improvisation as long as the prayers were sound and orthodox.

The Eucharistic prayer of the Apostolic Tradition is the first that would look familiar to modern

Catholics. It begins with familiar dialogue and continues with a thanksgiving for Christ’s incarnation

and saving work. This leads directly into an institution narrative. This is the first Eucharistic prayer in

The Institution of the Eucharist by Gerard de Lairesse

(1664-1665)


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which we find these words before the 4th century. These words are not taken directly from any of the

New Testament accounts.

1) Scholar Paul Bradshaw calls liturgical prayers “living literature,” drawing from tradition and

adapting it to the current situation.

The memorial (anamnesis) and offering of the sacrifice follow.

Next comes the invocation of the Holy Spirit (epiclesis).

The prayer concludes with a doxology.


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Review Questions

1. What are the implications of the possibility that many of the earliest Eucharistic prayers didn’t

contain Christ’s words at the Last Supper?

2. What is the meaning of anamnesis? Epiclesis?

3. Why call the Mass a sacrifice?


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Topic 4:

The Development of the Entrance Rites and the

Liturgy of the Word

Overview

ow we will investigate the history of the first part of the Mass, from the Entrance Rite to the

first Liturgy of the Word. We will consider evidence from both sides of the Mediterranean, the

East and the West, from the second to the sixth century. We will further consider the physical

and architectural aspects of the liturgy and explore the ways in which these traditions evolved as

Christianity grew and expanded in the fourth century.

I. The Development of Christian Church Buildings

Early Christians would often meet in private

houses, sometimes transformed for their

worship, or in the cemeteries and catacombs to

celebrate their dead family members. Things

changed dramatically with the acceptance of

Christianity as a legitimate religion by the

Emperor Constantine. With fourth century

acceptance, there came a large influx of

converts.

Private homes were no longer suitable for the

gathering of the Christian assembly. The

Church began to utilize new buildings.

1) Basilica: from the Greek word for king.

Basilicas were large buildings for public

business, such as markets, law courts, or

palace halls.

(a) They normally had an apse that magnified sound. This became useful for bishops when

preaching.

(b) Typically, Christian basilicas were rectangular buildings with two aisles flanking a central

nave.

(c) Early churches had no pews or seats. In the East, the middle of the nave was occupied by a

platform for the reading of the scriptures, called an ambo. In the West, the ambo was found at

the side of the nave.

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Remains of the Basilica of Maxentius and

Constantine (2006)


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2) Shrine: the arrangement of some churches was determined by the grave of martyr. At times, these

churches took a more centralized form.

II. Entrance Rites

The great Jesuit liturgical historian Robert Taft observed that liturgies tend to grow at the point of

action. This is especially true of the Entrance Rite. As far as we can tell, until the late fourth century,

the Eucharistic liturgy began with a simple greeting by the bishop. For a long time, there was a rule

that the catechumens could not pray together with the faithful or baptized.

Larger churches made more elaborate liturgy necessary. No longer forced to worship in private,

Christians were now allowed to bring their religious faith outdoors with a number of processions. They

also began singing psalms and reciting litanies. Soon, these were performed inside the churches as

well.

1) What we know today as the Kyrie eleison, “Lord, have mercy,” followed the entrance of the bishop

and the end of the procession.

III. Language Changes from Greek to Latin (4th c. C.E.)

In the first three centuries of the Christian era, Ancient Greek was the most commonly used language

in the Mediterranean. Greek was the language of the early Church in Rome. Around the end of the

fourth century, there is evidence that the liturgy was being celebrated in Latin. Soon, the entire liturgy

in the West was in Latin.

The Greek response, Kyrie eleison, probably comes from the sixth century, when Rome was recaptured

was recaptured by the Greek part of the Empire.

IV. Three Action Points

Father Josef Jungmann, another great Jesuit liturgical historian, author of The Mass of the Roman Rite,

claimed that the three action points of the Mass, the entrance, the presentation of gifts, and Holy

Communion, all followed the same pattern.

1) Action (procession)

2) Accompanied by Chant

3) Concluded by prayer

V. Readings

Unfortunately, our knowledge of the readings of the early centuries is limited. According to Justin

Martyr, in the middle of the second century, Christians read from Old Testament and New Testament

as long as time allowed.

New Testament authors wrote their texts to be read aloud in Church.


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1) Some New Testament scholars speculate that the gospels were written as a kind of lectionary cycle,

in order to be read over the course of the year, piece by piece.

2) Some churches seem to have favored one gospel over the others.

Readings were taken from the Old Testament law, the prophets, the New Testament letters, and the

gospels. There could be as many as four readings at each service. Other fourth century sources suggest

that there were psalm chants between the readings and an Alleluia chant before the gospel, the same

pattern we experience today.

The contemporary reform of the liturgy is an attempt to recover some of the best aspects of the early

liturgy, in particular a broader use of the Old Testament and participation by the assembly in singing

the chant between the readings.

VI. The Homily

The proclamation of the word was followed by a homily, an explanation of the scriptures.

Some outstanding historical examples exist and can be located online:

1) St. Ambrose of Milan

2) St. Augustine of Hippo

3) St. John Chrysostom

VII. General Intercessions: Prayer by the Faithful

The homily was followed by the dismissal of various groups, who were not allowed to remain for Holy

Communion or to participate with the baptized in prayed. The Apostolic Constitution provides a

lengthy list of categories of people who were dismissed.

These prayers resemble our contemporary solemn prayers on Good Friday. There was an invitation by

the deacon to pray with a certain intention. The assembly then knelt in silence. The bishop concluded

the silent prayers with a collect.

1) The most solemn occasions of the liturgical year tend to retain the most ancient practices.

VIII. The Greeting of Peace

Since the Mass is about unity, with God and one another, the sign of peace and reconciliation is

vital in showing that we are in communion with one another. Early Christians concluded their

liturgy of the Word with the sign of peace and reconciliation.

Only in the Roman rite did the peace come after the Lord’s Prayer and before Holy Communion as

opposed to somewhere between the general intercessions and the beginning of the Eucharistic

prayer.


