the history of the english language

Р.В. Резник, Т.А. Сорокина, И.В. Резник

A HISTORYOF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

ИСТОРИЯАНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

Учебное пособие

Рекомендовано Учебно-методическим объединениемпо лингвистическому образованию Министерства образования

Российской Федерации в качестве учебного пособиядля студентов и аспирантов лингвистических

вузов и факультетов

МоскваИздательство «Флинта»Издательство «Наука»

2001

УДК 802.0ББК 8J.2 Англ

Р 34,

Резник Р.В., Сорокина Т.А., Резник И.В.A History of the English Language. История английского языка:

Учебное пособие. — М.: Флинта: Наука, 2001. — 496 с.ISBN 5-89349-176-9 (Флинта)ISBN 5-02-022584-3 (Наука)

Первая часть пособия — краткий лекционный курс; вторая —хрестоматия: содержит подборку текстов, включающих образцы древ-неанглийского, среднеанглийского и новоанглийского периодов, свопросами и заданиями к ним; третья — словарь к текстам и крат-кий справочник по их анализу и переводу. Приложение включаетвопросы для повторения и самоконтроля.

Для студентов и аспирантов лингвистических вузов и факуль-тетов, а также всех, интересующихся историей английского языка.

Учебное издание

Резник Р.В., Сорокина Т.А., Резник Й.В.

A HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGEИСТОРИЯ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

Изготовление оригинал-макета ООО "ВЕНЗИ"

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ОГЛАВЛЕНИЕ

стр.Оглавление 3Предисловие 7Часть 1. Лекции 13

1 Введение. Общая характеристикагерманских языков 15

2 Древнеанглийский период. Общаяхарактеристика 33

3 Среднеанглийский период. Общаяхарактеристика , 48

4 Новоанглийский период. Общаяхарактеристика 63

5 Фонетика древнеанглийского периода 776 Грамматика древнеанглийского периода.

Система имени 897 Грамматика древнеанглийского периода.

Система глагола \ 1078 Изменения в фонетической системе в

среднеанглийский и новоанглийскийпериоды 126

9 Изменения в системе имени в средне-английский и новоанглийский периоды 145

10 Изменения в системе глагола в средне-английский и новоанглийский периоды 157

11. Словарный состав английского языка 17312 Этимологические слои современногого

английского языка 190

Часть 2. Семинары 2031. Вводный семинар. Германские языки 2052. Основные характеристики германских

языков. Грамматика 2083. Обзор периодов в истории английского

языка. Общая характеристика древне-английского периода 211

4. Фонетика древнеанглийского периода.Гласные 217

5. Фонетика древнеанглийского периода.Согласные.' 220

з

Имя 2 2 1

7. Грамматика древнеанглийского периода.Глагол 2 2 6

8. Древнеанглийский период. Обсуждение .... 2289. Общая характеристика средне-

английского периода 23110. Фонетика среднеанглийского периода.

Гласные 24011. Фонетика среднеанглийского периода.

Согласные 24112. Грамматика среднеанглийского периода.

Имя : 24413. Грамматика среднеанглийского периода.

Глагол 24714. Среднеанглийский период. Обсуждение .... 24815. Общая характеристика новоанглийского

периода 25116. Фонетика новоанглийского периода.

Гласные 26117. Фонетика новоанглийского периода.

Согласные 26318. Грамматика новоанглийского периода.

Имя 26719. Грамматика новоанглийского периода.

Глагол : 27120. Словарный состав английского языка 27221. Слои словарного состава языка 27422. Современные правильные и неправильные

формы имени и глагола 277Часть 3. Ключи 281

Семинары 3 и 6. Путешествие Охтхере 283Семинары 4, 5 и 7. Хроники 301Семинары 9, 10 и 12. Чосер 316Семинары 11 и 13. Тревиза 338Семинары 15, 16 и 18. Шекспир, "Гамлет" 359Семинар 20. Шекспир, Сонет 396Семинар 21. Диккенс 405

Часть 4. Глоссарий 419

Часть 5. Краткое изложение лекций 477Лекции1-12 ' " 479

4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

pagesОглавление 3Table of Contents '. 5Предисловие 7Foreword 10

Part 1. Lectures 131 Introductory. General Characteristics

of Germanic Languages 152 Old English. General Characteristics 333 Middle English. General Characteristics 484 New English. General Characteristics 635 Old English phonetics 776 Old English grammar. The nominal system 897 Old English grammar. The verbal system 1078 Changes in the phonetic system in Middle

and New English 1269 Changes in the nominal system in Middle

and New English 14510 Changes in the verbal system in Middle

and New English 15711 English vocabulary 17312 Ethymological strata in Modern English 190

Part 2. Seminars 2031. Introductory. Germanic languages 2052. Chief characteristics of Germanic languages.

Grammar 2083. Survey of the periods in the history of English.

General characteristics of the Old Englishperiod 211

4. Old English phonetics. Vowels 2175. Old English phonetics. Consonants 2206. Old English grammar. Noun 2217. Old English grammar. Verb 226

5

8. Old English. Discussion 2289. General characteristics of the Middle English

period • 23110. Middle English phonetics. Vowels 24011. Middle English phonetics. Consonants 24112. Middle English grammar. Noun 24413. Middle English grammar. Verb 24714. Middle English. Discussion 24815. General characteristics of the New English

period 25116. New English phonetics. Vowels 26117,. New English phonetics. Consonants 26318. New English grammar. Noun 26719. New English grammar. Verb 27120. English wordstock 27221. Vocabulary layers 27422. Modern regular and irregular noun and verb

forms 277Part 3. Keys 281

Key to Seminars 3 & 6. Ohthere's account of hisfirst voyage 283

Key to Seminars 4,5 & 7. Anglo-SaxonChronicle 301

Key to Seminars 9, 10 & 12. Chaucer, CanterburyTales ....316

Key to Seminars 11 & 13. Trevisa, Aboutthelanguages of the inhabitants 338

Key to Seminars 15, 16 & 18. Shakespeare,Hamlet ; 359

Key to Seminar 20. Shakespeare, Sonnet 396Key to Seminar 21. Dickens, David Copperfield .... 405

Part 4. Glossary 419Part 5. Summary 477

Лекции1-12 479

6

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Предлагаемый учебный комплекс предназначен длястудентов и аспирантов-филологов, а также всех лиц,интересующихся вопросами исторического развития языка ижелающих расширить свои знания о нем.

В состав комплекса входит курс лекций, задания ксеминарам, ключи, словарь и краткое капсульнбе изложениелекций.

Объем материала (12 лекций и 22 семинаров) рассчитанна прохождение курса в течение 2 семестров, согласно новойпрограмме подготовки специалистов на филологическихфакультетах институтов и университетов.

Весь комплекс отличает стройность построения поединому плану. Это относится как к лекциям, так и ксеминарским занятиям, где работа проводится по едидойлогической схеме, от простого к сложному и от общего кчастному, с постепенным углублением и конкретизациейзнаний по каждому периоду исторического развития языка.Четкость и прозрачность структуры подачи материала и егоанализа позволяет студенту уделить больше вниманиясодержательной стороне курса.

Лекции (Часть 1) сопровождаются большимколичеством таблиц и примеров, делающих теоретическиеположения более наглядными и запоминающимися. Схемы итаблицы, кроме того, могут использоваться впоследствии входе выполнения практических, заданий на семинарскихзанятиях.

Материалы для проведения семинаров (Часть '2)содержат теоретические вопросы для обсуждения в классе' ипрактические задания. Непременным компонентом каждогосеминара (за исключением вводного) является анализаутентичного текста соответствующего исторического

7

периода с точки зрения его фонетических, грамматических иэтимологических особенностей.

Семинары разбиты на блоки, соответствующиепериодам истории английского языка. Первые семинарыкаждого блока содержат модель анализа текста; дляпоследующих семинаров предусмотрена возможностьсамостоятельной работы с проверкой сделанного анализа поключам, приведенным после семинаров (Часть 3).Заключительный семинар каждого блока содержит текст дляанализа без ключей, который предлагается провести иоформить в соответствии с изученной моделью и представитьв качестве составной части итоговой письменной работы,позволяющей провести оценку усвоения материала.

В книге приводится словарь (Часть 4), содержащийнеобходимые сведения структурного и этимологическогохарактера в отношении всех языковых единиц, содержащихсяв текстах семинаров, и позволяющий студенту проводить иханализ и выполнять другие практические задания семинаров.

После лекций приводится их краткое капсульноеизложение на русском языке с отсылкой на соответствующиеразделы той или иной лекции (Часть 5). Подобная отсылкавозможна благодаря четкой и достаточно дробнойрубрикации текста лекций. Этот раздел предназначен длябыстрого напоминания основных тем курса, удобства поискасоответствующей темы, а также может использоваться дляпредварительного ознакомления с изучаемой проблематикойлиц, чьи практические знания языка несколько затрудняютдля них адекватную работу с английским текстом. Выборрусского языка в качестве языка для изложения капсульногоизложения предмета объясняется стремлением сделать курсболее доступным, расширить круг лиц, которые могли быпользоваться предлагаемым пособием, и упростить ихработу.

От имеющихся изданий подобного рода учебныйкомплекс, помимо прочего, отличают:

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— самодостаточность, не требующая привлечениядругих источников для усвоения определенногопрограммой материала;

— четкость и компактность изложения материала;

— ясная структура и модульная система его подачи;

— детальная рубрикация, позволяющая осуществлятьперекрестную отсылку и быстрый поиск нужнойинформации;

— возможность использования лицами с разнымуровнем владения английским языком;

— наличие большого объема материала длясеминарских занятий с подробной разработкойплана их проведения, теоретическими,практическими и текстовыми заданиями;

— ключи к заданиям по анализу текстов различныхпериодов, позволяющие использовать их длясамоконтроля;

— задания для самостоятельной работы, дающиевозможность студентам творчески осмыслитьматериал и провести небольшую работуисследовательского характера, оформленную в видеписьменной итоговой курсовой илиэкзаменационной работы;

— тщательно выверенный глоссарий, содержащийсловарные единицы разных периодов английскогоязыка;

— наличие в конце каждой лекции небольшой статьипознавательного характера, тематически связанной спредметом данной лекции и делающей изучениематериала не только полезным, но и приятным.

Авторыч

FOREWORD

Trie, present study manual is intended for philology studentsEind post-graduates, as well as all those interested in the problemsof historical development of the language and wishing to extendtheir knowledge of it.

T^.manual consists of a set of lectures, seminars includingmaterials for recapitulation, keys, tasks for independent work aridcontrol of retention, as well as a glossary.

The scope and volume of the material (12 lectures and 22seminars) is calculated for a course of studies during 2 semesters,according to the new program of training specialists at philologyfaculties and departments of universities.

Th,e whole complex follows a clearly defined plan. This,refers both to the lectures and seminars, where all activity is to beconducted according to. a uniform pattern, from simple todifficult and from general to particular, with gradualcomplication and deepening of knowledge on each period of thehistorical development of the language. The clear and. well-defined structure of the material presentation and analysis allows!the sjxident to pay more attention to the informative content of the;course,

The lectures (Part 1) are accompanied by many tables and,language, examples making the theoretical notions more visualand easy to remember. Besides that, the schemes and tables canbe used later when fulfilling practical tasks for the seminars.

The'materials for conducting seminars (Part 2) containtheoretical' problems for discussion in class and practical tasks.An indispensable.component of each seminar, (except for theintroductory one) is the analysis of an authentic text of theappropriate historical period from the point of view of itsphonetic, grammar and etymological features.

The' seminars are divided into units corresponding to theperiods in the history of the English language, The first seminars

10

of each unit contain a text analysis pattern; the subsequentseminars provide for the possibility of independent work to bechecked using the keys.(Part 3). The final seminar of each unitcontains a text for analysis with no keys; a written analysis of thistext is to form a part of the course paper permitting to evaluatethe comprehension and mastering of the material.

The manual includes a glossary (Part 4) containing thenecessary structural and etymological data concerning alllanguage units to be found in the texts of the seminars andpermitting the student to conduct their analysis and perform otherpractical tasks.

There is also a brief capsule summary of the lectures givenin Russian with reference to the appropriate sections of the fulltext of the lectures (Part 5). Such reference is possible due toclear and sufficiently detailed subdivision of the text of thelectures according to subject headings. This section is intended asa reminder of the principal topics of the course, allowing aconvenient method of search for an appropriate issue, and canalso be used for preliminary acquaintance with the studiedproblems of those whose practical knowledge of the language isyet not fully adequate for free work with the English text. Thechoice of Russian as the language for the summary of the subjectis explained by the desire to make the course easier and morereadily accessible to a larger group of readers.

The manual differs from other similar publications in thefollowing:

— self-sufficiency requiring no additional sources formastering the material stipulated by the programme;

—; clear and concise recital of the material;

— transparent structure and modular system of itspresentation;

— detailed division into subsections permitting cross-reference and fast finding of the necessary information;

I!

— possibility of use by thos e with a different level ofknowledge of English;

— extensive material for seminars with an in-depth plan,theoretical, practical and text analysis tasks;

— keys to the analysis of the texts of different periodsallowing their use for self-control;

— tasks for independent work giving the students apossibility to creatively interpret the material and toconduct a limited research with the results to be presentedas a written course or exam paper;

— carefully checked-out glossary containing vocabularyentries of different periods of the English language;

— presence of a brief article at the end of each lecture givingsome interesting facts connected with the topic of thelecture and making the study of the material not onlyuseful, but also pleasant.

Authors

Tart 1, Lectures"Learning makes life more rewarding and enjoyable;

...the worst thing of all is ignorance."King Alfred the Great

Mappe Monde from a MS of the 9th century at the Strasburg library

- one of the oldest existing maps of the world

List of Lectures

pages

1 Introductory. General Characteristics

of Germanic Languages 15

2 Old English. General Characteristics 33

3 Middle English. General Characteristics 48

4 New English. General Characteristics 63

5 Old English phonetics 77

6 Old English grammar. The nominal system 89

7 Old English grammar. The verbal system 107

8 Changes in the phonetic system in Middleand New English 126

9 Changes in the nominal system in Middleand New English 145

10 Changes in the verbal system in Middle

and New English 157

11 English vocabulary 173

12 Ethymological strata in Modern English 190

LECTURE 1.INTRODUCTORY.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICSOF GERMANIC LANGUAGES

"The Germans themselves I should regard asaboriginal, and not mixed at all with other races... Forwho would leave Asia, or Africa or Italy for Germany, withits wild country, its inclement skies, its sullen manners andaspect, unless indeed it were his home? ...The nameGermany, on the other hand, they say is modern and newlyintroduced, from the fact that the tribes which first crossedthe Rhine and drove out the Gauls, and are now calledTungrians, were then called Germans. Thus what was thename of a tribe, and not of a race, gradually prevailed, tillall called themselves by this self-invented name ofGermans, which the conquerors had first employed toinspire terror."

Tacitus, Germania

List of principal questions:

1. The aim of the study Of the subject

2. Inner and outer history of the language

3. Chief characteristics of the Germanic languages

3.1. Phonetics

3.2. Grammar

3.3. Alphabet

\5

PART i. LECTURES

1. The aim of the study of the subject

It is well known that language, whether it is English, Russianor any other, is a historical phenomenon. As such it does not stayunchanged for any considerable period of time, or for any time atall, but it inconstantly changing throughout its history.

The changes affect all the spheres of the language: grammarand vocabulary, phonetics and spelling. The changes that anylanguage undergoes are gradual and very slow but pronouncedenough if you compare the stages of its development within acentury or even half a century. You can imagine that with thepassage of time the difference between different stages of thedevelopment of the language grows and you will easily deducethat if you speak of such a language as English the history ofwhich embraces over fifteen centuries you will have to analyzeand explain a great number of linguistic data characterizing thelanguage at different stages of its history.

The aims set before a student of the history of the Englishlanguage are as follows:

1. to speak of the characteristics of the language at theearlier stages of its development;

2. to trace the language from the Old English period up tomodern times;

3. to explain the principal features in the development ofmodern language historically.