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Review Questions

1. How did the adoption of larger buildings affect the shape of the liturgy?

2. Why does the Gospel come last among the readings?

3. Why couldn’t catechumens exchange the greeting of peace?


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Topic 5:

The Classic Eucharistic Prayers

Overview

n the last presentation, we saw the development of the first part of the liturgy, the Entrance Rite and

the Liturgy of the Word. In this section, we will look at some of the classic Eucharistic prayers and

the Communion Rite from the fourth to the sixth century. We will consider the Anaphora of St. Basil

and the Anaphora of St. Mark. Why call these prayers “classic”? Typically, we deem a piece of writing

classic because it has enduring value and can still be enjoyed today. Classic texts deal with universal and

timeless questions. These Eucharistic prayers are classic because they represent a maturation of the

elements we saw emerging in some of the earliest traditions. Although they are arranged in different ways,

they contain all of the elements that we recognize as fundamental to a Eucharistic prayer today.

I. Anaphora of St. Basil

Anaphora is a common Greek name for the prayer of offering. It is used for Eastern Christian

Eucharistic prayers.

Today, many scholars believe that this prayer originated in the fourth century C.E. with St. Basil

himself. Basil was a bishop and theologian in late fourth-century Asia Minor. The Coptic Church uses

the earliest version of his prayer to this day. The same version serves as a model for our current

Eucharistic prayer for the longest of our modern Eucharistic prayers in the Roman Catholic liturgy

today.

There is a logical flow to this prayer:

1) Dialogue between the presider and people

2) Thanksgiving and praise

3) Holy, holy, holy

4) History of salvation recounted

5) Priest recounts the institution of the Eucharist

6) Summary of what we remember (anamnesis)

7) Offering

8) Epiclesis: invocation of the Holy Spirit

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(a) Scholar Enrico Mazza suggests that the verb

“reveal,” used in the epiclesis, represents an

earlier theology of consecration in which the

prayer and action illuminate the reality of the

Lord’s body and blood in the offered gifts of

bread and wine. The prayer and action are

“revealed” as the body and blood of Christ.

(b) Our unity with Christ is one in the same

without unity in Christ. In other words,

communion with Christ is both vertical and

horizontal.

9) Request for the Holy Spirit

10) Remembering of the dead: the diptychs; ends

with the doxology

Many scholars think that St. Basil composed an

expanded version of this prayer. This version remains

as one of the two basic prayers of the Byzantine

Churches.

II. Anaphora of St. Mark

This prayer originated in Ancient Alexandria, Egypt, most likely in the fifth century C.E. It has definite

affinities with the Papyrus Strasbourg. This Alexandrian form is one of the four most used variations

of the Eucharistic prayer in the long history of the Church.

This prayer has a complex structure.

1) Praise and thanksgiving

2) Salvation history

3) Intercessions

4) Holy, holy, holy

5) Holy things are sealed by bishop’s words, “Full in truth are heaven and earth of your holy glory

through our Lord and God and Savior Jesus Christ. Fill O God this sacrifice also with the blessing

from you through the descent of the Holy Spirit.”

(a) In this prayer, the institution narrative follows the epiclesis.

6) Prayer of Offering

7) The doxology

The prayer may consist of several original prayers pieced together.

Fresco of St. Basil in the cathedral of Ohrid


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In this prayer, the institution narrative seems to fulfill a different structural function. The narrative

follows a request for the Holy Spirit. Italian scholar Cesare Giraudo suggests that Eucharistic prayers

developed in two major types:

1) Memorial or anamnetic prayer: emphasizes the mighty deeds of God, culminating with example

given by Jesus in order to remember them.

2) Petitionary or epicletic: emphasizes the institution narrative as a consecration by placing it after

the request for the Holy Spirit’s descent.

III. The Communion Rite

We will now examine the Communion rite as it developed in 6th century C.E.

The first new element we find in the Communion rite is the addition of the Lord’s Prayer. We know it

from a series of lectures given to the newly baptized about the sacraments by St. Cyril of Jerusalem.

The Lord’s Prayer comes at the end of the Eucharistic prayer.

We find a great deal of language of fear and awe used at this time. While the Church grew over the

course of the fourth century, participation in Holy Communion seems to have declined.

The Lord’s Prayer was followed by the fraction:

1) The bread was leavened and remains so to this day in Christian East.

2) The bread needed to be broken into pieces for distribution.

All who received got both the consecrated bread in their hands and drank from a cup.

Communion included a procession, probably segregated the sexes.

The Communion rite was probably accompanied by singing of a psalm. Psalm 34 was popular.

The procession was concluded with a prayer.

Deacon would dismiss assembly: there was no blessing or song for at least several centuries.


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Review Questions

1. What are the characteristic differences between the West Syrian and Alexandrian forms of prayer?

2. What difference does the placement of the epiclesis make?


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Topic 6:

The Byzantine Liturgy

Overview

t the end of the last presentation, we completed our overview of the development of the

Christian liturgy in East and West up until around the end of the sixth century. In this section,

we will leap forward a few centuries to examine the Byzantine liturgy, as we know it, around

the eleventh century in Constantinople, the Eastern Roman capital. We will rely heavily on two Jesuit

liturgical historians, Father Juan Mateos and Father Robert Taft. So far, we have focused on the

development of the liturgy in both East and West. Eventually, however, these two traditions diverged.

I. Eastern and Western Liturgies

By the Middle Ages, the Eastern and Western liturgies were markedly different from one another.

One of the major differences is linguistic.

Learning several liturgies can help one to understand the structure of the liturgy more generally.

Architecture and Liturgy:

1) Again, liturgical space is fundamental to the development of the liturgy.

1) Hagia Sophia, also referred to as the Great Church of Constantinople, had significant influence on

the development of the liturgy.