To achieve those aims a student will have to know thetheoretical basis of the subject and to work with the text to applythe theoretical knowledge to the practical analysis of Englishtexts at different periods of the language development.

While speaking about the importance of theoretical courseswe may quoting Simeon Potter's words:

16

1. INTRODUCTORY. GERMANIC LANGUAGES

"We cannot know too much about the language wespeak every day of our lives... knowledge is power. Thepower of rightly chosen words is very great, whetherthese words are intended to inform, to entertain or tomove."

Simeon Potter, Our language

Thus the main purpose of studying the history of the Englishlanguage is to account for the present-day stage of the languageto enable a student of English to read books and speak thelanguage with understanding and due knowledge of the intricateand complicates "mechanism" they use.

We said that the history of any language is an unbroken chainof changes more or less rapid. But though the linguistic traditionis unbroken it is impossible to study the language of over 15centuries long without subdividing it into smaller periods. Thusthe history of the English language is generally subdividedconventionally into Old English (5th—11th century), MiddleEnglish (11th—15"' century) and New English (15th century—tillnow).

2. Inner and outer history of the languageWe are going to speak about the inner and the outer history

of the English language. The outer history of the language is theevents in the life (history) of the people speaking this languageaffecting the language, i.e. the history of the people reflected intheir language. The inner history .of the language is thedescription of the changes in the language itself, its grammar,phonetics, vocabulary or spelling.

It is well known that the English language belongs to theGermanic subdivision of the Indo-European family of languages.The direct and indirect evidence that we have concerning oldGermanic tribes and dialects is approx-imatelv-.twenty centuries

17

PART I. LECTURES

old. We know that at the beginning of AD Germanic tribesoccupied vast territories in western, central and northern Europe.The tribes and the dialects they spoke at the time were generallyvery much alike, but the degree of similarity varied. It is commonto speak about the East Germanic group of dialects — mainlyspoken in central Europe — Gothic, Vandalic, Burgundian; NorthGermanic group of dialects — Old Norwegian, Old Danish, OldSwedish, Old Icelandic; and the West Germanic group of dialects— the dialects of Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians and others,originally spoken in western Europe. The first knowledge ofthese tribes comes from the Greek and Roman authors which,together with archeological data, allows to obtain information onthe structure of their society, habits, customs and languages.

The principal East Germanic language is Gothic. At thebeginning of our era the Goths lived on a territory from theVistula to the shores of the Black Sea. The knowledge of Gothicwe have now is almost wholly due to a translation of the Gospelsand other parts of the New Testament made by Ulfilas, amissionary who christianized the Gothic tribes. Except for somerunic inscriptions in Scandinavia it is the earliest record of aGermanic language we possess. For a time the Goths played aprominent part in European history, making extensive conquestsin Italy and Spain. In these districts, however, their language soongave place to Latin, and even elsewhere it seems not to havemaintained a very tenacious existence. Gothic survived longest inthe Crimea, where vestiges of it were noted down in the sixteenthcentury.

North Germanic is found in Scandinavia and Denmark.Runic inscriptions from the third century preserve our earliesttraces of the language. In its earlier form the commonScandinavian language is conveniently spoken of as Old Norse.From about the eleventh century on, dialectal differences becomenoticeable. The Scandinavian languages fall into two groups:

ix

/. INTRODUCTORY. GERMANIC LANGUAGES

Map 1-1. Germanic tribes in Europe

PART 1. LECTURES

an eastern group including Swedish and Danish, and a westerngroup including Norwegian and Icelandic. Of the earlyScandinavian languages Old Icelandic is much the mostimportant. Iceland was colonized by settlers from Norway aboutA.D. 874 and preserved a body of early heroic literatureunsurpassed among the Germanic peoples. Among the moreimportant monuments are the Elder or Poetic Edda, a collectionof poems that probably date from the tenth or eleventh century,the Younger or Prose Edda compiled by Snorri Sturluson (1178—1241), and about forty sagas, or prose epics, in which the livesand exploits of various traditional figures are related.

West Germanic is of chief interest to us as the group to whichEnglish belongs. It is divided into two branches, High and LowGerman, by the operation of a Second (or High German) Sound-Shift analogous to that described below as Grimm's Law. Thischange, by which West Germanic p, t, k, d, etc. were changedinto other sounds, occurred about A.D. 600 in the southern ormountainous part of the Germanic area, but did not take place inthe lowlands to the north. Accordingly in early times wedistinguish as Low German tongues Old Saxon, Old LowFranconian, Old Frisian, and Old English. The last two areclosely related and constitute a special or Anglo-Frisiansubgroup. Old Saxon has become the essential constituent ofmodern Low German or Plattdeutsch; Old Low Franconian, withsome mixture of Frisian and Saxon elements, is the basis ofmodern Dutch in Holland and Flemish in northern Belgium; andFrisian survives in the Dutch province of Friesland, in a smallpart of Schleswig, in the islands along the coast, etc. HighGerman comprises a number of dialects and is dividedchronologically into Old High German (before 1100), MiddleHigh German (1100—1500), and Modern High German (since1500). High German, especially as spoken in the midlands andused in the imperial chancery, was popularized by Luther's

20


translation of the Bible into it (1522—1532), and since thesixteenth century has gradually established itself as the literarylanguage of Germany.

3. Chief characteristicsof the Germanic languages

The barbarian tribes — Goths, Vandals, Lombards, Franks,Frisians, Teutons, Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Scandinavians —lived on the fringes of the Roman Empire. All these spokeGermanic languages, which had distinctive characteristics ofstructure and pronunciation which are reflected in itsdescendants.

3.1. Phonetics

One of the most important common features of all Germaniclanguages is its strong dynamic stress falling on the first rootsyllable. The fixed stress emphasised the syllable bearing themost important semantic element and to a certain degree latercontributed to the reduction of unstressed syllables, changing thegrammatical system of the languages.

The most important feature of the system of Germanicvowels is the so-called Ablaut, or gradation, which is aspontaneous, positionally independent alteration of vowelsinhabited by the Germanic languages from the Common Indo-European period. This ancient phenomenon consisted inalteration of vowels in the root, suffix or ending depending on thegrammatical form or meaning of the word.

There are two types of Ablaut: quantitative and qualitative.The qualitative Ablaut is the alteration of different vowels,mainly the vowels [e] / [a] or [e] / [o]

21

PART I. LECTURES

Old Icelandic bera (to give birth) — barn (baby)Old High German stelan (to steal) — stal (stole)Cf.: Russian бреду (I stroll, I wade) — брОД (ford, wade)

Latin tego (to cover, to cloth) — toga (clothes)

Quantitative Ablaut means the change in length ofqualitatively one and the same vowel: normal, lengthened andreduced. A classic example of the Indo-European Ablaut is thedeclension of the Greek word "pater" (father):

[e:] [e] [—\pater pater patros

(nominative case, (vocative case, (genitive case,lengthened stage) normal stage) reduced stage)

Ablaut in Germanic languages is a further development ofIndo-European alterations. Here we often find cases with both thequantitative and qualitative ablaut. It should be also mentionedthat in the zero stage before sonorants an extra-short vowel [u]was added:

quantitative ablaut

Goth1 qiman (to come) — qums (the arrival)qualitative ablautOHG stelan (to steal) — stal (stole)quantitative+quaUtative ablautOE . findan (to find) — fand (found, — fundan (found,

past tense) past part.)

Ablaut as a kind of an internal flexion functioned in OldGemnanic languages both in form- and word-building, but it wasthe most extensive and systematic in the conjugation of strongverbs.1 We shall use the following abbreviations for the names of the languages:

Gk - Greek Old - Old IcelandicGoth - Gothic OSc - Old ScandinavianLat - Latin OSx - Old SaxonOE - Old English Rus - RussianOHG - Old High German Snsk - Sanskrit

22

/.INTRODUCTORY. GERMANIC LANGUAGES

Another phenomenon common for all Germanic languageswas the tendency of phonetic assimilation of the root vowel to thevowel of the ending, the so-called -Umlaut, or mutation. Therewere several types of mutation, but the most important one waspalatal mutation, or i-Umlaut, when under the influence of thesounds [i] or.{j] in the suffix or ending the root vowels becamemore front and more closed. This process must have taken placein the 5lh,—6lh centuries, and-can-be,.illustrated by comparingwords from the language of the 'Qothic bible (4lh century)showing no palatal mutation with corresponding words in otherGermanic languages of a later period.!)

Goth harjis OE here (annyy,Goth domjan OE deman (deem);Goth kuni OE cynn (шк

Traces of this tendency can be" seen both in word-buildingand form-building as a kind of an internal flexion:

OHG gast (guest) — gestl (guests)man (man) — mennisco (human)

Speaking about Germanic caiisonans, we should first of allspeak of the correspondence between Indo-European andGermanic languages which was,presented as- a system ofinterconnected facts by the German linguist Jacob Grimm in1822. This phenomenon is called the First Consonant Shift, orGrimm's law.

The table below shows-a scheme of Grimm's law with theexamples from Germanic and other Indo-European languages..

However, there are-some, instances where Grimm's lawseems not to apply. These cases were explained by a Dutchlinguist Karl Ver.ner, and the seeming exceptions from Grimm'slaw have come to be known as Venter's law.

23

PART 1.

1

2

3

LECTURES

Indo-European

voiceless stopsp t к

Lat paterLat tresGk kardia

voiced stopsb d g

Rus болотоLat duoGk egon

voiced aspirated stops'bh dh gh

7Ш(? /-/. Grimm's law

Germanic

voiceless fricatives

f p h

0 £ fseder (father)Gtff/? preis (three)<9#G herza (heart)

voiceless stopsp t к

OE pol (pool)Goth twai (two)O/c/ ek (I)

voiced non-aspirated stops

b d g __

SnskLatSnskRus*Snsk

Gk

bhratarfrater, Rus братmadhuмедsonghaomphe (voice)

OE

OE

Old

brodor

medu (mead)

syngva (sing)

Verner's law explains the changes in the Germanic voicelessfricatives f p h resulting from the first consonant shift and thevoiceless fricatives depending upon the position of the stress inthe original Indo-European word, namely:

'Note that the correspondencies in the third group are less clear, for aspirated,stops can be found only in Sanskrit, the other Indo-European languages havingeither voiceless fricatives or voiced stops, and the [gh] sound in Sanskrit is onlyreconstructed.

24

Л INTRODUCTORY. GERMANIC LANGUAGES

Table 1-2. Verner's law

Indo-European Germanic

p t к s b d/d g z/r

Gk hepta Goth sibun (seven)Gk pater OSc fadir, OE faederG& dekas Gof/г tigus (ten, a dozen)Sn.yfe ayas Goth aiz, O#G er (bronze)

According to Verner's law, the above change occurred if theconsonant in question was found after an unstressed vowel. It isespecially evident in the forms of Germanic strong verbs, exceptthe Gothic ones, which allows to conclude that at some time thestress in the first two verbal stems fell on the root, and in the lasttwo — on the suffix:

OEOSxGoth

OEOldGoth

teontiohantiuhan

ceosankiosakiusan

teahtohtauh

ceaskauskaus

Ш30П

tuguntauhum

curonk0romkusum

3.2. Grammar

to3en (to tug)gitogantauhans

coren (to choose)k0rennkusans

One of the main processes in the development of theGermanic morphological system was the change in the wordstructure. The common Indo-European notional word consistedof three elements: the root, expressing the lexical meaning, theinflexion or ending, showing the grammatical form, and the so-called stem-forming suffix, a formal indicator of the stem type.However, in Germanic languages the stem-forming suffix fuses

25

PART I. LECTURES

with the ending and is often no longer visible, thus making theword structure a two-element one. Nevertheless, it should betaken into account when explaining the differences in thecategorial forms of words originally having different stem-forming suffixes.

It should also be mentioned that Germanic languagesbelonged to the synthetic type of form-building, which means thatthey expressed the grammatical meanings by changing the formsof the word itself, not resorting to any auxiliary words.

The Germanic nouns had a well-developed case system withfour cases (nominative, genitive,1 dative, accusative)1 and twonumber forms (singular and.plural). They also had the category ofgender (feminine, masculine and neuter). The means of form-building were the endings added to the root/stem of the noun.

The Germanic adjectives had two types of declension,conventionally called strong and weak. Most adjectives could bedeclined both in accordance with the strong and weak type.Agreeing with the noun in gender,' case and noun, the adjective byits type of declension expressed the idea of definiteness (weakdeclension) or indefiniteness (strong declension), the meaningwhich was later to become expressed by a grammatical class ofwords unknown in Common Germanic — the article.

The adjective also had degrees of comparison, the forms ofwhich were im most instances formed with the help of suffixes-iz/oz and -ist/-ost, but their© эдеге also, instances of suppletivism,i.e. use of different roots for different forms — a means commonfor many Indo-European languages:

Goth leitils—minniza—minnists (little—less—least)

Rus хороший—лучше—7лучший

'Some languages had elements of the instrumental and vocative cases.

26

/. INTRODUCTORY. GERMANIC LANGUAGES

The Germanic verbs are divided into two principal groups:strong and weak verbs, depending on the way they formed theirpast tense forms.

The past tense (or preterite) of strong verbs was formed withthe help of Ablaut, qualitative or quantitative. Depending uponthe phonetic root structure, the exact manifestation of Ablautcould be somewhat different, and accordingly strong verbs werefurther subdivided into classes.

Weak verbs expressed preterite with the help of the dentalsuffix -d/-t. They also had stem-forming suffixes, depending onwhich they fell into separate classes.

There was also a small group of highly frequent suppletiveverbs forming their forms from different roots, the same as inother Indo-European languages:

Goth im (/I/am) Rus естьwas (/I/ was) был

The Germanic verb had a well-developed system ofcategories, including the category of person (first, second, third),number (singular and plural)1, tense (past and present, the latteralso used for expressing future actions), mood (indicative,imperative and optative) and vr:?e (only in Gothic—active andmediopassive). The categprial forms employed synthetic meansof form-building.

ЗЛ Alphabet

Although the people of the Germanic tribes were mostlyilliterate, some of the Germanic nations had their own mode ofwriting, with a distinctive alphabet called runic, each letter ofwhich was called a rune. We know that runes were used to recordearly stages of Gothic, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, English,

'And in Gothic also dual.

27

PART 1. LECTURES

Frisian, Frankish and various tribal tongues of central Germania,and they may also have supplied other Germanic languageswithout leaving any evidence surviving till today. "Onarchaeological grounds the earliest estant runes are dated to thesecond century AD. The script continued in use in some regionsthroughout the Middle Ages and into early modern times.

The early runes were not written, but incised—runic scriptwas designed for inscribing, at first on wood, which explainsmany of its characteristics. Since runes were designed forincising in wood, the letter forms, in their earliest stage, eschewcurves, which are hard to cut in such a grainy material. Letterswere made up of vertical strokes, cut at right angles to the grain,and of slanting strokes which stood distinct from it. Horizontalstrokes, which would mingle with the grain and be hard todistinguish, were avoided.

Even the earliest examples of the script show there werevariations in some letter forms, so it is not possible to give astandard pattern for the Germanic runic alphabet. The rune-rowbelow is one of the most generally accepted variants:

f u t h a r k g w h n i j p e r s t b e m l n g d о

The earliest known runic alphabet had twenty-four lettersarranged in a peculiar order, which, from the values of its firstletters, is known as the futhark. In early times texts could bewritten not only from left to right, but from right to left equallywell. Some texts could even be written with alternate lines inopposite directions. Even in left-to-right texts an individual lettercould be reversed at whim, and occasionally a letter might beinverted. There was no distinction between capital and lower-case letters.

28


The Roman equivalents for the Germanic runes given aboveare only approximate, for the sounds of Early Germanic did notcoincide with those of Modern English.

We do not know where and when runes were invented. Theobvious similarities with the Roman alphabet brought earlyscholars to the belief that the script first appeared amongGermanic peoples living close to the Roman empire, and that therunes were an adaptation of the more prestigeous alphabet. Earlyfinds of rune-inscribed objects in eastern Europe (Pietroassa inRumania, Dahmsdorf in central Germany and Kowel in theUkraine) suggest that runes may have been invented by Goths onthe Danube or beside the Vistula. This is further supported by thesimilarity of occasional runes to letters of one or other of theGreek alphabets. However, continued discovery of early runictexts in various regions of Europe do not allow to consider thematter of the origin of runes conclusively proven.

Be it as it may, wherever and whenever they were created,runes soon spread over the Germanic world, and by 500 AD theyare found not only in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, England, butalso in Poland, Russia and Hungary, recording different Germaniclanguages and being cut, stamped, inlaid or impressed on metal,bone, wood and stone.

Runes were used for many centuries and in many lands,gradually changing in their passage through time and space. InEngland the script died out, superseded by Roman, somewhere inthe eleventh century; in Germany and the Low Countries —rather sooner. In Scandinavia and its colonies, however, runescontinued well into the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, the later runicinscriptions are of comparatively little interest, for there is plentyof other evidence for the state of the language they record,whereas the early inscriptions are of great importance to thelinguist, for they record material for which there is otherwiselittle or no evidence.

29

PART 1. LECTURES

Thus we may summarize the above discussion stating thatthe principal features common to all the languages of theGermanic language area were: (i) fixation of the main stress onthe initial syllable of the word; (ii) the first, or Germanic soundshift affecting the Indo-European voiceless and voiced stops andthe spirant [s]; (iii) certain vowel changes; (iv) reduction in thenumber of cases as compared to Common Indo-European; (v) fulldevelopment of the weak declension of the adjective with aparticular categorial meaning; (vi) development of a dentalpreterite and appearance of the strong/weak verb distinction;(vii) a peculiar alphabet.

Some more facts ...

The British

Britain, as far as we can trace men in our island, was firstinhabited by cave-men, who have left no history at all. In thecourse of ages they passed away before the Iberians, orIvernians, who came from the east and bore a strikingresemblance to the Basques. It may be that some Mongoliantribe, wandering west, drawn by the instinct which has drivenmost race-migrations westward, sent offshoots north and south— one to brave the dangers of the sea and inhabit Britain andIreland, one to cross the Pyrenees and remain sheltered in theirdeep ravines. These sturdy voyagers were short and dark, harsh-featured and long-headed, worshipping the powers of Naturewith mysterious and cruel rites of human sacrifice, holdingbeliefs in totems and ancestor-worship. When the stronger andmore civilised Celt came he drove before him these little darkmen, he enslaved their survivors and wedded their women, andin his turn fell into slavery to the cruel Druidic religion of hissubjects. To these Iberians, and to the Celtic dread of them, weprobably owe all the stories of dwaifs, goblins, elves and earth-

30

1. INTRODUCTORY. GERMANIC J^NGUAGES

gnomes; and if we examine carefully the descriptions of theabodes of these beings we shall find them not inconsistent withthe earth-dwellings, caves, circle huts, or even with the burialmounds of the Iberian race.

The race that followed the Iberians, and drove them out orsubdued them, was the proud Aryan Celtic race. Of differenttribes, Gaels, Brythons and Belgcv, they were all one in spiritand one in physical feature.

Tall, blue-eyed, with fair or red hair, they owerpowered thediminutive Iberians in every way. Their civilisation was of amuch higher type than that of the Iberians; their weapons, theirwar-chariots, their mode of life are all so closely similar to thatof the Greeks of Homer that a theory has been advanced andably defended that when on the continent the Celts — Gaelic orGaulish tribes from the north of Europe — had been invaded bythe Homeric Greeks. It is to the Celts that we owe a debt ofimperishable culture and civilisation. To them belongs ourpassion for the past, the ardent patriotism, the longing forspiritual beauty, so different from the Saxon materialism.

The Celt, however, had his day of supremacy and passed; theRoman crushed his power of initiative and made him helplessand dependent, and the Teuton — whether as Saxon, Angle,Frisian or Jute — dwelt in his homes and ruled his former lands.The Teuton was a hardier, more sturdy man than the Celt; he wasby choice a warrior and a sailor, a wanderer to other lands. Tohim physical cowardice was the inforgivable sin, next totreachery to his chieftain. A quiet death-bed was the worst end toa man's life, in the Anglo-Saxon's creed: it was «a cow's death»,to be avoided by everything in one's power, the only worthyfinish to a warrior's life being a death in fight. Perhaps therewas little of spiritual insight in the minds of these Angles andSaxons, little love of beauty; little care for the amenities of life;but they had a sturdy loyalty, an uprightness, a brave disregardof death in the cause of duty, which we can still recognise inmodern Englishmen.

When the English, or Anglo-Saxons, as we generally callthem, had settled down in England, united their warring tribesand developed a somewhat centralised givernment, their wholenational existence was imperilled by the incursions of the Danes,

31

PART I. LECTURES

or Northmen, Vikings from Norway and Iceland, whose fame andthe dread of whom went before them. They were related to thenations they came to harry and plunder, but their spirit wasdifferent from that of the conquered Teutonic tribes. Therapturous fight with the elements in which the Northman livedand moved and had his being, gave him a strain of ruthlesscruelty unlike anything in the more peaceful Anglo-Saxoncharacter. There was also a power of bold and daring action, ofreckless valour, of rapid conception and execution, whichcontrasted strongly with the slower and more placidtemperament of the Anglo-Saxon, and to this strain modernEnglishment probably owe the power of initiative, the love ofadventure and the daring action which have made England thegreatest colonising nation on the earth.

These were far from the last men of many nations that werebrought to England by war, trade, love of adventure or religionand with whom the English came into contact during their longand colourful history, all of them leaving their trace. With allthese different elements amalgamated in one, it is no wonderthat the present-day English nation, its nature and beliefsrepresented in its language are a unique phenomenon worthy ofcareful and detailed study.

after M.I. Ebbutt

LECTURE 2.OLD ENGLISH.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

"The greatest Englishman that ever livedwas King Alfred."

- Winston Churchill

"Alfred found learning dead and he restored it,Education neglected and he revived it,The laws powerless and he gave them force,The church debased and he raised it,The land ravaged by afearfid enemy from whichhe delivered it - Alfred's name will live as longas mankind shall respect the past"

(Inscription on the base of the statueof King Alfred in Wantage,Oxfordshire, his place of birth)


1. Outer history1.1. Principal written records

1.2. Dialectal classification1.2.1. The dialects in Old English1.2.2. Old English written records

2. Inner history2.1. Phonetics2.2. Spelling2.3. Grammar2.4. Vocabulary

33

PART 1. LECTURES

1. Outer history

As we have already said, the forefathers of the English nationbelonged to the western subdivision of old Germanic tribes, andthe dialects they spoke later lay the foundation of the Englishnational language.

The history of the English language begins in the fifthcentury AD. when the ruthless and barbaric Germanic tribes ofAngles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians, who up to that time had lived inwestern Europe between the Elbe and the Rhine, started theirinvasion of the British Isles.

At the time of the invasion Britain was inhabited by the sorcalled "romanised Celts", that is, Celts who had lived under theRoman rule for over four centuries and who had acquired Romanculture and ways of life and whose language had undergonecertain changes mainly in the form of borrowings from the Latinlanguage.

The Celtic tribes, whose languages, the same as Germanic,also belonged to the Indo-European family, were at one timeamong its most numerous representatives. At the beginning of ourera the Celts could be found on the territories of the present-daySpain, Great Britain, western Germany and northern Italy. Beforethat they had been known to reach even Greece and Asia Minor.But under the steady attacks of Italic and Germanic tribes theCelts had to retreat, so that in the areas where they were oncedominant they have left but the scantiest trace of their presence.

The Celts who first came to Britain gradually spread toIreland, Scotland and the Isle of Man. Their languages arerepresented in modern times by Irish, Scottish Gaelic and Manx.A later wave of Celtic tribes, having occupied for some centuriesthe central part of England, were in turn driven westwards byGermanic imvaders, and their modern language representativesare Welsh, Cornish and Breton.

34

2. OLD ENGLISH. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

The Romans invaded Britannia as it was then called in 55—54 ВС when the troops of Julius Caesar and others conquered theisles. No centralised government was formed, instead thereexisted petty principalities under the control of local landlords. In407 AD, with the departure of the last Roman emissaryConstantine hostilities among the native tribes in England begananew. To normalise the situation the local chieftains appealed toinfluential Germanic tribes who lived on the continent invitingthem to come to their assistance, and in 449 the Germanic troopsJed by Hengest and Horsa landed in Britain.

The Roman occupation of England left little mark on its fu-ture. Most of what the Romans did perished after they left, so it iswith the Germanic tribes that the history of England truly begins.

The invaders, or Barbarians, as they were generally called,who came to the Isles were representatives of a by far inferiorcivilisation than the Romans. A bulk of the invaders came fromthe most backward and primitive of the Germanic tribes. Theywere an agricultural rather than a pastoral people. Their tribalorganisation was rapidly disintegrating.

The invaders came to Britain in hosts consisting not only ofwarriors, but also including labourers, women and children. Theyplundered the country, took possession of almost all the fertileland there and partly exterminated, and partly drove away thenative population to the less inhabited mountainous parts of thecountry — Cornwall, Wales, Scotland. The rest of the nativesbecame slaves to the conquerors.

.In view of the historical facts mentioned above it is quiteclear why the language of the invaders underwent so few changesunder the influence of the Celtic tongue as almost no normalintercourse between the invaded and the invaders was possible,the latter being very few and far below socially.

It should be noted that nowadays the remnants of the Celticgroup of languages face the threat of complete disappearance,

35

PART 1. LECTURES

unable to survive in the competition with English. Cornishbecame extinct already in the 18th century, Manx — after thesecond world war. Scottish Gaelic is spoken only in theHighlands by about 75 thousand people, Irish — by half amillion, the figures showing a steady declining tendency, and theabsolute majority of those speaking these languages are bilingual,English being no less familiar to them than their former nativetongue. Although in recent years a certain revival of nationalistsentiments helped to somewhat arrest the decline, many linguistsfear the inevitable disappearance of the whole branch of the Indo-European family of languages.

We have very little indirect evidence about the beginning ofthe Old English period — 5th—7lh centuries. The first writtenrecords were dated as far back as the beginning of the 8th century,that is why the 5th—7th centuries are generally referred to as "thepre-written period" of the English language.

1.1. Principal written recordsof the Old English period

The principal written records that came to us through thecenturies date from as far back as the 8th century. They werewritten with the help of the so-called "Runic Alphabet". This wasan alphabet of some 26 letters, the shape of which is quitepeculiar.

['fuGark], or ['fuGork]

We have already said that it is assumed the Runic alphabetwas composed by Germanic scribes in the II—III centuries AD.and their angular shape is due to the material those inscriptionswere made on — wood, stone, bone — and the technique of

36


"writing" — the letters were not written but carved on those hardmaterials. The word "rune" meant "mystery", and those letterswere originally considered to be magic signs known to very fewpeople, mainly monks, and not understood by the vast majority ofthe illiterate population. Among the first Old English runicinscriptions we generally mention two: the inscription on the so-called "Franks' casket" — a small box made of whalebonecontaining a poem about it1, and the inscription on the "Ruthwellcross" — a religious poem engraved on a stone cross found inScotland.

Meaning

cattle, wealthbison (aurochs)thorngod/mouthjourney/ridingtorch

gift

joyhailnecessity/trouble

iceyear[unknown][unknown]sunTiw (name of a god)

birchhorsemanwater/seaIng (name of a hero)land/estatedayoakashbow

'See a picture of the Franks' casket in Pan 2 — Seminars.37

Rune

Pht>F

<X

N1*1

*

t

t

M

иr

M

Anglo-Saxon

fu

P0

rсgfj]whni

jP

X

stbem1

ngoed

a

У

Name

feohurbornOS

radcengiefu

wynh»glnied

isgear

peoreolhsigeltiw/tirbeorc

eohmanlagu

ingepeldaeg

aca;scyr

PART 1. LECTURES

Map 2-1. Germanic settlement in England

Source: Vie Cambridge Encyclopediaof the English Language, 199S

38


In the 7th century the Christian faith was introduced and withit there came many Latin-speaking monks who brought with themtheir own Latin alphabet.

The Latin alphabet was used by the majority of the peoplewho could read and write. It ousted the Runic alphabet. But theLatin alphabet could not denote all the sounds in the Englishlanguage, for example, the sounds [w], [0]. For that purposesome runes were preserved — w, p, F*, or some Latin letters wereslightly altered — б to denote the sounds [0], [6] together withthe rune p.

This alphabet that is a combination of the Latin alphabetwith runes and some other innovations is called "insular writing",i.e. the alphabet typical of the Isles. The majority of Old Englishrecords are written in this insular alphabet. The spelling in theseearly records is on the whole phonetic and reasonably consistent,so that it is possible to learn much about the early pronunciation.

1.2. Dialectal classificationof Old English written records

1.2.1. The dialects in Old English

As we have already said, the onset of invasion by themembers of the four principal Germanic tribes: Angles, Saxons,Jutes and Frisians — began about the middle of the fourth cen-tury and their conquest of England was completed within the nextcentury and a half. By about AD 600 they established their sepa-rate kingdoms, the principal among them being:

- those formed by the Angles: Northumbria (north of theriver Humber), Mercia (in the centre of England) and East Anglia— central eastern part of the country;

- those formed by the Saxons — mainly to the south of theriver Thames: Wessex, Sussex and Essex;

- the one formed by the Jutes — Kent.39

PART 1. LECTURES

Only the Frisians did not form a separate kingdom, butintermarried with the population belonging to different tribes.

The prevailing importance of these seven kingdoms gave tothe next two centuries the title of Heptarchy. Gradually three ofthe seven — Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria — began to estab-lish some sort of domination over their smaller neighbours. It wasan important step towards the achieving the eventual unity ofEngland. Another vital factor contributing to the unity was theappearance of Christianity in England in AD 597, and afterwardsthe spread of Christianity and changes of the supremacy of this orthat kingdom follow almost the same course.

The Old English dialects are generally named after thenames of the kingdoms on the territory of which the given dialectwas spoken — the Northumbrian dialect, the Mercian dialect, theWessex dialect, etc.

Though the differences between the three types were later toassume considerable importance, they were at first slight, andrecords of the 8th and 9th centuries reveal that Englisc, as it wascollectively called, had by that time emerged as an independent,language. The virtually complete geographical separation ofEngland from the Continent was a factor favouring the furtherdevelopment of those characteristic features that alreadydistinguished English from its parent Germanic language.

Among the principal Old English dialects the most importantfor us is the Wessex dialect, as the majority of Old Englishwritten records that we have can be traced back to that dialect.But the prominence of the Wessex dialect is also based on otherextralinguistic criteria.

As is known, efforts to unite England failed for a very longperiod of time, because as soon as one kingdom became great itwas in the interests of the rest to pull it down. Some historianssay that the reason for that was the lack of the strongest possiblemotive towards any union, namely, the presence of a foreign foe.

40


Such enemy appeared in the second half of the 8lh century, whenthe Northmen, particularly the Danes, began their devastatingraids on the isles. At the beginning of the 9th century, when theDanish invaders destroyed in turn the dynasties of Northumbria,Mercia and East Anglia, Wessex was left as the sole survivor, andits leaders became the leaders of the emerging nation.

The most famous of all English kings, Alfred of Wessex,which would later come to be called Alfred the Great, came tothe throne in 871 and is reputed to have been one of the bestkings ever to rule mankind. He successfully fought with theDanes who by that time had conquered most of Eastern Englandand were moving southwards towards Wessex. Alfred managed tostop the Danes, although temporarily, and in 878 signed a treatywith the Danish king dividing England between them.