2) There was an intricate and elaborate system for using the streets and many shrines of

Constantinople also characterizes the development of the Byzantine liturgy. This phenomenon is

called “stational liturgy,” the idea that the bishop of an important town or city would preside at the

main liturgy of the local church on a particular day. We find the same practice in early and

Medieval Rome.

II. The Liturgy of the Eucharist

Priests prepared the gifts were prepared in the external sacristy. A number of prayers accompanied the

preparation.

1) This rite is called “the prosthesis.”

Entrance rite of a pontifical liturgy began with three psalms, accompanied by intercessions and

prayers. This is often called the office of the three antiphons. It concludes with the Trisagion.

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The people and clergy probably processed together from the main square of Constantinople to Hagia

Sophia. As time went on and the procession began within or just outside the church, the psalms and

litanies were abbreviated, leaving only the antiphons.

2) Emperor Justinian added a beautiful hymn, Monogenes, to the second antiphon in the sixth century.

The bishop then takes a role in the liturgy point with the formal entrance or “little entrance.” During

the entrance, the book of the gospels is processed through the church to the altar. At the end of the

little entrance, the altar is incensed and the bishop and presbyters take their seats.

3) Readings

4) Litanies

5) Great Entrance: gifts brought to altar

(a) This is the most characteristic of the Byzantine rite. In the early Middle Ages, the gifts were

brought with great ceremony from the outside sacristy. The Cherubikon accompanies the

procession. Taft has convincingly shown that receiving “the King of all” refers not to the gifts

being brought in but to the anticipated Holy Communion. The priest washes his hands as a

symbolic gesture of purification.

6) Greeting of Peace and Nicene Creed (recent addition to liturgy)

View of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople by Eduard Hildebrandt (ca. 1852)


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7) Eucharistic Prayer

(a) We already examined one form used by the Byzantines in the Anaphora of St. Basil.

(b) The Anaphora of St. John Chrysostom is much shorter. After the institution narrative, which

makes the memorial of Christ’s death and resurrection, the priest says, “We offer You Your

own from what is Your own, in all and for the sake of all.” In other words, we have nothing

that is, strictly speaking, our own to offer to God. Even what we offer is God’s gift.

There are three unique elements of Byzantine communion rite:

1) Warm water is added to the chalice during the fraction rite. This symbolizes the living nature

of Christ’s blood.

2) A blessing prayer, called the prayer of inclination, comes before Holy Communion.

(a) Some think that this was originally a dismissal blessing for those who weren’t going to

receive Holy Communion.

3) Formula of invitation to Holy Communion

(a) Holy things for the holy

(b) People respond, “One is holy, one is Lord, Jesus Christ, to the glory of God the Father.

Amen.” The invitation and response represent a kind of paradox. The holy gifts, Christ’s

body and blood, are offered to God’s holy people. But God’s holy people respond by

insisting that their holiness is not their own.

We have looked at a snapshot of the Byzantine liturgy as it might have appeared in the Great Church,

Hagia Sophia, in the eleventh century. Many aspects of that liturgy that might seem strange or unique

to us are very understandable of the earlier liturgies we considered previously. Studying the Byzantine

liturgy helps us to better understand our own tradition.


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Review Questions

1. How did the Hagia Sophia shape the development of the Byzantine Rite?

2. Where did the Office of 3 Antiphons and the Trisagion come from?

3. Why is warm water added to the consecrated chalice?


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Topic 7:

The Roman Mass in the Middle Ages, Part I: The

Late 7th Century Liturgy of the Word

Overview

n this presentation, we turn back to the Roman Mass of the Middle Ages as it came to take the general

shape that we know today. Over the course of the Middle Ages, the Mass reached a stage that would

last from the fifteenth century until the reforms of the Second Vatican Council. In this section, we

will examine the Liturgy of the Word as we know it from the end of the seventh century. The main

evidence we have for the Mass of the seventh century comes from Rome.

I. Ordo Romanus Primus: Book of Directions for the Mass

This book of directions describes a celebration of the Eucharist in the late seventh century.

Specifically, it discusses the Easter Sunday

morning celebration at the Basilica of Saint

Mary Major.

We call this celebration a “Stational Mass”

because it is presided over by the bishop of

the city, in this case, the pope.

1) The pope celebrated the liturgy at

various churches throughout the city.

The night before, for the Great Vigil of

Easter, the pope celebrates baptisms,

confirmation, and first Holy Eucharist in

St. John Lateran. The pope and his

entourage leave his residence at the Lateran

and proceed up the Via Merulana on

horseback.

At the end of the procession, the pope

dismounts with deacons, subdeacons, and

acolytes, presbyters and assistant bishops.

A men’s choir or schola is in position in the

middle of the church. This arrangement

still exists in several Roman churches.

I

The Piazza and Church of Santa Maria Maggiore by

Giovanni Paolo Pannini (1743)


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The pope processes down the center of the basilica while the choir sings the entrance psalm, which is

interspersed with the antiphon. He is preceded by the ministers of the Mass. The subdeacon swings

incense.

1) Incenses showed honor but also acted as a room deodorant.

2) The pope is held up by deacons walking on either side.

At the entrance of the choir, the pope venerates a piece of consecrated Eucharistic bread from the last

stational liturgy. Later, a portion will appear during the fraction rite of the Eucharist.

The pope kisses the Gospel book and altar and moves to his chair while the choir sings Kyrie eleison.

According to the rubric, the pope then faces east. At end of the Kyrie, the pope intones the hymn,

“Glory to God in the Highest” and prays the collect or opening prayer.

The pope sits at end of prayer and a subdeacon proclaims first reading. At this time, public readings

and prayers sounded more like chanting than the speaking voices we might be familiar with. The

responsorial psalm follows.

A subdeacon receives pope’s blessing and brings the Gospel book to the pope and all of the assisting

bishops and priests to be reverenced. Up to the late 5th century, prayers of the faithful would follow.

For reasons unknown to scholars, the general intercessions or prayers of the faithful disappeared at

this point.

Just as we’ve seen in the Medieval Byzantine rite, by the 8th century, no readings come from the Old

Testament. Instead, readings came from the Epistles of Paul and the gospels.

During Lent, when the papal stational liturgy moves from church to church, the readings are often

related to the church of the day. These original churches inspired many selections that we read for

Lent today all over the world.

II. Conclusion

This liturgy shares many elements with our contemporary celebration. This is no accident. The Ordo

Romanus Primus was one of the most important sources used by liturgical historians during and after

Vatican II, when determining how the Mass could be reformed. The post-Vatican II reformers hoped

to recapture elements of the liturgy that had fallen into disuse, especially features such as active

participation.

By this time, many elements had disappeared: regular readings from the Old Testament, general

intercessions, and the common exchange of peace were all absent.

Liturgy is a living, cultural phenomenon that inevitably grows and changes over time. We should not

judge medieval standards by our own. The medieval world had a tangible sense of the holy, but it also

had a great deal of etiquette and protocol stemming from intense societal stratification.

1) There is very little mention of laypeople in the first part of the Mass. This will change somewhat

in our next topic.


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Review Questions

1. What is stational liturgy?

2. Why does the pope reverence the consecrated bread at the beginning of the Mass?

3. Discuss the various ministries involved in the liturgy of the Word.


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Topic 8:

The Roman Mass in the Middle Ages, Part II:

Liturgy of the Eucharist

Overview

e will now continue our consideration of the history of the Roman Mass by examining

sources and evidence from the end of the eighth century in the Ordo Romanus Primus. We

will return to our previous setting, the Basilica of Saint Mary Major on Easter Sunday

morning. The pope is now seated on his throne in the apse of the church, surrounded by his assistant

bishops, presbyters, deacons, and a whole host of other ministers and officials.

I. The Setting and Ritual

At this point, a deacon and subdeacon lay out the altar cloth or corporal. A large chalice is placed atop

it.

The pope receives offerings from the men and then from the women.

In the eighth century, the bread was still leavened. The wine would also require large vessels. Various

ministers would bring these gifts to the altar.

The pope returns to his chair to wash his hands. The pope then venerates the altar table.

1) He nods to the choir to stop singing the psalm that accompanied the offering. Again, we see the

pattern of procession accompanied by chant and concluded by prayer, highlighted by Fr. Josef

Jungmann. This pattern is evident in the late eighth-century Mass.

2) The pope prays over the gifts. This prayer was first said out loud and later silently.

The pope introduces Eucharistic prayer with the customary dialogue.

1) Bow at Holy, Holy, Holy

2) The pope alone stands up straight to pray.

II. The Eucharistic Prayer

The Eucharistic prayer remained the sole such prayer of the Catholic West for over 1,400 years.

1) The prayer would later become controversial during the Protestant Reformation.

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2) The classic Eucharistic prayer seemed to be made up of

several earlier prayers joined together to incorporate all

of the essential elements: anamnesis, epiclesis, the

institution narrative, the Sanctus, a prayer of thanks-

giving, intercessions, and the doxology.

(a) Nowhere is this more evident than in the Roman

canon. Our first evidence of the canon comes from

the late fourth century, with the homilies that St.

Ambrose of Milan gave to the newly baptized. In

explaining the sacraments, Ambrose quotes the

central portion of the prayer.

3) “Lift up your hearts” begins the prayer.

4) The priest proceeds to praise and thank God. The

Roman Eucharistic prayer is unique in this regard.

(a) The first part of prayer is variable and depends on

occasion.

5) The variable portion of the prayer leads into a set

formula, introducing the Sanctus or “Holy, Holy, Holy.”

This first part of the prayer is now called the preface.

6) The fixed part of the prayer, after the Sanctus, is called

the canon. This involves a request for acceptance of gifts

followed by an intercession for the entire assembly. It

begins with the words, “We pray, therefore…”

(a) The “therefore” may have originally continued the thanksgiving of the preface.

(b) The commendation of the gifts includes a prayer for the Church and its leaders.

(c) The opening of the canon is followed by an intercession for the offerers, primarily those

standing around the altar. Over the course of the Middle Ages, this prayer was transformed

from a reference to those who make the offering to a reference to those for whom the offering

is made.

(d) This intercession is joined to a commemoration of the Virgin Mary and the saints. The

apostles and important local saints are also mentioned. This commemoration has minor

seasonal variations.

Next, the prayer repeats the idea of commending the offerings and interceding for the offerers.

1) We then come to the first formal request for consecration. The prayer is epicletic rather than

anamnetic.

Saint Ambrose of Milan


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2) The Roman canon asks God to “Make for us this offering approved, reasonable, acceptable because

it is the figure of the body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ…” In the Middle Ages, this phrasing

was changed to “…that it may become to us…”

(a) This request for consecration is the equivalent of a petition for the Holy Spirit. This part of

the prayer may have come before the doctrine of the Trinity had been settled.

The request for consecration leads into the institution narrative.

A remembrance of the Lord, or anamnesis, follows.

The priest again commends the gifts to God, mentioning the Old Testament sacrificial models of Abel,

Abraham, and Melchizedech.

Another intercession follows, this time for the departed. Then comes another commemoration for the

saints, a list of both men and women martyrs, including two non-Romans, Perpetua and Felicity.

A prayer of blessing follows.

The Roman Canon concludes with a doxology glorifying God.

III. Unique Factors in Roman Mass of this Period

The Lord’s Prayer followed the Eucharistic prayer since the late fourth century.

The Roman Rite is unique in placing the greeting of peace at this point in the celebration, after the

Lord’s Prayer and before the fraction. However, by the time of the Ordo Romanus Primus, it seems

that no one was actually exchanging a sign of peace at this point.

The fraction, the breaking of the bread, comes next, accompanied by chant, the Lamb of God. Pope

Sergius I introduced this chant around the end of the seventh century and the beginning of the eighth.

1) The pope places a piece of consecrated bread from a previous liturgy that he venerated at the

beginning of Mass into the chalice. There is but one continual Eucharist.