But Alfred's true greatness lay not in his military, but peace-time activity. He set aside a half of the revenue to be spent oneducational needs, established schools where the sons of thenobility could be taught to read and write, brought in foreignscholars and craftsmen, restored monasteries and convents,published a collection of laws and enforced them. He alsomastered Latin and translated many books into Anglo-Saxon andordered the compilation of the first history book, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was continued for more than twocenturies after his death. All this allows to say that even hadAlfred never fought a battle, he would still deserve a place amongthe greatest rulers of history.

King Alfred formulated his aims as follows: "Desire for andpossession of earthly power never pleased me overmuch, and Idid not unduly desire this earthly rule... I desired to live worthilyas long as I lived, and to leave after my life, to the men whoshould come after me, the memory of me in good works."

41

PART 1. LECTURES

Map 2-2. Old English dialects


However, after the death of Alfred the Great in 901 thesupremacy of Wessex gradually began to decline, and for a time,from 1017 till 1042, the throne was occupied by Danish kings.

1.2.2. Old English written records

Old English written records which are rather numerous aregenerally classified either in accordance with the alphabet usedor in accordance with the dialect of the scribe who wrote therecord.

If we speak about the first criterion — the alphabet (runic orinsular) -— the first group is rather scarcely represented (Frank'scasket, Ruthwell cross), the other group having many writtenrecords. But generally the records are classified in accordancewith their dialect: Northumbrian (Franks' casket, Ruthwell cross,Caedmon's hymns), Mercian (translation of the Psalter), Kentish(psalms), West Saxon (The Anglo-Saxon chronicle, thetranslation of a philosophical treatise Cura Pastoralis, KingAlfred's Orosius — a book on history).

There were also many translations from other dialects, anexample of which is Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the EnglishPeople (731 AD). Bede, a learned monk at Jarrow, is said to haveassimilated all the learning of his time. He wrote on language,science and chronology and composed numerous commentarieson the Old and New Testament.

With the rise of Wessex to the dominant position among theOld English kingdoms in the 9th and. 10"1 centuries, and thanks tothe powerful influence of their learned King Alfred, the WestSaxon dialect became the chief vehicle of literature. All theworks of literary importance that have survived, both prose andpoetry, are written in West Saxon, with only occasional traces ofother dialects, and in this sense it may be regarded as typical ofthe Old English period.

43

PART 1. LECTURES

2. Inner history

During the period the language was developing very slowly.

2.1. Phonetics

The phonetics of the Old English period was characterisedby a system of dynamic stress. The fixed stress fell on the firstroot syllable:

agane (gone); 3eseon (see); 3aderian (gather)

The vowels had the following characteristic features:

a) The quantity and the quality of the vowel depended upon itsposition in the word. Under stress any vowel could be found,but in unstressed position there were no diphthongs or longmonophthongs, but only short vowels [a], [ej, [i], [o], [u].

b) The length of the stressed vowels (monophthongs anddiphthongs) was phonemic, which means that there could betwo words differing only in the length of the vowel:

metan (to mete, to measure) — metan (to meet)

pin (pin) — pin (pain)

god (god) — god (good)

ful (full) — ful (foul)

c) there was an exact parallelism of long and short vowels:

Short: а о е u i se у ea eoLong: аоёпТзёуёаёо

The consonants were few. Some of the modern sounds werenon-existent (Ц], [3], Щ №])•

The quality of the consonant very much depended on itsposition in the word, especially the resonance (voiced andvoiceless sounds: hlaf [f] (loaf) — hlaford [v] (lord, "bread-keeper))and articulation (palatal and velar sounds: climban [k] (to climb)— cild [k'] (child)), etc.

44


2.2. Spelling

The Old English spelling was mainly phonetic, i.e. eachletter as a rule denoted one sound in every environment. Noteshould be taken that the letters f, s, J), 5 could denote voicedconsonants in intervocal positions or voiceless otherwise; theletter с was used to denote the sound [k] (palatal or velar); theletter у denoted the sound [y] (similar to German [u] in the word"GemUt" or Russian [ю] in the word "бюро").

The letter 3 could denote three different sounds:0] — before or after front vowels [ae], [e], [i] :

3iefan (give), зёаг (year), dx^ (day)

[y] — after back vowels Fal, fol, lul and consonants П1 and

M:da3as (days), fo^ian (follow)

[g] — before consonants and before back vowels [a], [o], [u]:30d (good), 3leo (glee)

2.3. Grammar

Old English was a synthetic language (the lexical andgrammatical notions of the word were contained in one unit). Itwas highly inflected, with many various affixes. The principalgrammatical means were suffixation, vowel interchange andsupplition.

Suffixation:

Ic Сёре (1 keep) — pU Cepst (you keep) — he Серб (he keeps)

Vowel interchange:

WrTtan (to write) — Ic wrat (I wrote)

Supplition:

3Ш1 (to go) — eode (went)

45

PART I. LECTURES

beon (to be) — Ic eom (I am)bu eart (you are)he is (he is)

There was no fixed word-order in Old English, the order ofthe words in the sentence being relatively free.

2.4. Vocabulary

Almost all of it was composed of native words, there werevery few borrowings.

Borrowings were mainly from Latin:

a) The forefathers of English, when on the Continent, hadcontacts with the Roman empire and borrowed words connectedmainly with trade:

ciese (cheese), win (wine), aeppel (apple)b) They borrowed Latin words from the Romanized Celts:

strast (street), weall (wall), myln (mill)c) Some borrowings were due to the introduction of

Christianity:biscop (bishop), deofol (devil), munic (monk)

New words appeared as a result of two processes:a) word derivation:

' fisc+ere = fiscere (fish —fisher)wulle+en = wyllen (wool — woolen)claene+s+ian = claensian (clean — to cleanse)

b) word composition:sunne + dae3 • = Sunnandas3 (sun + day = Sunday)mona + dae3 = M5nandae3 (moon + day = Monday).

46


Some more facts....

Origin of Modern Alphabet

The Northumbrian Alcuin of York (735—804) was the creatorof the modern alphabet. He was an English scholar who, whilehead of the cathedral school of York, wrote a history of England.Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, emperor of the Franks,invited him to start a palace school at Aachen. Charlemagnebelonged to the famous dynasty of Carolingians. He was apatron of letters and culture, and during his reign there began aperiod of literary and artistic activity upsurge. This period ofintellectual advance, in which Alcuin played a leading role, wascalled the Carolingian Renaissance.

Alcuin introduced English scholastic methods toCharlemagne's empire and wrote poignant love lyrics, but hisfarthest-reaching contribution was to normalise the empire'swriting. When Alcuin arrived at Aachen, scribes at one end ofthe empire could not read the writing of scribes at the other end.Ironically, Charlemagne, who was probably illiterate himself,understood the importance of clear communication and record-keeping better than his own scribes.

Drawing from English and Irish models, especially theInsular pointed hand, Alcuin created the Carolingian minusculehand, a highly readable script that was used by scribesthroughout the empire. This hand became the model for thelowercase letters of the I5'h-century Italian Humanistic andChancery Cursive hands (the uppercase, letters were modeledafter I"- and 2'"'-centuiy Roman inscriptions in stone, such asthe Trajan Column). These hands in turn became the models forthe Roman and Italic typefaces introduced by Aldus Manutius(1449—1515), which are the basis for most modern typefaces.

After D.F.B. Reed.

LECTURE 3.MIDDLE ENGLISH.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS"Never before has such terror appeared in

Britain as we have now suffered from a paganrace, nor was it thought that such an inroadfrom the sea could be made. Behold, thechurch ofSt Cuthbert spattered with the bloodof the priests of God, despoiled of all itsornaments; a place more venerable than allin Britain is given as prey to pagan people."

Alcuin, AD 793"It is not correct to paint the, Scandinavians

in either black or white; like most people theywere grey... They were no mean, destructivepeople: rather people of wide vision who were tomake a considerable contribution to Europeanwholeness once they had become Christian andhad settled down to become the nations which weknow to-day."

n n . ,. , . D.M. Wilson, AD 1993(Viking ship prow decoration,Thames and Hudson archives)


1. Outer history

1.1. Scandinavian Invasion

1.2. Norman Conquest

1.3. Formation of the English national language

2. Inner history

2.1. Phonetics

2.2. Grammar

2.3. Word-stock

48

3. MIDDLE ENGLISH. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. Outer history

1.1. Scandinavian Invasion

The end of the Old English period and the beginning ofMiddle English is marked by two outstanding political events —the Scandinavian invasion and the Norman conquest.

It is impossible to state the exact date of the Scandinavianinvasion as it was a long process embracing over two centuries,the first inroads of the Scandinavian Vikings having began as farback as the end of the 8th century. Various Scandinavianadventurers at the head of their troops came to England waveafter wave, although the English offered the invaders a stubbornresistance. At first the invaders fought with the natives, robbedand plundered the country, but later they began to settle on thelands they had managed to conquer. The part of England whichsuffered more from the invasion was the North-Eastern part ofthe country. From that part the invaders trying to conquer thewhole of the country gradually proceeded to the South-West.

The kingdom that was the strongest among many existing inBritain at that time and that could consequently withstand theinvasion more successfully than any other was the Wessexkingdom, especially under the rule of King Alfred the Great. KingAlfred the Great was so powerful and successful in his struggleagainst the invaders that hostilities ceased for a time and a peacetreaty was concluded — the Treaty of Wedmore, in accordancewith which the territory of the country was subdivided into twoparts: the south-western part remained English under the rule ofKing Alfred and the north-eastern part was to be Scandinavian.That part was referred to as Danela3U or Danelaw, i.e. theterritory which was under the rule of Scandinavians, or "Danes".

49

PART I. LECTURES

The Scandinavians in England remained very strong throughcenturies, and at the beginning of the 1 lIh century, namely in theperiod between 1016 and 1042 the whole of England came underthe Scandinavian rule — the conquest was completed and theDanish king was seated on the English throne. Although in 1042England was back under English power, the English king whocame to the throne — Edward the Confessor — was to be the lastEnglish king for more than three centuries.

The Scandinavian invasion and the subsequent settlement ofthe Scandinavian on the territory of England, the constantcontacts and intermixture of the English and the Scandinaviansbrought about many changes in different spheres of the Englishlanguage: word-stock, grammar and phonetics. The influence ofScandinavian dialects was especially felt in the North and Eastparts of England, where mass settlement of the invaders andintermarriages with the local population were especiallycommon. The relative ease of the mutual penetration of thelanguages was conditioned by the circumstances of the Anglo-Scandinavian contacts, i.e.:

a) There existed no political or social barriers between theEnglish and the Scandinavians, the latter not having formed theruling class of the society but living on an equal footing with theEnglish;

b) There were no cultural barriers between the two people asthey were approximately the same in their culture, habits andcustoms due to their common origin, both of the nations beingGermanic.

c) The language difference was not so strong as to make theirmutual understanding impossible, as their speech developed fromthe same source — Common Germanic, and the wordscomposing the basic word-stock of both the languages were thesame, and the grammar systems similar in essence.


Map 3-1. Viking attacks on England

Source: DM. WilsonTile Vikings and their origin, 1993

51

PART 1. LECTURES

1.2. Norman Conquest

The Norman Conquest began in 1066. The Normans were byorigin a Scandinavian tribe who two centuries back began theirinroads on the Northern part of France and finally occupied theterritory on both shores of the Seine. The French King Charlesthe Simple ceded to the Normans the territory occupied by them,which came to be called Normandy. The Normans adopted theFrench language and culture, and when they came to Britain theybrought with them the French language.

In 1066 King Edward the Confessor died, and the NormanDuke William, profiting by the weakness of King Harold whosucceeded King Edward on the English throne, invaded England.He assembled an army, landed in England and in a battle ofHastings on October 14, 1066 managed to defeat Harold andproclaimed himself King of England.

The Norman conquest had far-reaching consequences for theEnglish people and the English language.

The English nobility perished through different reasons andwas replaced by the Norman barons. The new king Williamconfiscated the estates of the Anglo-Saxons nobility anddistributed them among the Norman barons. The Normanconquerors continued pouring into England thousands afterthousands, years and years after the conquest, and during thereign of King William over 200,000 Frenchmen settled inEngland and occupied all positions of prominence in the country,be it in court, Parliament, Church or school.

The heritage of the Norman Conquest was manifold. Itunited England to Western Europe, opening the gates to Europeanculture and institutions, theology, philosophy and science. TheConquest in effect meant a social revolution in England. Thelands of the Saxon aristocracy were divided up among the

52


Normans, who by 1087 composed almost 10% of the totalpopulation. Each landlord, in return for his land, had to take anoath of allegiance to the king and provide him with militaryservices if and when required.

The Saxon machinery of government was immenselyreinforced, with a Norman monarch and his officials as effectivecentralised controllers. Royal power was spread to provinces,royal justice was much more impartially done. The Normanscreated a strong medieval monarchy which was gradually tocomplete the unification of England.

The 13th century witnessed the appearance of the firstParliament, or a council of barons, which later was changed to anational Parliament, representing the nobility, clergy, knights ofthe shires and major cities.

The Norman conquerors, though Germanic by origin, wereFrench by their language, habits and customs. They were a peopleand a class that stood aloof from the conquered English, whosehabits and customs they despised and whose language they couldnot understand. They spoke French and addressed people inFrench. They taught their children French — the only languagethey could speak, which is noticed by many writers and scholars.And for more than two centuries after the conquest the Englishcountry was ruled by French-speaking Kings and nobility, and theFrench language was the state language of the country.

The Norman Conquest put an end to the West Saxon literarylanguage. But eventually after a prolonged struggle the Englishlanguage got ascendance over French and again became the statelanguage of the country. The victorious and defeated peoplescontinued to speak their own languages. The language spokenand written by the English continued to develop in accordancewith tendencies already active before the conquest.

The English language emerged after the straggle, but it camein a different position. Its vocabulary was enriched by a great

53

PART 1. LECTURES

number of French words and its grammatical structure underwentmaterial changes.

They generally mention-the following decisive steps in theway upward of the English language after the Norman conquest:

a) 1258 — Proclamation of King Henry III was publishedbesides French also in English;

b) 1362 — the English language became the language ofParliament, courts of law; later, at the end of the century — thelanguage of teaching;

c) the rule of King Henry IV (1399—1413) — the first kingafter the conquest whose native tongue was English.

The end of the 14th century also saw the first "English"translation of the Bible, and Chaucer was writing his "English"masterpieces. The new merchant class and the spread of laylearning were building a national civilisation, and by the end ofthe century French had probably died out as a spoken language.

1.3. Formation of the Englishnational language

We can speak about the English national language as alanguage understood and mainly used throughout the countrybeginning with late Middle English — Early New English. Theygenerally say that the end of the Middle English period and thebeginning of New English is marked by the following events inthe life of the English people:

1. The end of the war between the White and the Red Rose— 1485 and the establishment of an absolute monarchy on theBritish soil with Henry Tudor as the first absolute monarch — thepolitical expression of the English nation.

The War of the Roses (1455—1485) was the most importantevent of the .15* century which marked the decay of feudalismand the birth of a new social order. It signified the rise of an

54


absolute monarchy in England and a political centralisation, andconsequently a linguistic centralisation leading to apredominance of the national language over local dialects.

2. The introduction of printing — 1477 by William Caxton(1422— 1490).

Printing was invented in Germany by Johann Gutenberg in1438. It quickly spread to other countries and England wasamong them. The first English printing office was founded in1476 by William Caxton, and in 1477 there appeared the firstbook to be printed in England called The Dictes and Sayings ofthe Philosophers. The appearance of a considerable number ofprinted books contributed to the normalisation of spelling andgrammar forms fostering the choice of a single variant overothers. William Caxton established a printing-press atWestminster, from which he issued a stream of books, many ofthem translated from Latin and French by himself. Caxton, anative of Kent, acquired the London dialect and made aconscious choice from among competing variants, which he evendescribed in a preface to one of his translations, saying that hehad submitted it to princess Margaret, sister of the then king, and"anon she found a default in my English which she commandedme to amend."