2) Pieces of consecrated bread from the pope’s liturgy are brought by acolytes to other churches

within the city where presbyters or priests are celebrating the liturgy for the people. Those pieces

are placed into the chalice. The original unity of the Church is symbolically preserved by these

priests or presbyters.

As we have come to expect, the Communion rite is very hierarchical.

The Mass ends with a dismissal, ite, missa est. The entire service, the Mass, gets its name from the

dismissal, from going forth into the world. There is still no formal blessing concluding the Mass and

no chanting to accompany the procession.


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Review Questions

1. How would you describe the Roman Canon compared to other Eucharistic Prayers we’ve

considered?

2. Why does the Kiss of Peace come before communion in the Roman Rite?

3. What did the Roman Rite offertory look like?


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Topic 9:

The Roman Mass in the Middle Ages, Part III:

Medieval Developments in the Mass

Overview

his section will cover seven centuries of the development of the Roman Mass, from the end of

the eighth century up until the eve of the Protestant Reformation. Our exploration will be

expansive, both temporally and geographically. We will consider the medieval mass from

Southern Italy to Scandinavia and from Poland to Ireland. Generalizations will inevitably occur. By the

end of the eighth century, the Roman Mass had reached a form very similar to what we see today. As time

went on and the Church’s sphere of influence continued to expand, further changes and additions took

place.

I. Transformation in the Church Building

Some cathedrals seem to be churches within churches.

1) The choir sits in the middle of a larger church.

2) The space needed to be a dedicated space for monks and clerics who prayed on behalf of the

church.

3) It also needed to be set off to conserve heat.

The area in front of altar was elongated, creating a large distance between the people and the liturgical

action.

Elaborate screens were used to frame altar table. Smaller churches in cities and towns mimicked the

great cathedrals, especially by constructing screens separating the choir from the rest of the assembly.

Large numbers of priests celebrating daily liturgy encouraged the building of multiple chapels and

altars within the churches.

From the eighth century on, all Western churches had altars with relics of the saints. This practice

originated with the celebration of the liturgy on or near the martyrs’ tombs.

II. Little Change in the Structure of the Liturgy, But Many Additions

The action points (the entrance procession, the procession of the gifts, and the procession for Holy

Communion) tended to see the most growth.

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1) The major growth of the medieval Mass occurred at mainly in the entrance procession and the

offertory procession.

(a) During the entrance procession, there was an increasing number of prayers at the foot of the

altar.

(b) There was a whole series of prayers at the offertory.

The Nicene Creed was added to Sunday and feast day celebrations. It was first added in the Alps.

Rome tended to be the last to accept major changes. The Creed was adopted by Rome in the tenth

century.

Finally, there was a frequent use of vernacular prayers after the Gospel on Sundays. These replaced

the general intercessions. They were in the language of the faithful.

III. Change in Posture of the Faithful

Originally, Christians stood with hands upraised for the Eucharistic prayer. This is called the orans

position. This posture is often depicted in early Christian art.

After the eleventh century, lay people began to kneel during the Eucharistic prayer and communion

and folded hands replaced the orans position.

IV. Receiving Communion

Since the fourth century, few Christians seem to have thought themselves worthy to receive Holy

Communion. Receiving Holy Communion became so infrequent that the Fourth Lateran Council of

1215 decreed that every Christian must receive Holy Communion at least once a year, between the

beginning of Lent and Trinity Sunday.

In the sixteenth century, St. Ignatius of Loyola insisted that his Jesuit students receive Communion at

least once a week. At the time, such frequency was considered radical.

Unleavened bread began to be used around the eleventh century, perhaps in an effort to avoid crumbs.

Receiving communion directly into the mouth began between the sixth and ninth centuries in France.

The withdrawal of the cup from the laity was another development. This became increasingly

controversial on the eve of the Reformation. By the thirteenth century, this practice was widespread

in the West.

Eucharistic vessels became much smaller, as unleavened bread was used and only small amounts of

wine were needed.


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V. Books of Liturgy

Originally, each minister had a book for the celebration of the liturgy.

1) The presider had a Sacramentary.

2) The first reader had the Epistolary.

3) The deacon had an Evangeliary or Gospel book.

4) The singers had the Antiphonary.

5) A master of ceremonies had the Ordo.

Because each book had to be copied by hand, it was

difficult to combine them.

Traditions tended to be local. The major centers of

Christianity, especially Rome, still set trends for the

West.

Roman books were collected in an effort to unite

Europe. This process had the unfortunate effect of

making it seem like the priest was the only

necessary minister of the Mass.

VI. Proliferation of Saint’s Days and Complexity of the Calendar

Because of local copying by hand, there still tended to be some variation in the celebration of the

Eucharist, primarily in the local celebration of the calendar.

This development had little to do with the structure of the liturgy, but did influence its celebration.

The Feast of Corpus Christi originated in Belgium with the visions of a thirteenth-century nun, Juliana

of Liege. St. Thomas Aquinas is credited with the famous hymns accompanying the divine office for

the feast.

Complex systems developed for determining which feasts and commemorations took precedence.

VII. Ceremonial: Germanization of the Liturgy

The Roman liturgy’s migration north of the Alps from the eighth century resulted in a much more

ceremonial approach in German hands.

The liturgy became much more elaborate and ceremonialized.

Corpus Christi Procession by Carl Emil Doepler


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The liturgy took on a more practical face. Individual Mass gained value that could be used to free a

soul from purgatory

1) Mass became involved with judging sin and punishment, such that the rich could endow chapels

so that Mass might be said on their behalf long after their deaths.

2) This system was easily susceptible to abuse and led to superstition. Some even thought that listing

a live person among the dead at Mass could actually kill that person.

VIII. Music

Increasingly, singing became the provenance of professional clergy and trained singers. The

architecture of churches made it possible for choirs to assist the liturgy.

Roman chant became known as Gregorian chant.

1) For a time, it competed with Gallican, Mozarabic, Ambrosian, and Milanese chants.

2) Experimentation with multiple voices began in twelfth century Paris.


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Review Questions

1. What happened to the shape of the churches in the course of the Middle Ages?

2. Discuss the major changes in the reception of Holy Communion.

3. What was the evolution of the books of the liturgy in this period?


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Topic 10:

The Mass and the Protestant Reformation

Overview

aving surveyed the medieval development of the Mass up until the end of the fifteenth century,

we now turn to a major upheaval in the Western celebration. As we have learned, the Mass

underwent significant changes between the end of late antiquity and the beginning of the eighth

century. While remaining structurally similar, the way the liturgy was celebrated and experienced

continued to transform throughout the medieval period. We now shift our focus to the Protestant

Reformation. As with the Middle Ages, the Reformation is a very large topic. At the turn of the sixteenth

century, there were a variety of responses to the Roman Catholic liturgy. These responses will be divided

into four main groups: Lutheran, Calvinist, Anglican, and the Free-Church.

I. The Protestant Reformation of the 16th Century

A number of economic and cultural developments in

sixteenth century Europe paved the way for the

Reformation.

1) Cities were becoming repopulated after the

plague subsided.

2) The printing press was invented in the fifteenth

century. This technological innovation made it

possible to disseminate information like never

before.

3) The use of printing made the Reformation more

vigorous, widespread, and public.

Martin Luther, a Doctor of Theology, saw a number

of elements of Catholicism in need of reform. The

desire for reform was much discussed in the century

preceding him. Luther’s first aim was to question

what he viewed as an oppressive penitential system.

1) He attacked the practice of selling indulgences.

(a) Although the Church forgave sins, it also

reminded Christians that the effects of sin

needed to be purified, usually only after

death.

H

Martin Luther

by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1532)


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(b) This system led Luther to emphasize the priesthood of all believers and the importance of the

word of God, which could now be disseminated in printed Bibles.

(c) Luther never intended to become a liturgical reformer.

Luther’s first attempt at reform was a relatively conservative response to radical and iconoclastic

reforms.

The Lutheran churches of the sixteenth century tended to retain statues, stained glass windows, and

the traditional eastward position of the altar. The pulpit became more significant.

II. Luther’s Two Attempts at Reforming the Mass

Luther opposed fanatics or extremists.

The Formula Missae et Communionis of 1523: Since the offertory seemed to promote salvation by our

own good works rather than faith and trust in God, Luther eliminated everything in the Roman Canon

but the preface and the words of institution.

The Deutsche Messe of 1526: Sensing the need for a liturgy in the language of the people, Luther

attempted a somewhat more adventurous reform. The liturgy had not been in the vernacular language

since the decline of the use of Latin. Again, the Liturgy of the Word remained the same. A long version

of the Lord’s Prayer now followed the sermon. Next came an admonition for worthy Communion.

1) Luther wanted every Mass to include the Communion of the faithful. This desire clashed with

medieval penitential piety and the reluctance to communicate frequently. Gradually, the frequency

of Eucharistic celebration diminished because the people did not feel prepared to receive Holy

Communion.

2) In the institution narrative, Luther further separated the administration of the consecrated bread

and cup.

III. Zwingli and Liturgy at Zurich

A different spirit prevailed in the Calvinist Reformation. The Reformation in Switzerland began in the

1520s with the priest Hudrych Zwingli. Zwingli’s approach to the liturgy was very iconoclastic. After

a fairly conservative attempt at reforming the Mass, he basically started from scratch.

1) In his “Action of the Lord’s Supper,” a sermon given in 1525, he transformed the Eucharistic

prayer into a formula for the delivery of the Eucharistic elements, spoken as a narrative by the

minister. The people remain in their places to receive Holy Communion.

2) Zwingli’s reform of the liturgy was consistent with his Eucharistic theology, which reduced the

Catholic doctrine of the real presence and anamnesis of the passion, death, and resurrection of

Christ to a mere memorial of the Last Supper.

(a) Luther’s position on the real presence was much closer to that of the Catholic Church. For

years, Luther and Zwingli engaged in a bitter controversy.


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Reformed church architecture was much more iconoclastic. In Switzerland, stained glass windows and

statues were routinely destroyed. Tables replaced altars and were often placed so that people could sit

at them for celebration of the Lord’s Supper.

Traditional Church vesture was abandoned in favor of academic garb. The minister became more of a

professor than a priest.

IV. John Calvin at Geneva and Strasbourg

John Calvin, a French lawyer turned theologian, became the pastor in Geneva in 1536. He was to

become one of the greatest theologians of all time.

Calvin did his best to navigate a middle course between the memorialist understanding of Zwingli and

the realist or Catholic position of Luther. This mediating theology was reflected in Calvin’s attempt at

liturgical reform, which owed a great deal to the great Dominican friar, Martin Bucer.

Calvin wanted the Lord’s Supper to be celebrated weekly, while Zwingli wanted it to be celebrated

four times a year.

1) Much like in Luther’s Germany and the Catholic Church, Calvin’s desire for a more frequent

Communion proved to be unsuccessful, mainly because citizens felt unworthy of taking

Communion so often.

Calvin’s liturgy of the Lord’s Supper consisted of a long confession of sin and a portion of the Ten

Commandments, followed by a psalm. Psalms in popular languages were extremely popular.

1) The psalm was followed by a prayer for illumination, a reading from the Scriptures, and a long

sermon.

2) The traditional Sunday lectionary was abandoned in favor of a reading of the pastor’s choice.

Calvin preached from the New Testament on Sundays and the Old Testament on weekdays.

3) The sermon was followed by a long prayer of intercession for civil and church leaders, those in

need, and the assembled.

4) The last prayer was filled with penitential themes, stressing the unworthiness of those gathered.

Calvin set down clear guidelines about those who could not receive Holy Communion. The

practice has been referred to as “fencing the table.” Those who will be received should be

determined the week before by the church ministers.

5) The minister reads from the institution of the Eucharist as recorded in 1 Corinthians 11. The

minister excommunicates the unworthy.