Since that time — the end of the 15"1 century the Englishlanguage began its development as the language of the Englishnation, whereas up to that time, beginning with the Germanicconquest of Britain in the 5th century and up to the 15th century,what we call the English language was no more than aconglomerate of dialects, first tribal and then local. Indeed, anotable feature of the Middle English period is the dialecticalvariety that finds expression in the written documents. It was only•ate in the 14lh century that the London dialect, itself a mixture ofthe southern and south-eastern dialects, began to emerge as thedominant type.

55

PART 1. LECTURES

Thus, the English national language was formed on the basisof the London dialect which was uppermost among MiddleEnglish dialects due to the political, geographical, economic and"linguistic" position of London which became the capital ofEngland already in the 11th century — before the Normanconquest and which was in the 15th century a thriving economiccentre and port of England due to its geographical position nearthe estuary of the largest river in England. The geographicalposition of London as a large port and city in the centre of thecountry where people of the North mingled with "people of theSouth, on the one hand, enabled the Londoners to acquirefeatures of both southern and northern dialects, and on the otherhand, the people coming to London helped to spread the Londondialect all over the country.

The importance of the London dialect as the foundation ofthe English national language grew also because of the fact thatmany of the best writers of the 14th—15th centuries, and GeoffreyChaucer among them, whose poetry achieved tremendouscontemporary prestige and popularity, were Londoners or usedthe London dialect in their writings. As we have said, the 15th

century is generally referred to as the time of the beginning of theEnglish national language. But the literary norm of the languagewas established later, already in Early New English, manyEnglish authors of the forthcoming centuries contributing to it,among them such as Edmund Spenser, Christopher Marlowe, BenJohnson and, finally, William Shakespeare.

56


Map 3-2. Middle English dialects

57

PART 1. LECTURES

2. Inner history

The Middle English period was a time of unprecedentedlyrapid development of the language. For the first three centuriesEnglish was only a spoken language, and as such had no normand could develop without any restrain. All the elements of thelanguage changed fundamentally.

2.1. Phonetics

The stress is dynamic and fixed in the native words. But inthe borrowed French words the stress was on the last syllable:licour [li'ku:r], nature [na'nr.r], etc.

New consonant sounds developed in native words:

[П ship [f ] child [Cfe] bridge

OE scip cild Ьгусз

The resonance of the consonant does not depend so much onthe position of the consonant, and voiced consonants can appearnot only in intervocal, but also in initial and other positions.

Vowels in unstressed position were reduced:

Old English Middle English

These sounds were in the end of the word, and it neutralisedthe difference between the suffixes — the main grammar means.

Compare:

58



Genitive Singular fisces ~~~^—^_ fishesNominative Plural fiscas . - " - " " ^ fishes

Vowels under stress underwent mainly quantitative changes.In Middle English we observe a rhythmic tendency, the aim ofwhich is to obliterate overlong and overshort sequences. Thetendency is to have in the word one long vowel + one consonantor one short vowel + two consonants.

2.2. Grammar

The grammar system in Middle English gradually but veryquickly changed fundamentally: the Old English was a syntheticlanguage, the Middle English at the end of the period — ananalytical language. The principal grammatical means of the OldEnglish were preserved, but were no longer principal. At the endof the Middle English period the analytical means, which begandeveloping in Middle English, are predominant. They are:

1. analytical verb-forms (Chaucer: perfect — hath holpen(has helped); passive — engendered is (is bom));

2. the use of prepositions for grammatical purposes(Chaucer; drought of March);

3. a fixed word-order began to develop.

2.3. Word-stock

In Middle English it underwent fundamental changes andbecame almost new. If in Old English the word-stock was almostcompletely native, in Middle English there were manyborrowings. The principal sources of them were:

1. Scandinavian (those who came in the end of the OldEnglish period) — over 500 words (take, give, sky, wrong, etc.);

59

PART I. LECTURES

2. French (the language of the Norman conquerors) — over3500 words (government, army, battle, etc.).

Though the number of the French words is greater, all theScandinavian words — common, colloquial, everyday,indispensable — entered the very core of the language, and theirinfluence is very great. The French words are generally termsindispensable only in certain official spheres, but not colloquial.The Scandinavian borrowings are intensive, the Frenchborrowings — extensive:

1. the Scandinavians and the English were linguisticallysimilar (both Germanic), the English and the French — different(Germanic and Romance languages);

2. the English and the Scandinavians were similar socially(neither of the nations formed the upper class); the French andthe English were different socially (the French-speaking peopleforming the ruling class, the English-speaking — the lowerclass);

3. the English and the Scandinavians had similar culture,habits, customs, traditions; the French and the English —different;

that is why the assimilation of the French words could notproceed so quickly and intensively as that of Scandinavian.

The principal means of enriching vocabulary were thus outermeans, i.e. borrowings.

Some more facts....

Who are the Scots?Our country and people come into recorded history in AD

84, characteristically resisting foreign domination as we were todo on and off until 1603. By this time the Romans hadpenetrated as far as modern Stirling. Calgacus, our native

60


leader, addressed his men in the following terms : "The invadersloot and massacre and call it government. They make awilderness and call it peace." The ensuing Battle of MonsGraupius near Stirling checked the Romans and they retiredbehind their fortified line stretching from what is now Glasgowto Edinburgh.

Christianity was to unite the different tribes into thatconscious entity we now know as "Scottish". About 400 StNinian preached the faith to his own Pictish clansfolk. About550 St Columba came from the famous monastery of lona toevangelise many Scots and Picts. His friend, St Kentigern ofGlasgow, was the apostle of the Strathclyde Britons. These greatmissionaries had many followers and disciples who continuedtheir apostolate. These men laid a sound foundation, for ourScottish Christianity with its valuable cultural heritage stemsfrom them. Today it still informs most of us.

Scots, Picts and Britons have been mentioned and some holdthat these three words denote the "tattooed people". These unitewith the Celt, warrior in name, warrior in our history. Perhapsour love of colourful tartans and our age-old martial spirit comefrom this racial fusion, Angles and Vikings from the seventhcentury onwards and Normans from the tenth are assimilatedinto our race, giving us much, and taking much. By about thetwelfth century intermarriage and the Christian faith made usinto that united Scottish nation we still are today. About 900 theword "Scot", originally meaning a native of Ireland, came tomean one of ourselves.

By 1153 Scotland was one nation, though not all ournational strains were fully integrated. The lovely and remoteisles of the Hebrides did not become ours till 1266, and theOrkneys and Shetlands not until 1467.

It needed the shock and storm of foreign invasion to fuse usinto a strong and virile nation — yet still fundamentally a kindlyone — a trait which comes into prominence so strikingly in thelong history of Scotland the Brave. Much more unites us nowthan divides us. And though many of us have to leave Scotland,as our small land cannot provide for us all at present, thesepeople and their descendants come back each year in their

61

PART I. LECTURES

thousands to the land of their ancestors, where they are inspiredand encouraged by the ever-fresh memory of the gallant exploitsof our forefathers.

From Pict and Scot and Cell and Briton,And Angle, Viking, Norman diversityWe Scots in time from these were forgedNow conscious of our common unity.

Skirl of pipe and swirl of kilt —A joy to us, a joy to others —Fond memory of our mountain homeUnites all Scots as hand of brothers.

See Bruce and Wallace nobly fightTo free our folk and lochs and bensWhile Burns and Scott and Raeburn tooMake known our land of lovely glens.

Queen Mary lives in spite of fateIn her descendants good and great-For Charlie Flora death will face,She, finest flower of Highland race.

Our men of God give out His Word,New things and old, with charm and wit.Dear Scotland the Brave aye bless it, Lord,Hear we that Word by doing it.

After J. A. Carruth

LECTURE 4.NEW ENGLISH.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

"It was the nation and the racedwelling all round the globe thathad the lion's heart."

Winston Churchill •

Walter Raleigh,explorer of America

David Livingstone,explorer of Africa

James Cook,explorer of Australiaand New Zealand

Benjamin Franklin,explorer of Antarctica

List of principal questions:1.

2.

Outer history1.1. Emergence of the nation1.2. Establishment of the literary norm

1.3. Geographical expansion of English

Inner history2.1. Phonetics2.2. Grammar2.3. Word-stock

PART 1. LECTURES

1. Outer history

1.1. Emergence of the nation

The 15 century is a border-line in the history of the Englishpeople. In 1485 there ended the War between the Roses. The endof the war meant the end of feudalism and the beginning ofcapitalism, a new, more peaceful era and the transition betweenthe Middle Ages and the Renaissance. An absolute monarchy wasestablished, the first absolute monarch being Henry Tudor. Itmeant a real unification of the country, political and economic,resulted in the development of capitalism and made it inevitablethat one nation and one national language be established.

The first king of the period, Henry VII (1485—1509)strengthened the monarchy and provided the revenue imperativefor its very existence. During his reign commerce andshipbuilding were encouraged, and the material wealth of thecountry increased. New lands — Newfoundland and Nova Scotia— were discovered. Following in his steps, his son, Henry VIII(1509—1547) broke away from the ecclesiastical influence ofRome, made himself head of the Church of England and of theState and transferred the property of the monasteries to himself.Dozens of large ships were built, trade continued to develop, andnew territories were drawn into it. It was during the reign ofHenry's son, Edward VI (1547—1553), that trade with Muscovy,or Russia, as we call it today, was opened up.

The long reign of Elizabeth I (1558—1603) was one of themost remarkable for the country, its progress in the discovery andcolonizing field tremendous. Queen Elizabeth's reign was alsoparticularly rich in learning — it was the age of Shakespeare,Sidney, Spencer, Bacon, Marlowe and many other famous names.

Nevertheless, the evident achievements in foreign policy,trade and culture did not put an end to the controversy of various

64

4. NEW ENGLISH. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

powerful forces in the country. Another problem which was tohave far-reaching concequences was that of whether sovereigntylay with monarch or Parliament advocating the interests of thenew developing classes of society. The strife between the Crownand Parliament was aggavated by religious differences. Thedevelopment of the country required more regular revenue, andforced the Crown to raise taxes, which met with disapproval fromParliament.

In the XVII century Charles I (1625—1649) for over adecade ruled without Parliament, but had finally to reach acompromise, according to which the powers of Parliament weregreatly extended. Henceforth one legal system was to apply to theking and his subjects alike, and no taxation was to be raisedwithout Parliament's consent. However, when Paliamentdemanded further concessions, denied the king control of thearmy, a crisis followed which is now known under the title of theGreat Rebellion. The Crown lost the ensuing war, Charles Isurrendered and was executed, and for over a decade the countrywas ruled by Parliament alone, the most notable leader of thattime being Oliver Cromwell. Granted the title of Lord Protector,he was a virtual dictator of the nation, heavily relying on theArmy and disillusioning Parliament which had first brought himto power.

After the death of Oliver Cromwell the Army and ParliamentWere unable to agree on a government, and the restoration ofmonarchy that followed in 1660, when the son of the executedking, Charles II, was.invited to return to the throne, was more a.restoration of Parliament than of the King himself. Charles II,who during the time of Cromwell lived in exile in France,brought with him from the Continent a keen interest in scientificdevelopment, culture and arts, together with a considerablemfluence of the French language spoken by his supporters.

PART I. LECTURES

1.2. Establishment of the literary norm

As we have said, in New English there emerged one nationand one national language. But the English literary norm wasformed only at the end of the 17* century, when there appearedthe first scientific English dictionaries and the first scientificEnglish grammar. In the 17* and 18* centuries there appeared agreat number of grammar books whose authors tried to stabilisethe use of the language. Thus Samuel Johnson, the author of thefamous Dictionary (1755), wrote that he preferred the use of"regular and solemn" pronunciation to the "cursory andcolloquial." Many famous writers also greatly contributed to theformation of English, and among them, first and foremost, thegreat Shakespeare.

Early New English (15* — beginning of the 18* century) —the establishment of the literary norm. The language that wasused in England at that time is reflected in the famous translationof the Bible called the King James Bible (published in 16И).Although the language of the Bible is Early Modern English, theauthors tried to use a more solemn and grand style and morearchaic expressions.

A great influence was also connected with the magazinepublished by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele called TheSpectator (1711—1714), the authors of which discussed variousquestions of the language, including its syntax and the use ofwords.

-tit

Late New English — since the 18 century.If the gradual acceptance of a virtually uniform dialect by all

writers is the most important event in the emergence of ModernEnglish, it must be recognised that this had already gone aconsiderable way before 1500, and it was undoubtedly helped byCaxton's introduction of printing in 1477. The fact that theLondon dialect was used by him in his translations and prefaces,

66

4. NEW ENGUSH. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Map 4-1. The Growth of Empire

S"m" J-K Horrabin. An Alias of European History

67

PART 1. LECTURES

and that Chaucer's works were among the books he published,led to its rapid diffusion throughout the country. But the adoptionof a standard of spoken English was a slower process. It was notuntil Elizabeth's time that the language of the court came to begenerally recognised as the best form of spoken English; and aslate as the 18*, and even the early 19* century country gentlemenin their occasional visits to polite society in London were noashamed to use dialect.

Nevertheless, despite the persistence of wide varieties inpronunciation, the basic phonetic changes that distinguishModern English from Middle English are profound, though theyare not reflected in a similar modification of spelling. The earlyprinters, whose practice was to prove of decisive importance forthe future, derived their spelling from the Middle English scribes(a fact that largely accounts for the difficulty of English spellingtoday). The most important of these changes was that affectingthe sound of vowels and diphthongs, with the result that the"continental values" of Middle English were finally replaced byan approximation to modern pronunciation. Lesser changes alsooccurred in the pronunciation of consonants, though some otthese have since been restored by conscious, and often mistaken,attempts to adapt pronunciation more closely to the receivedspelling.

1.3. Geographical expansion of Englishin the li—20* centuries

and its effect on the language

Up to the 17l century the English language was spoken bythe people who lived only on the British Isles (at the time ofWilliam the Conqueror there were about 2 million people), buteven there in the far-away mountainous parts of the country thepeople preserved their own Celtic dialects very long into the New

68


Map 4-2. The English Language Today

Source,- The Cambridge B^lopedia"M" English Language, MS

69

PART 1. LECTURES

English period. Thus in Cornwall the local dialect, Cornish diedout in the 18th century. In Wales there arose a tendency to revivethe local Celtic language. In 1893 the Welsh University wasfounded, and in 1961 the number of those speaking Welshamounted to 650 thousand. In Ireland through centuries a struggleagainst English was fought. It reached its climax in 1916 with theIrish rebellion. In 1922 the Irish free state was formed and in1949 the new state — Eire — left the Commonwealth of Nations.Now Eire occupies the whole but the Northern part of Ireland,which is a part of Britain. The number of people rose from 300thousand to over 600 thousand, but the majority speak English.

The penetration of the English language to other parts of theglobe mainly began in the 16 century together with theexpansion of British colonialism. The 16' century was an age ofgreat adventurers, and England's progress in the discovery andcolonising field was tremendous. The first Virginian colony wasfounded; Drake circumnavigated the globe; the East IndiaCompany was established and English seamen left their mark inmany parts of the world. In 1620 the famous ship The Mayflowerreached North America in the region which is now the state ofMassachusetts. This marked the beginning of English in the NewWorld.

The 18 century witnessed the coming of English to India,where nowadays the language is widely spread, although itssphere is limited to large cities and a certain social layer, and intoday's India English is a state language together with the nativelanguages of Hindi and Urdu.,

th In the 18 ' century England conquered Canada. During the19ft century the colonisation of Australia took place. In the20 century English penetrated into South Africa.

* * *

Now about 300 million people speak English as theirnational language in various parts of the globe, and many times

70


that — as a second language. To foretell the future of anylanguage, English among them, is of course impossible, but themere fact of its wide diffusion throughout the world is aguarantee that it will continue to change and develop.

2. Inner history

The speed of the development of the language was lesserthan in Middle English. The language developed quickly at thebeginning of the period and slowly — at the end (with theexception of the word-stock which develops equally quicklyduring the whole period). When the literary norm was formed, it,being always very conservative, prevented the change of thelanguage, that is why the speed of the development slowed down.

2.1. Phonetics

2. LI. The system of stress

In native words the stress is fixed and falls on the first rootsyllable (as in Old English and Middle English). Some ofthe borrowed words were not fully assimilated phonetically, thatis why the stress falls on another syllable, those fully assimilatedhave the stress on the first root syllable, like in native words.

Native English words are short — they have one or twosyllables, that is why it is a norm, a rhythmic tendency of thelanguage to have one stressed syllable and one unstressed one =»in borrowed words there developed a system of two stresses.

Sometimes the stress is used to differentiate the wordsformed from the same root by the process called conversion (topro'duce— 'produce).

71

PART I. LECTURES

2.1.2. Consonantsa) A new [3] was introduced in borrowed words. Otherwise

the changes were not so great as in Middle English.

b) Vocalisation of consonants (some consonants in somepositions were vocalised — they disappeared, influencing thepreceding vowel).

Ex.: [r] disappeared at the end of the words and beforeconsonants changing the quantity of the vowel immediatelypreceding it:

Middle English New English

for [for] [fo:]form [form] [fo:m]

2.1.3. Vowels

a) In the unstressed position the vowels that were levelled inMiddle English generally disappeared at the end of the words.Some of them were preserved for phonetic reasons only, wherethe pronunciation without a vowel was impossible.

Compare, for example, the plural forms of nouns:

Old English Middle English New English-as -es [z] dogs

[s] cats[iz] dresses

b) All Middle English long vowels underwent the GreatVowel'Shift (in early New English, 15th—18th century). Theybecame more narrow and more front. Some of them remainedmonophthongs, others developed into diphthongs.

Middle English New Englishh e [he:] [hi:] e: => i:name [na:me] [neim] a: => ei

72


2.2. Grammar

In New English it did not change fundamentally. The mainchanges are the strengthening of analytical features of thelanguage:

a) In many more cases empty grammatical words are used(form-words);

b) Analytical forms of the Middle English are preserved, andin addition to them in New English non-finite analytical formsappear (in Middle English only finite forms could be analytical);

c) A fixed word-order is established.

2.3. Word-stock

The vocabulary is changing quickly. Many new words areformed to express new notions, which are numerous.

Ways of enriching the vocabulary:

1. inner means (conversion: hand => to hand);

2, outer means. The sources here are numberless, asthe English have not only direct, but also indirect (through books,later — TV, radio, films) contacts with all the world.

In the beginning of the Early New English (15th—16th

century) — the epoch of the Renaissance — there are manyborrowings from Greek, Italian, Latin.

The ,17th century is the period of Restoration =>.borrowingscome to the English language from French (a considerablenumber of these words being brought by Charles II and his court).

In the 17th century the English appear in America =>borrowings from the Indians' languages are registered.

In the 18"1 century the English appear in India => borrowingsfrom this source come to the English language (but these words

73

PART 1. LECTURES

are not very frequent, for they denote some particular reality ofIndia, ex.: curry).

In the 19* century the English colonisers appear in Australiaand New Zealand => new borrowings follow (kangaroo).

At the end of the 19th—beginning of the 20th century theEnglish appear in Africa, coming to the regions formerlycolonised by the Dutch => borrowings from Afrikaans and Dutchappear.

Old English and Middle English Russian borrowings arescarce — the contacts between the countries and their peopleswere difficult. In New English there are more borrowings: sable(very dark), astrakhan, mammoth; in the 20lh century — soviet,kolkhoz, perestroika, etc.

Some more facts...

Modern Dialects

More often than not it is still possible in Britain to tell from aman's speech from which part of the country, sometimes evenfrom which county, he comes; while the phonetic differencesbetween the speech of any American and any Englishman areeven more apparent, although less than three hundred years agotheir accents would have been indistinguishable. With regard togrammar, leaving aside dialect forms that are locally still »>everyday use (e.g. such plurals as 'housen', or 'childer', or inDorset the indiscriminate use of the pronoun 'en' for 'him' or'her'), there are significant differences. These are largelyindependent of educational background, between ourspontaneous colloquial speech and the written language.Usually we should write: 'the man to whom I was speaking', 'astall as he', 'if I were she', 'am I not?', but most of us say. 'theman who I was talking to', 'as tall as him', 'if I was her', 'aren'tI?' and it would be hazardous to express a confident opinion asto which of these grammatical forms, the written or the spoken,will eventually survive. More immediately obvious, perhaps, arethe changes taking place in respect of vocabulary. In some of the

74


older trades and industries the use of specific dialect terms isstill almost essential for the local conduct of everyday business;while since the beginning of the century thousands of new words,mainly derived from Greek and Latin, have been created to meetthe needs of scientists and technologists. At the same time, inevery department of life, our borrowing from other languagescontinues, particularly from America; though here, more oftenthan we appreciate, they are simply restoring words andexpressions originally taken from us.

Broadly, these changes are of two kinds: those that arisefrom tendencies inherent in the nature of the language; andthose that are the result of external factors. To the fanner belongmany phonetical and grammatical changes, and from their studyof language in general and of the whole history of English inparticular philologists have discovered that these tend toconform to patterns, and can therefore be stated as 'laws'. Thelatter type of development is usually the result of political andsocial forces.

Reference has already been made to the effect ofgeographical isolation on the early development of English, andsimilarly it is clear that the preservation of a number ofElizabethan and Stuart words and idioms in contemporaryAmerican speech is due to the remoteness of the earliest settlersfrom their native land, while political independence and theencouragement of wholesale immigration from almost every partof the world were subsequently to cause yet furtherdifferentiation between the two great English-speaking systems.In contrast to such diversifying influences, others operate in thedirection of greater uniformity, for instance, in the spread ofliteracy, increasing dependence on books and the extension ofbroadcasting. Remembering that these examples of change andvariety are taken from a short period, it is easier to appreciatethe total qualitative effect produced by a series of small andgradual modifications in the course of a millennium and a half.During that period English has been transformed from thedialect of a few thousand scattered tribesmen into a highlydeveloped language spoken by millions of people in many partsof the world.

75

PART 1. LECTURES

In its original form Old English is today only intelligible tospecialists; even Middle English.the language of J. Chaucer, isnot easy to read without a glossary. Thus, while for purposes ofdescription it is justifiable to treat these as separate periods, andto distinguish both from a language we are familiar with, it isequally important to realise that at no stage were the people ofEngland any more conscious of the changes they were effectingthan we are today.

After D. Crystal

LECTURE 5.OLD ENGLISH PHONETICS

In such ships Germanic tribes first came to the British Islands.Souire: Vie Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 1995


1. Old English vowels1.1. Origin of Old English vowel phonemes1.2. Changes in Old English vowel phonemes

1.2.1. Breaking1.2.2. Palatal mutation1.2.3. Effect of palatal mutation upon grammar

and word-stock

2. Old English consonants2.1. Dependence of the quality of the consonant

phoneme upon its environment in the word

2.2. Grimm's law, Verner's law77

PART 1. LECTURES

1. Old English vowels

1.0. There were the following vowel phonemes in Old English

monophthongs diphthongs

aa зё

eё

l

I0

0uп

УУ

еаёа

еоёо

As we see in Old English there existed an exact parallelismbetween long vowels and the corresponding short vowels. Notonly monophthongs but even diphthongs found their counterpartswhich differed from them not only in quality but also in quantity.Thus we may say that in the system of vowels both the qualityand the quantity of the vowel was phonemic. All the diphthongswere falling diphthongs with the first element stronger than thesecond, the second element being more open than the first.Examples:

monophthongs

a — a : stan —(stone)

аё — аз: daed —(dead)

6 — o : 3od —(god)

I — i : wrltan —(write)

da3as(days)

dae3(day)

3od(good)

writen(written)

diphthongs

ёо—ео:

ёа —еа:

ceosan -(choose)

ceas -(chose)

- heorte(heart)

- eald(old)

1.1. Origin of Old Englishvowel phonemes

All Old English vowel phonemes can be traced back to CommonGermanic vowel phonemes. Old English monophthongs are, as a rule,

78

5. OLD ENGLISH PHONETICS

a further developmentFor example:

Old English

ёгез (day)

0]bindan (bind)

[o]coren (chosen)

of some Common Germanic monophthongs.

from Common Germanic

[a]dags

[i]bindan

[u]cusans, etc.

Some Old English monophthongs developed from CommonGermanic diphthongs:

Old English from Common Germanic

[a] [ai]ras (wrote) rais

Old English long diphthongs are a result of some furtherdevelopment of Common Germanic diphthongs, though in thecourse of history the quality of the diphthong may haveundergone a change:

Old English from Common Germanic (Gothic)

ceosan (choose) kiusanceas (chose) kaus

Old English short diphthongs originated from monophthongs:

Old English from Common Germanic

eald (old) *aldheorte (heart) *herte

7l>

PART I. LECTURES

1.2. Changes in Old Englishvowel phonemes

1.2.0. The changes that took place in the prehistoric period ofthe development of the English language and which explain thedifference between Old English and Common Germanic vowels wereof two types: assimilative changes and independent (non-assimilative)changes.

Independent changes do not depend upon the environmentin which the given sound was found. They cannot be explained,but they are merely stated.

Common Germanic Old English

ai > aa > аз, etc.

Assimilative changes are explained by the phonetic positionof the sound in the word and the change can and must beexplained. Among the many phonetic assimilative changes whichtook place in the prehistoric period of the development of theEnglish language and which account for the discrepancy betweenthe Old English and the Common Germanic vowel system themost important are breaking and palatal mutation.

1.2..1. Breaking

The process of breaking took place in the 6th century. It affectedtwo vowels — [se] and [e] when they were followed by theconsonants [r], [1], [h] generally followed by another consonant.

The resulting vowel was a diphthong (hence the name "breaking"— a monophthong "was broken" into a diphthong), consequently theprocess may be summed up" as diphthongization of short vowels [a?]and [e] before certain consonant clusters.

80


For example:

a; > ea before r+consonant asrm > earm (arm)1+consonant asld > eald (old)h+consonant aehta > eahta (eight)h final sseh > seah (saw)

e > ea before r+consonant herte > heorte (heart)lc+consonant melcan > meolcan (to milk)1 h+consonant selh > seolh (seal)h final feh > feoh (cattle)

1.2.2. Palatal mutation

The qualitative change of Old English vowels that expertscall palatal mutation, or i-mutation, occurred somewhere duringthe 6th—7th centuries. The process affected Germanic words where avowel in a stressed syllable was immediately followed by the sound [i]or [j] in the next syllable. Almost all vowels, both diphthongs andmonophthongs, in the context described above became furtherforward and higher, or more palatal and more narrow, with theexception of [e] and [i] which could go no further. This may bedescribed as a kind of vowel hamiony — a natural process affectingmany modern languages: the vowels mutate, the change being causedby their partial assimilation to the following vowel (or semi-vowel).

Monophthongs

a > e * strangipu > strengpu1 (strength)ae > e *tselian > tellan (to tell)a > её *halian > hiilan (to heal)о > e *ofstian > efstan (to hurry)

1 Compare with the root vowel of the noun "talu" from the root of which thevei"b was formed, or in the second case the adjective "slrang" and the noun"streng".

81

PART 1. LECTURES

о > ё *domian > deman (to deem)u > у *fullian > fyllan (to fill)п > у *CUbian > cypan (to announce)

As a result of palatal mutation new phonemes entered the vowel-system in Old English — the vowel phoneme [y] and. the vowelphoneme [y], the result of the mutation of [u] and [п], respectively.

Diphthongs

ea > ie *ealdira > ieldra (elder)ёа > Те *3eleafian > 3el!efan (to believe)eo > ie *afeorrian > afierran (to remove)to > Те *3etreowi > 3etnewe (true)

1.2.3. Effect of palatal mutation upon grammar andword-stock

Though palatal mutation was a phonetic process it left tracesin Old English grammar and word-stock.

Grammar: As a result of the process of palatal mutationthere appeared vowel gradation in the system of the declension ofnouns (root-stem declension). In the system of adjectives we havevowel gradation in the degrees of comparison, in the system of verbsvowel gradation is found in Old English irregular weak verbs.1

Word-stock: Palatal mutation resulted in vowel interchange as aword building means.

Adjective Verb

ful (full) fyllan (fill)

Noun Verbdom (doom) deman (deem)

Verb Verbsittan (sit) settan (set)

1 See Lecture 7, Old English Grammar.

82


2. Old English consonants

2.0. The Old English consonant system consisted of some 14consonant phonemes denoted by the letters

p, b, m, f, t, d, n, s, r, 1, b(5),c, 3, h.

The consonant system in Old English manifested the followingpeculiarities.

1. The relatively small number of consonant phonemes — only14 phonemes.

2. The absence of affricates and fricative consonants whichwe now find in the language such as

WL [d3], [J]> [3]3. Dependence of the quality of the phoneme upon its

environment in the word.If the first two points require no particular explanation, the

last point calls for a special comment.

2.1. Dependence of the quality of the consonantphoneme upon its environment in the word

Among the 14 consonant phonemes that existed in Old Englishthere were at least 5 that gave us positional variants which stand ratherwide apart.

1 • The phonemes denoted by the letters f, J>, d or s are.voiced orvoiceless depending upon their phonetic position. They are generallyvoiced in the so-called "intervocaj position" that is between vowelsand voiceless otherwise.

For example:

hlaf[f] — hlaford[v](bread) (lord, originally hlafweard — bread-keeper)

83

PART I. LECTURES

36s [s] — 35ses [z](goose, Nom. Sing.) (Gen. Sing.)

tod [9] • — to6es [6](tooth, Nom. Sing.) (Gen. Sing.)

2. The phoneme denoted by the letter с also gave at least twovariants — palatal [k1] and velar [k]. In the majority of cases it was avelar consonant and palatal generally before the vowel i. Compare:

Cild (child) , SCip (ship)

where с denotes the palatal consonant [k1] and such words as

can (can), climban (to climb)

when the letter с denotes the corresponding velar variant of thephoneme [k].

3. Similar remarks can be made about the phoneme denotedby the letter 3: we have the voiced velar plosive variant [g] of it at thebeginning of the word before back vowels or consonants or in themiddle of the word after n:

3od (good), 3retan (to greet, to address), запзап (to go),

the voiced velar fricative variant [y] in the middle of the wordbetween back vowels:

da3as (days),

the voice palatal fricative variant [j] before and after front vowels:

dae3 (day), зёаг (year).

The system of consonant phonemes that we observe in OldEnglish involves certain peculiarities that are typical of the majority ofGermanic dialects which set them (those Germanic dialects and OldEnglish among them) apart from the majority of the Indo-European

84


languages. Those peculiarities were mainly accounted for by twolinguists — Jacob Grimm and Karl Verner, hence they are generallyreferred to as "Grimm's law" (or the first Germanic consonant shift)and "Verner's Jaw"1.

2.2. Grimm's law & Verner's law

Grimm's law explains the correspondence between certaingroups of Germanic and non-Germanic consonants. Thosecorrespondences involve three sets of Germanic consonants,consequently they generally speak of three stages of Grimm's law. Butwe shall speak here about only one stage which is the simplest toexplain and the most consistent — the Germanic consonants [f], [8],[h] and the corresponding consonants [p], [t] [k] we find in similarphonetic environment.

The essence of this stage of the first Germanic consonant shift isthe following:

The voiceless plosive consonants [p], [t], [k] of Indo-European languages other than Germanic shifted in Germaniclanguages into the voiceless fricative consonants [f], [9], [h]. Itwas a non-assimilative change which presumably affectedGermanic languages at the beginning of the first millennium AD.Examples:

Russian Greek Old English

пена fama (foam)пять fiv (five)Три 6rie (three)Ты t>U (thou)кров, кровля hrof (roof)

kardia heorte (heart)octo eahta (eight)

' p or more discussion of Grimm's law and Verner's law see Lecture 1.85

PART 1. LECTURES

It should be noted, however, that these correspondences are notabsolutely clear in all the cases. Some more complicated phenomenawere formulated in the so-called Venter's law.