6) The instruction ends with the exhortation, a Calvinist or reformed Sursum Corda: lift up your

hearts. This theology is different from the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation. Although

Calvin wanted to affirm the real presence of Christ’s body and blood in the reception of Holy

Communion, he did not think that earthly materials were capable of communicating divine

realities.


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Review Questions

1. What are the major revisions that the reformers made to the medieval Roman Mass?

2. What is the “Reformed Sursum Corda”?

3. Why was the invention of printing so important for the Reformation?


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Topic 11: The Mass in the English Reformation,

the Free-Church Protestant Traditions,

and the Roman Catholic Response

Overview

e will now examine two more ways that Protestants attempted to reform the medieval

Catholic Mass, the Anglican reforms, and the Free-Church movement. Both of these

movements enacted significant changes that would alter the celebration of the Mass. After

concluding our exploration of Protestant reforms, we will turn to the Catholic response in the Council of

Trent. While some developments were indeed a direct reaction to the Protestant Reformation, many

Catholics within the Church had been pushing for reform for over a century. The Reformation compelled

Catholic leaders to reevaluate their conception of the Mass.

I. Anglicans

As the heirs of the English Reformation, Anglicans do not wish to be called Protestants. Therein lies

a degree of complexity in this particular reform.

In England, the Reformation began as a political movement. King Henry VIII was staunchly Catholic

in his theology and attitude toward the Mass. However, many of his advisors, such as Thomas

Cromwell and the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, were sympathetic with the

Reformation taking place on the continent. It wasn’t until Henry VIII’s death that they were free to

proceed as they wished.

II. Thomas Cranmer and the Book of Common Prayer

Soon, readings at Mass took place in English. In 1548, The Order of the Communion was published.

The Communion rite was also translated into English. The rest of the Mass remained the same until

June 1549.

The first Book of Common Prayer of King Edward VI went into effect in 1549.

1) The entire liturgy was now celebrated in English.

2) The calendar was simplified, especially with regard to non-New Testament saints.

3) The diverse local rites were abolished and uniformity reigned throughout England and Wales.

4) The people’s parts were restored.

5) The new liturgy followed the sequence and structure of the Roman Mass.

W


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6) Changes came with the liturgy of the Eucharist proper. A long and wordy exhortation, warning

about unworthy reception, followed the Nicene Creed.

7) Thomas Cranmer, who was principally responsible for this liturgy, knew that the Eucharistic

sacrifice was characterized by praise and thanksgiving in many parts of the early Church. He also

connected the thanksgiving with Romans 12:1, where Paul explains that the sacrifice of Christians

is a spiritual sacrifice.

8) The confession of sins concluded with the Prayer of Humble Access, which conveys the medieval

and Reformation reluctance to take Holy Communion lightly.

9) This version of the liturgy was met with a considerable amount of resistance, especially in western

England. It was also met with some confusion by priests and bishops, who were unsure whether

the theology behind the rite was meant to be Protestant or Catholic.

Cranmer produced a more radical liturgy in the Book of Common Prayer of 1552.

1) He was aided and encouraged by a number of Protestants.

2) The eastern Altar replaced was with a table. The priest stood at the north side.

3) He added Ten Commandments after the opening collect for purity.

4) He drastically reordered Eucharistic prayer and removed the epicletic language.

5) He altered the Communion formulas to convey an understanding of Christ’s presence that Zwingli

would have been more comfortable with. The Lord’s Prayer came after Communion.

6) Cranmer added “Glory to God to the Highest” after Communion.

7) The Anglican liturgy has its own rich and complex history.

III. The Puritans and Free-Church Worship

This tradition had a significant impact on Christian worship from the sixteenth century on and remains

popular today.

Many Christians wanted more radical reform.

Some rejected set liturgies in favor of general patterns of worship. These groups tended to construct

churches with pulpits for preaching. The great processional spaces of the early basilicas were

transformed into auditoriums for the hearing and preaching of God’s word.

The celebration of the Lord’s Supper was reduced to four times a year.

IV. The Catholic Reaction and Response

How was the Catholic liturgy affected by this turmoil? We will explore six key responses to the

Reformation. Many of the changes discussed in the Council of Trent were the result of reform


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movements within the Church, rather than a

reaction to the Protestant reformers. Almost

nothing changed in the structure and content of

the Mass itself.

1) The advent of the printing press made

standardization possible. Trent mandated

that local rites must have had standing for

200 years could remain. Otherwise, all had

to follow a new Missal reformed according

to ancient practices. Trent was concluded

in 1563. Pope Pius V issued the new

Missal in 1570.

(a) This missal remained in use until 1969.

The model seems to be that of a low

Mass, with a single priest and no

music. This demonstrates that Catholic

reformers did not have much access to

historical sources.

1) Catholics rejected several specific Protestant tenants.

(a) They would not use the language of the vernacular.

(b) There would be no distribution of the blood of Christ to the people.

2) There were significant changes in Church architecture.

(a) There was no longer need for an elongated choir. Thus, altars came closer to the people.

(b) Altars became very elaborate.

3) There was a renewed emphasis on preaching in response to the Reformation.

4) Churches became elaborately decorated in contrast to the iconoclasm of the Protestants.

5) Catholics retained a rich musical tradition. The people could not sing this music.

6) The Council of Trent enshrined the theological tradition of St. Thomas Aquinas.

(a) Trent reaffirmed the use of the term transubstantiation.

(b) The Council insisted that the Mass was a real sacrifice.

Council of Trent by Pasquale Cati (1588)


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Review Questions

1. What are the major differences between the 1549 and 1552 Books of Common Prayer?

2. What characterizes Free Church worship?

3. How did the Catholic Church respond to the Protestant challenge?


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Topic 12: Liturgical Reform from the 18th Century to

the Present

Overview

n this presentation, we will consider changes that took place in the Catholic Mass from the

Enlightenment up to the present. The Enlightenment, a period of rediscovery of science and reason

in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, led to another push for reform by Roman Catholic

leadership. We will also briefly touch on some of the developments that occurred in the Anglican and

Protestant churches during the same period. Finally, our survey of the history of the Mass will conclude

with an examination of the reforms mandated by the Second Vatican Council.