A careful analysis of Germanic words and the correspondingIndo-European words other than Germanic shows, however, thatthere are certain words or word-forms in Germanic languageswhere instead of the expected voiceless fricative consonants wefind in Germanic languages voiced plosive consonants. Theseseeming "exceptions" to the rule are a result of the furtherdevelopment of the fricative consonants which appeared in Germaniclanguages after the first consonant shift.

The essence of this change was explained by Karl Verner —hence its name: Verner's law.

The Germanic voiceless fricative consonants [f], [0], [h] whichappeared due to Grimm's law later became voiced if they were foundafter unstressed vowels. Compare:

Latin Old English

pater feeder (father)

t>0 in accordance with Grimm's law, but as the stress in the word"fseder" in the prehistoric period was on the second syllable thevoiceless fricative consonant [0] became voiced [5]; later the voicedfricative consonant [6] underwent "hardening" and became [d].Consequently the whole process of the change may be presented inthe following way:

I.E. [t] > Com. Germ. [9] > [3] > [d]

Grimm's law Verner'slaw hardening

The change referred to as "Verner's law" also affected a fourthconsonant — [s] in addition to the three consonants which appearedin the language under Grimm's law, i.e. [f], [0], [h]. The [s] was alsovoiced after unstressed vowels — [s] > fz], later the resulting

86


consonant [z] became [r] — the change [z] > [r] is called rhotacism.Verner's law explains the appearance of "consonant gradation" insome strong verbs. For instance:

I II III IV

cwe9an cwsed cwaedon cweden (say, Strong V)ceosan ceas curon coren (choose, Strong II), etc.

In Common Germanic the stress in the third and fourth verb-forms originally fell on the second syllable, hence the consonant[9] and the consonant [s] which were originally in the formscwsdon/cweden and curon/coren became voiced, i.e. *[9] > [6]and [s] > [z] — Vemer's law, later [5] > [d] — hardening and [z] > [r]— rhotacism1.

Some more facts...

Relative Chronology

Temporal variation affects any language, giving rise tovarious highly distinctive processes and varieties. How, then,can one know when exactly the changes in the language, if any,took place?

The time of the change, like that of many languagephenomena, may be established with sufficient accuracy byrelating it to other events, borrowings among them. It would beclear that foreign words entering the language while a certainphonetic change was in force would be affected in the same wayas native words, and those borrowed after it was over wouldremain unchanged.

Thus, palatal mutation is thought to have begun after theAnglo-Saxon invaders arrived in Britain, but before the OldEnglish was first written down, because the words whichemerged in Old English out of the Germanic spoken on the

Rhotacism affected only North and West Germanic languages. It did not affectas t Germanic languages and the Gothic language among them.

87

PART 1. LECTURES

Continent looked and, consequently, sounded very differentfrom their later counterparts in the early days of German. EarlyLatin borrowings — those acquired in the pre-written period ofthe English language — are affected by palatal mutation:

hat. molina > OE myln (mill),

Lat. caseus > OE cyse (cheese),

although no French word shows the change. This proves that atthe time of the earliest contacts with French the process was nolonger in force.

A still more difficult task is to establish the chronology ofthe great consonant shift, described by Jakob Grimm and nowbearing his name as the Grimm's law. At one time it was thoughtthat the changes took place simultaneously in separate groupsinto the Indo-European family had split. But so great a changemust have been resulted from a long and gradual process. Thelower limit is set by the fact that the mutation did not affectLatin and Greek words borrowed through early contact withthe Mediterranean nations, so that we may take the first centuryA.D. as the time by which the first consonant shift was fullyaccomplished.

As to the upper limit — the beginning of the change — it isfar more a matter of conjecture, although it had apparently notbegun when certain words were borrowed from the Finns. Thuswe may say that the first consonant change was at its height inthe centuries immediately preceding the Christian era.

It.will be seen further that the situation with phoneticchanges in later periods is considerably simpler, for there existswritten evidence to support the educated guesswork based onlogic and comparative reconstruction.

After O.F. Emerson

LECTURE 6.OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Т Щ NOMINAL SYSTEM

Anglo-Saxon uniformSource: The New Universal Library, 1969


Norntan uniform

1.2.

3.

4.

General survey of the nominal system

The noun

2.1.Gender

2.2.Number

2.3.Case2.4.Homonymity of forms in Old English and its

influence on the further development of nounforms

The pronoun

3.1.Personal pronouns

3.2.Other pronouns

The adjective

4.1.Declension of adjectives4.2.Degrees of comparison of adjectives

89

PART 1. LECTURES

0. Old English grammar

0. The Old English language was a synthetic language whichmeans that all the principal grammatical notions were expressedby a change of the form of the word in the narrow meaning of theterm.

The grammatical means that the English language used wereprimarily a) suffixation, b) vowel gradation and c) use ofsuppletive forms.

Old English was a highly inflected language. The abundanceof inflections resulted from the fact that the paradigm ofdeclension and the paradigm of conjugation were formed bymany grammatical categories and there was more than onedeclension in the system of declension and more than oneconjugation in the system of conjugation due to the splitting ofthe once uniform paradigm in accordance with the originalstructure of the word.

1. General survey of ihe nominal system

1.0. There were five declinable parts of speech in OldEnglish1: the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the numeral,'theparticiple. The nominal paradigm in Old English wascharacterised by the following grammatical categories (see Table6.1).

As we can see, the paradigms of different parts of speech hadthe same number of grammatical categories but these parts ofspeech were different in the number of categorial formscomposing a given grammatical category. Hence the system offorms of each part of speech requires special consideration.

Among the non-finite forms of the verb the infinitive was also declined.90

6. OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THE NOMINAL SYSTEM

Table 6-/.Grammatical categoriesof declinable parts of speech

2. The noun2.0. The Old English noun paradigm was composed by the

following grammatical categories: gender, number, case.

2.1. Gender

The category of gender was formed by the opposition ofthree gender-forms: masculine, feminine and neuter. All nouns,no matter whether they denoted living beings, inanimate things orabstract notions belonged to one of the three genders.

The subdivision of Old English nouns in accordance withtheir grammatical gender is traditional, the correspondencebetween the meaning of the word and its grammatical genderbeing hard to trace.

Some nouns denoting animals were also treated.as neuter,such as cicen (chicken), hors (horse), etc.

The grammatical gender did not always coincide with thenatural gender of the person and sometimes even contradicted it(thus, for instance, the noun wifman (woman) was declined asMasculine).

91

^ \ ^ CategoriesParts^\^^of speech ^ ^ \

NounPronounAdjectiveNumeral

Gender

++++

Number

++++

Case

++++

PART I. LECTURES

Compare stSn (stone, masculine), ban (bone, neuter), cwen (queen,

feminine) which belong to different genders but have similar

forms.

More examples:

Male beings

faeder (father)

sunu (son)

cyning (king)

Female beings

modor (mother)

dohter (daughter)

CWen (queen)

3OS (goose)

Living beings

cicen (chicken)

hors (horse)

madden (maiden)

Masculine

Lifeless things

hlaf (bread)

Stan (stone)

hrof (roof)

Feminine

Lifeless things

tunge (tongue)

meolc (milk)

Neuter

Lifeless things

ёазе (eye)

scip (ship)

Abstract notions

Stenc (stench)

faer (fear)

nama (name)

dom (doom)

Abstract notions

trywdu (truth)

huntin3 (hunting)

lufu (love)

Abstract notions

mod (mood)

riht (right)

2.2. Number

The grammatical category of number was formed by the

opposition of two categorial forms: the singular and the plural.

Nominative Singular Nominative Plural

use (fish) fiscas

ёазе (eye) ёазап

t55 (tooth) te6

scip (ship) scipu

92


2.3. Case

The Old English noun formed its paradigm by the oppositionof three genders, two numbers and four cases. Thus, presumably,the noun had twenty-four word-forms.

On the whole the same could be observed in CommonGermanic. In the course of the development of Old English,however, the original paradigm had undergone great changes dueto the fusion of the original stem suffix and the originalgrammatical ending into one element which from the point ofview of Old English is to be regarded as a grammatical ending.As a result of that fusion nouns that are known to have haddifferent stem-suffixes originally in Old English acquiredmaterially different endings in the same case, for example:

Nominative plural

a-stem б-stem n-stemstan-as (stones) car-a (cares) nam-an (names), etc.

The original stem suffixes were formed both by vowels andby consonants. Thus there were two respective principal groupsof declensions in Old English: the vowel declension ("strong"declension) and the consonant declension ("weak" declension).

The vowel (strong) declension comprises four principalParadigms: the a-stem, the o-stem, the u-stem and the i-stemparadigm.

The consonant declension comprises nouns with, the stemoriginally ending in -n, -r, -s and some other consonants.

In rare cases, however, the new form is constructed byadding the ending directly to the root. It is these words thatformed the so-called root-stem declension.

93

PART 1. LECTURES

Table 6-2. Declensions in Old English

^Declension

Case \ .and number\

Nom. Sing.

Nom. Plur.

Vowel (strong) stems

а о u i

stan cam sunu wine(stone) (care) (son) (wine)

stanas cara suna wine

Consonant (weak) stem

n r s

nama faeder lamb

(name) (father) (lamb)

naman fsederos lamb

Root

stems

fot

(foot)

fet

Vowel-Stems. Declension ofa-stem nouns

This type of declension consists of the masculine and theneuter genders of Old English nouns. As a rule those are commoneveryday words that formed the very core of the word-stock, suchas:

ЪШ (bread), hwffirte (wheat), hors (horse), fisc (fish), SCip (ship),etc.As is seen from Table 6-3 below, the paradigm of the a-stem

nouns is characterised by the homonymity of the Nominative andAccusative case-forms. The rest of the forms retain their endings.The difference between the genders of the nouns is clearly seenfrom the different endings in the Nominative and the Accusativeplural, i.e. -as for the masculine and -u for the neuter.1

Consonant stems. Declension ofn-stem nouns

The consonant declensions consisted of nouns with the sternoriginally ending in -n, -r, -s and other consonants.2

1 Nouns which had a long stem syllable had the zero ending in the Nominativeand the Accusative Plural (such as sceap (sheep), land (land), etc.)2 Declensions of stems other than -n are not analysed here as nouns belongingto them are few and show a tendency to fall under other declensions.

94


Table 6-3. Declension of a-stem nouns

Case ^^~^-^^^

Sin

gula

rP

lura

l

NominativeGenitiveDativeAccusative


Masculine

fisc (fish)fiscesfiscefisc

fiscasfiscafiscumfiscas

Neuter

scip (ship)scipesscipescip

scipuscipascipum

scipu

The n-stem class was formed by nouns of all the three

genders, such as nama (name.) — masculine, tunge (tongue) —

feminine, еазе (eye) — neuter.

table 6-4. Declension of n-stem nouns

*~\GenderCase^\^

f S

ingu

lar

/ P

lura

l



Masculine

nama (name)

namannamannaman

namannamenanamumnaman

Feminine

tunge (tongue)tungantungantungan

tungantungenatungumtungan

Neuter

еазе (eye)еазапеазапеазе

еазапеазепаеазшпеазап

.95

PART 1. LECTURES

The n-stem was the most important among all theconsonant stem declensions. This class of nouns was composedof common words. The group was very extensive in Old Englishand like the a-stem declension it exhibited a tendency to spreadits forms over other declensions.

The original stem-suffix -n may be observed in the majorityof case forms, but very often the grammatical ending had beendropped in the pre-written period; this phenomenon gave rise toa well-marked homonymity of the noun forms of the declension.Five case forms of the masculine and the feminine gendersall the Singular with the exception of the Nominative and theNominative and the Accusative plural are homonymous, in caseof neuter nouns only four forms are homonymous, as theAccusative case of neuter nouns is homonymous to theNominative.

Gender oppositions in this declension are also not distinct,the masculine nouns being different from the feminine only inthe Nominative Singular and from the neuter — in theNominative and the Accusative Singular.

Declension of root-stem nounsRoot-stems require special consideration. This class was

not extensive and stood apart among other Old English nounsdue to peculiarities of form-building which was partly retainedin Modern English.

Unlike other classes the root-stem nouns such as man (man,masculine), mfls (mouse, feminine) originally had no stem-suffix andthe grammatical ending was added directly to the root. As aresult of that in the Dative Singular and the Nominative and theAccusative Plural the root-vowel had undergone palatalmutation due to the [i]-sound in the grammatical ending ofthese forms. Later the ending was dropped and vowelinterchange remained the only means of differentiating the

96


given forms in the paradigm.1 The endings of the rest of theforms are built up on analogy with those of the a-stems, hence thedifference between genders canbe observed only in the GenitiveSingular es for the masculine, -e for the feminine.

Table 6-5. Declension of root-stem nouns

^ ^ ^ - - ^ ^ GenderCase ^~""~"-~^^^

Sin

gula

rP

lura

l



Masculine

man (man)

mannesmanman

menmannamannummen

Feminine

mus (mouse)

musemysmus

mysmusamusummys

2.4. Homonymity of forms in Old Englishand its influence on the further development

of noun forms

In. the prehistoric period of the development of the Englishlanguage each case had an ending typical of its uninflected form.In the course of the development of the English language,however, due to various semantic and phonetic changes differentcases began to develop similar endings within one and the sameparadigm; this phenomenon gave rise to the well-marked

1 The feminine nouns with the short root had the ending -u in the Nominativeand the Accusative Singular, and -e in the Nominative and the AccusativePlural.

4 История английского языка 97

PART 1. LECTURES

homonymity of case-forms in English. The reference table givenbelow show the principal noun suffixes in Old English. The tableserves to prove that the twenty-four word-forms which built upthe noun paradigm had but nine materially different endings.

The most distinct among them are:

-es — genitive singular, masculine and neuter-a/ena — genitive plural, all genders-um — dative plural, all genders-as — nominative and accusative plural, masculine.

As for the rest of the forms their mutual homonymity isconsiderable. For example, nouns with the stem originally endingin -a show gender differences only in the plural, all the forms inthe singular but the nominative being homonymous, irrespectiveof gender and case differences.

The existence of different endings of nouns grammaticallyalike and homonymous endings of nouns grammatically differenttestifies to a certain inadequacy of the morphological devices orthe Old English noun to show the relation of the noun to otherwords in the sentence and a need for the development of newmeans to denote the grammatical meanings formerly denotedmorphologically.

Table 6-6. Reference table of the principalgrammatical noun suffixes in Old English

1D-i

- Gender

Case ^ ^ - ^NominativeGenitiveDativeAccusative


Masculine

a—ese—

asaumas

l

eesee

e/esaume/as

u

u/oa'aa

aauma

naananan

anaenauman

Feminine

0

ueee

eauma

i

ee-/e

aaume

uu/oaaa

aauma

neananan

nenruman

Neuter

a

ese—

u/oaum

i

-/eesee

uaum

u/o/- u

neanane

anenauman

98


3. The pronoun

0. The following classes of pronouns were to be observed inOld English: personal, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative,relative and indefinite pronouns.

The system of declension of the pronoun was not the samefor all the classes. It has at least two subsystems that should besingled out: the declension of personal pronouns on the one handand the declension of other pronouns. Although the grammaticalcategories of each subsystem were the same, i. e. gender, number,case, the number of the categorial forms composing thosecategories was different.

3.1. The personal pronoun

The Old English personal pronoun similar to the Old Englishnoun had the grammatical categories of gender, number and case.

Gender

Three genders could be distinguished in the pronominalparadigm: masculine, feminine and neuter, but different forms fordifferent genders were found only in the third person singular, therest of the forms being indifferent to gender.

The category of number differs from that of the noun as inthe first and second person we find three categorial forms:singular, dual and plural, for instance:

PART 1. LECTURES

Singular

Icf/j

Dualwit (two of us)

Plural

we (we)

Case

The category of case is built up by the opposition of fourcategorial forms, similar to those of the noun: Nominative,Genitive, Dative, Accusative.

The table below may serve as an example of the declensionof personal pronouns.