I. Enlightenment

Reason seemed to triumph over medieval faith. Many of the superstitions of the Middle Ages appeared

to be a thing of the past.

Even Catholics were caught up in this new intellectual freedom. In the southern German and northern

Italian parts of the Holy Roman Empire, bishops and theologians became convinced that further

reforms were needed.

II. Synod of Pistoia

In 1786, a bishop named Scipione de’ Ricci convoked a local synod in his Tuscan diocese of Pistoia.

The results of the synod were fairly radical.

1) There should not be public liturgical processions in the streets.

2) Relics should no longer be venerated.

3) Multiple altars were to be removed from the Church.

4) The Calendar was to be pruned of many feasts.

5) Monastic orders, except for Benedictines, were to be abolished.

6) The use of the vernacular was to be embraced in the celebration of the liturgy.

In 1794, Pope Pius VI condemned these reforms. Some clerics in other parts of the world did favor

the use of the vernacular, but these reforms would have to wait.

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III. Protestant and Anglican Movements in the 19th Century

In the wake of the traumatic and bloody French Revolution, many artists and intellectuals began to

lose faith in the absolute triumph of reason. This sentiment contributed to the rise of the Romantic

Movement, which looked back on the middle Ages as a peaceful period. The Romantic reaction

inspired a desire to return to the older Catholic liturgy.

The Tractarians of the Oxford uncovered many of the pieces of evidence that we surveyed in our study

of the early history of the Mass. Tractarians such as John Henry Newman and Edward Pusey wanted

to recover theology and the Church.

Many Gothic buildings are a product of this revival, as is the liturgy as it is currently celebrated in

many Anglican churches.

This period also saw a revival of monastic orders in England.

IV. Dom Prosper Gueranger

At the same time, the French Revolution and the increasingly harsh and unjust conditions resulting

from the Industrial Revolution horrified many European Catholics.

Prosper Gueranger, a young Belgian priest, refounded Benedictine monasticism for the French-

speaking world.

He was also an opponent of neo-Gallicanism, meaning he was against the development of local rites,

practices, and piety. Instead, he called for a return to the true Roman liturgy and a revival of Gregorian

chant at his monastery.

Vestments were changed to a lighter gothic style, symbolizing a return to a more medieval Christianity.

V. Pope Pius X

By the beginning of the twentieth century, the time was ripe for liturgical reform.

Pope Pius X instituted the first major reform of the liturgy. He issued a decree on Gregorian chant in

1903. In this decree, Pius coined a phrase that would become an important slogan for liturgical reform

for the rest of the century: “We deem it necessary to provide before anything else for the sanctity and

dignity of the temple in which the faithful assemble for no other object than that of acquiring this Spirit

from its foremost and indispensible font, which is the active participation in the most holy mysteries,

and in the public and solemn prayer of the Church.”

Several years later, Pope Pius X issued another decree urging more frequent public communion.

Around the same time, Belgian priest Lambert Beauduin became a Benedictine Monk and founded

several important abbeys, including Mont Cesar in Leuven and Amay sur Meuse, later moved to

Chevetogne. Mont Cesar became active in the liturgical movement, inspiring a great deal of

scholarship. Amay sur Meuse was intended to be an ecumenical monastery, reaching out to the

Orthodox and the Christian East.


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1) Beauduin’s put into practice Pope Pius X’s desire for more active participation in the liturgy. He

wanted to help people understand the Mass and the rest of the

Church’s liturgy by instituting liturgical study weeks and popular

liturgical journals. The movement began to catch on in Germany

and Austria.

Some major advances in historical scholarship occurred in the 1930s

and 1940s.

1) Abbot Ildefonso Schuster published a five volume series called

The Sacramentary.

2) Pius Parsch wrote The Liturgical Year.

3) Josef Jungmann completed his magnum opus, Missarum

Sollemnia: The Mass of the Roman Rite, in the midst of World

War II.

4) At the same time, Gregory Dix, an English Anglican Benedictine, wrote a massive volume on the

history of the Eucharist, in an attempt to revive its four action shape: taking, blessing, breaking,

and giving.

5) Advances were also being made on the theological front.

VI. Pope Pius XII

Pius XII served as Pope from 1939 to 1958. He was the last pope before Vatican II.

After WWII, liturgical reform matured.

In 1947, Pius XII issued an encyclical entitled Mediator Dei, a charter for a major reform of the liturgy.

In doing so, he gave his stamp of approval to the twentieth century liturgical movement.

Various American figures influenced the movement for liturgical study.

1) In the US, national liturgical study weeks attracted thousands.

Pius XII established liturgical commission in Vatican to pursue the reform of the liturgy.

1) Annibale Bugnini served as secretary. He would go on to become the architect of the post-Vatican

II reform.

2) The commission reformed the Easter Vigil and all of Holy Week.

VII. Pope John XXIII

Pope John XXIII set up a new Council, which was reliant on historical retrieval. Now, many elements

of the past have been retrieved to make for a richer liturgical and sacramental life.

Pope Pius X (1910)


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Review Questions

1. How were the decisions of the Synod of Pistoia similar to the Vatican II liturgy reform?

2. How did Pope Pius X promote active participation and the beginnings of the popular liturgical

movement?

3. What changes did Pope Pius XII make that prepared the way for Vatican II?


STUDY GUIDE


Suggested Readings

Cabié, Robert. History of the Mass. New York: Pastoral, 1992.

Foley, Edward. From Age to Age How Christians celebrated the Eucharist. Chicago: Liturgy

Training Publications, 1991.

Jungmann, Josef. Missarum Sollemnia: The Mass of the Roman Rite, 2 vols., English

translation by Francis Brunner, New York: Benziger, 1955.

Metzger, Marcel. History of the Liturgy the Major Stages. Collegeville, Minn: Liturgical,

1997.

Senn, Frank C. Christian Liturgy Catholic and Evangelical. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress, 1997.

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