Unlike the Old English noun, the paradigm of which wascomposed of forms that mainly differed in the ending, theparadigm of the Old English personal pronouns is built up bysuppletive forms and the homonymity of pronominal forms is notgreat. We find it only in the Dative and the Accusative cases.

Table 6-7. Declension of the personal pronoun Ic


Singular

icmmme

. mec, me

Dual

witunceruncunc

Plural

weuser, Oreususic, us ..

3.2. Other pronouns

All Old English pronouns with the exception of personalpronouns were declined almost alike. They expressed thegrammatical categories of gender (three forms: masculine,feminine and neuter), number (two forms: singular and plural)and case, which was built up by five categorial forms: theNominative, the Accusative, the Dative, the Genitive and the

100


Instrumental, different from the Dative only in the Singular. See,for example, the declension of the demonstrative pronoun se inTable 6-8 below.

If we compare the paradigms of these pronouns with those ofthe noun and the personal pronoun we cannot but take notice thatthey differed in the number of the categorial forms composing thecategories of case and number.

The personal pronoun unlike the rest of the pronouns andthe noun possessed three categorial forms composing thecategory of number.

All the other pronouns unlike the personal pronoun and thenoun had five cases.

Table 6-8. Declension of the demonstrative pronoun se

4. The adjective

4.1. Declension of adjectives

The paradigm of the adjective is similar to that of the nounand the pronoun, i.e. it comprises Gender, Number, Case.

The grammatical category of case was built up by five forms:the Nominative, the Accusative, the Dative, the Genitive and theInstrumental.

101

PART 1. LECTURES

There were two ways of declining Adjectives — the Definiteand the Indefinite declension. The adjective followed the Definitedeclension mainly if the noun if modified had another attribute— a demonstrative pronoun, and they were declined as Indefiniteotherwise.

The grammatical suffixes — forms of cases mainlycoincided with those of nouns with the stem originally ending ina vowel or -n, yet in some cases we find pronominal suffixes. Forexample, in the Genitive Plural, in the Dative singular, etc.

Table 6-9. Declension of adjectives

4.2. Degrees of comparison

The Adjective in Old English changed its forms not only toshow the relation of the given adjective to other words in the sen-tence which was expressed by the gender, number and case of theadjective, but also to show the degree of the quality denoted bythe adjective, i.e., the forms of the adjective in Old English couldexpress degrees of comparison.

102


The degrees of comparison were expressed, the same as allother grammatical notions, synthetically, namely:

a) by means of suffixation:heard — heardra -— heardost (hard)

b) by means of vowel gradation plus suffixation:eald — ieldra — ieldest (old)

c) by means of suppletive forms3od — bettra — betst (good),

the first means being unquestionably the most common.Both suffixation and the use of suppletive forms in the

formation of the degrees of comparison are original means thatcan be traced back to Common Germanic. But the use of vowelinterchange is a feature which is typical of the English languageonly and was acquired by the language in the prehistoric periodof its development.

The origin of vowel gradation in the formseald — ieldra — ieldest

is a result of the process of palatal mutation which the root-vowelea underwent under the influence of the original stem-formingsuffix -i, i.e.

Positive Comparative Superlativedegree degree degree

eald ieldra ieldest*ealdira *ealdistealdira > ieldra ealdist > ieldest

A similar case is observed with strong (strong), long (long),etc.

* * *Summary

A careful study of the systems of declensions of nouns,pronouns and adjectives shows that the pronominal and adjectival

103

PART I. LECTURES

paradigms are more developed, they are richer in the number 01word-forms. The homonymity of forms although existing(especially in the declension of the definite adjective) is not sopronounced and the oppositions between word-forms are moreevident.

There were three kinds of declensions — noun, pronoun(with two subdivisions) and adjective. They had the samegrammatical categories, the main difference being in the quantityof the categorial forms of number (three number-forms mpersona] pronouns) and case (four case-forms — nouns, fivecase-forms — personal pronouns and adjectives).

The subdivision within the system of each part of speech wasbased on the difference in the material forms (the noun — basedon the original stem-suffix, the pronoun — the number ofcategorial forms, the adjective — strong and weak declensionswith the functional difference.

Some more facts...

Irregular Comparisons

Irregularity may be encountered not only in nouns and verbs,but also in adjectives. Some forms of the degrees of comparisonmay be called irregular, for they do not follow the predominantpattern. The Positives marked below with an asterisk haveborrowed their comparatives and superlatives from other roots.Such Positives are therefore irregular, because they have noComparative or Superlative of their own. The Comparative andSuperlative are also defective, because they have no Positive oftheir own. In all the other examples the Comparative andSuperlative are irregular, but formed from the same root as thePositive.

Bad, ill, evil* worse* worst*

Fore former foremost, first

Good* better* best*

104


Hind

Late

Little*

Much (quantity)*

Many (number)*

Nigh

Old

hinder

later, latter

less* •

more*

more*

nigher

older, elder

hindmost

latest, last

least*

most*

most*

Highest, next

oldest, eldest

Many of the present-day irregular comparatives areinteresting from a historical point of view. Late has later—latest, beside the older latter—last, both of which have lostsomething of their comparative force. Nearer—nearest areexamples of new forms based upon an older comparative near,the older comparison being nigh—near—next. In a similar wayworser and lesser are based on true comparatives worse, less.Far has two sets of words used somewhat indiscriminately ascomparative and superlative. These are farther—farthest,further—furthest, only one of which is original, thecomparative further. The superlative of further was fyrst, ourfirst, which has become entirely separated from the series. Laterthe superlative furthest was formed, and by analogy theremaining forms with the vowel of far. More—most are from anoriginal adverb ma, which became an adjective in MiddleEnglish and remained in early Modern English as moe. It maybe mentioned also thai evil was in Old English use the positiveto worse— worst, but in Middle English both a new adjectivebadde and ill from the Norse replaced evil in this use.

Another instance of irregularity in the degrees of comparisonis represented by the following five words which are adverbs inthe Positive degree, but adjectives in the Comparative andSuperlative:

far farther farthest

in inner innermost, inmost

out outer, utter uttermost, utmost

beneath nether nethermost

up upper uppermost

105

PART 1. LECTURES

Thus instances of irregularity may be found in all the principal

grammatical classes of English words.

after O.F. Emerson and J.C. Nesfield

LECTURE 7.OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

THE VERBAL SYSTEM

King Edward the Confessor (1042-1066) with his servant, fragment of acontemporary embroidery ("Bayeuxtapestry", or "Queen Mathilde'stapestry", Musee de Bayeux).


1. General survey of finite and non-finite forms ofthe verb

2. Grammatical categories of the finite forms of the verb2.1. Person2.2. Number2.3. Tense2.4. Mood

3. Morphological classification of verbs

3.1. Strong verbs3.2. Weak verbs3.3. Irregular verbs

107

PART 1. LECTURES

1. General survey of finite and non-finiteforms of the verb

The verb-system in Old English was represented by two setsof forms: the finite forms of the verb and the non-finite forms ofthe verb, or verbals (Infinitive, Participle). Those two types offorms — the finite and the non-finite — differed more than theydo today from the point of view of their respective grammaticalcategories, as the verbals at that historical period were notconjugated like the verb proper, but were declined like nouns oradjectives. Thus the infinitive could have two case-forms whichmay conventionally be called the "Common" case and the"Dative" case.

Common case Dative caseWritan (to write) to writenne (so that I shall write)cepan (to keep) to cepenne (so that I shall keep)drincan (to drink) to drincenne (so that 1 shall drink)

The so-called Common case form of the Infinitive waswidely used in different syntactical functions, the Dative casewas used on a limited scale and mainly when the Infinitivefunctioned as an adverbial modifier of purpose, i.e.

Ic 3a to drincenne (/ go to drink)The participle had a well-developed system of forms, the

declension of the Participle resembling greatly the declension ofadjectives. The one typically "verbal" grammatical category ofthe participle was the category of tense, for example:

Present tensewritendecependedrincende

Past tensewritenceptdruncen

108

7. OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THE VERBAL SYSTEM

2. Grammatical categoriesof the finite forms of the verb

As we have already said the system of conjugation mainlyembraced the finite forms of the verb as the non-finite formswere not conjugated but declined. The system of conjugation ofthe Old English verb was built up by four grammatical categories,those of person, number, tense and mood.

2.1. Person

There were three person forms in Old English: first, secondand third. For example:

First person — Ic writeSecond person — pu writesThird person — he wrlte5

But we have distinct person forms only in the Indicativemood, the Imperative and the Oblique mood forms reflecting noperson differences and even the Indicative mood forms changingfor person only in the Singular, the plural forms being the sameirrespective of person, for example:

2.2. NumberThe grammatical category of number was built up by the

opposition of two number forms — Singular and PluralIc write (singular)we wnta6 (plural)

109

PART I. LECTURES

2.3. TenseThe grammatical category of tense was represented by two

forms: Present tense and Past terise, for example:

Present Past

Indicative Ic write Ic wratOblique Ic write Ic write

There was no Future tense in Old English, future events wereexpressed with the help of a present tense verb + an adverdenoting futurity or by a combination of a modal verb (generallysculan (shall) or willan (will) + an Infinitive, for example:

Wille ic asec3an mserum peodne min aerende(7 want to tell the glorious prince my mission)

2.4. MoodThere were three mood forms in Old English: Indicative,

Imperative and Oblique, for example:

Indicative Imperative Obliquepu cepst сер сере

The Indicative Mood and the Imperative Mood were used Шcases similar to those in which they are used now But the Obliquemood in Old English differed greatly from the correspondingmood in New English. There was only one mood form in OldEnglish that was used both to express events that are thought ofas unreal or as problematic — today there are two mood forms todenote those two different kinds of events, conventionally calledthe Subjunctive and the Conjunctive!

The forms of the Oblique Mood were also sometimes used incontexts for which now the Indicative mood would be moresuitable — to present events in the so-called "Indirect speech":

He ssede past pset land sie swipe 1апз.(He said that that land is very long/large).

110

7, OLD ENGLISH GRAMMAR, THE VERBAL SYSTEM

3. Morphological classificationof verbs

All Old English verbs may be subdivided into a number ofgroups in accordance with the grammatical means with the helpof which they built their principal stems.

There were two principal means for forming verb-stems inOld English: (1) by means of vowel interchange of the root voweland (2) by means of suffixation.

In accordance with these two methods of the formation ofthe verb-stems all the verbs in Old English formed two maingroups — the strong verbs and the weak verbs. There were othermeans of the formation of verb-stems in Old English as well, butthe number of verbs belonging to those groups was not large.

A.I. Smirnitsky suggested the following morphologicalclassification of verbs in Old English.

Table 7-1. Morphological classificationof Old English verbs

Strong verbs

I, II, III, IV, V, VI,VII classes

Weak verbs

I, II, III classes

Other verbs

suppletiveirregular (anomalous)preterite-present verbs

3.1. Strong verbsThe strong verbs are verbs which use vowel-interchange as

the principal means of expressing different grammaticalcategories. They differ from weak'ones not only in the manner ofthe building of their forms but also in the number of theseprincipal forms. The strong verbs have four principal forms, theweak ones — three principal forms.

in

PART 1. LECTURES

These terms "strong" and "weak" were introduced into thescience of philology by the famous German linguist Jacob Grimmwho considered strong verbs to be of "a more noble nature" ascompared with weak verbs, because strong verbs conjugated bymeans of vowel interchange better reflected the prehistoric"golden age" of the language.

This vowel interchange, or "ablaut", which was the principalgrammatical means in the conjugation of the Old English strongverbs was of two kinds: qualitative and quantitative.

The first five classes are mainly based on the qualitativeablaut; the sixth class — on the quantitative ablaut; verbs of theseventh class originally formed their principal forms by means otthe so-called reduplication of the root syllable, but in the courseof the development of the language that means was obliterated.

The Old English qualitative ablaut is akin to the CommonGermanic ablaut and even Indo-European ablaut — its essence,as we remember, is the use of the gradation series consisting of afront vowel, back vowel and zero,

e — o — 0i — a — 0

In Russian, for instance, they use two grades of the series,e/zero to form the category of tense:

Present tense Past tense

e — беру 0 — брал

Classes of the strong verbs

There were seven principal gradation series in Old Englishand there were seven classes of the strong verbs — from I to VII.

As we have already said, the seventh class of the strong verbsstands apart from the rest of the classes, because it was the onlyclass formed by verbs which originally used reduplication of theroot-vowel as their principal grammatical means; the sixth class


of the strong verbs shows a peculiarity that is also typical only ofone class within the system of the strong verbs — originalquantitative gradation; the rest-of the classes — from I to VII —are characterised by a certain similarity in their originalgrammatical means as all of them originally used the same typeof qualitative ablaut, i.e. the interchange of a front vowel — backvowel — zero in the form of

i — a - ~ 0 .The difference in the gradation series of each of the classes

within the first five was mainly due to the splitting of that onegradation into variants under the influence of the vowel or theconsonant of the stem that followed the vowel of gradation.

Thus in the first class of the strong verbs the vowel ofgradation was followed by the vowel -i, in the second — by thevowel -u, in the third, fourth and fifth — by a sonorous consonant+ another consonant, by one sonorous consonant or by a noiseconsonant, respectively.

The root of the verbs of the sixth class consisted only ofconsonants, and the purely quantitative vowel interchange ofprehistoric times developed into a quantitative and qualitative°ne. The verbs of the seventh class show traces of the originalreduplication (addition of an extra syllable including the initialconsonant of the infinitive and having the vowels -e- or -eo- inthe past singular and plural)1.

The original structure of the verb is still quite clear in theGothic language. In table 7-3 below the bold type vowel in theGothic verb is the vowel of gradation. As is seen from theexamples, in the third and second forms of the verb there was novowel of gradation — the zero grade of gradation.

Рог more details on Class VII see also p. 124-125113

PART 1. LECTURES

^XStemsN.

N.Class \

I

II

Ш

IV

V

VI

VII

Table 7-2. Classes of the

I stemInfinitive,Present tense.

Imperative

nsan (rise)

ceosan (choose)

bindan (bind)

teran (tear)

etan (eat)

scacan (shake)

hatan (-call)

ElstemPast tensesingular

ras

ceas

band

tser

set

scoc

het

III stemPast tenseplural

rison

curon

bundon

tseron

seton

scocon

heton

strong verbs

IV stem

PastParticiple

JParUJl__

risen

coren

bunden

toren

eten

scacen

haten

Table 7-3. Old English and Gothic strong verbs

In the following table there is given the paradigm of some

types of strong verbs.

114


Table 7-4. Conjugation of Old English strong verbs

PART 1. LECTURES

3.2. Weak verbs

The Old English weak verbs are relatively younger than thestrong verbs. They reflect a later stage in the development ofGermanic languages.

They were an open class in Old English, as new verbs thatentered the language generally formed their forms on analogywith the weak verbs.

Whereas the strong verbs used vowel-interchange as a meansof differentiation among principal verb stems, the weak verbsused for that purpose suffixation, namely, suffixes -t or -d. Forexample:

cepan — cepte — cept (keep)

The strong verbs, as we remember, were "root-stem" verbs,i.e. they did not have any stem-forming suffix following the root,but they added their grammatical endings to the root directly. Theweak verbs, however, had a stem-forming suffix that followed theroot and preceded the grammatical ending. By way of an examplewe may use a Gothic verb where that original stem-formingsuffix is better preserved than in English.

Infinitive Past tense Past Participle

Singular

I class haus-j-an (hear) haus-i-d-a haus-i-ps

Classes of the weak verbs

In accordance with the character of the stem-suffix the weakverbs are subdivided into three classes.

If the English strong verbs had four principal forms, theEnglish weak verbs had three principal forms.

We may draw the following table of the English weak verbs.

116


Table 7-5. Classes of the weak verbs

Classes

I

П1

Stem

suffix

i

oi

Infinitive

deman (deem)fyllan (fill)

lufian (love)

locian (look)

Past tense

Singular

demdefyllde

lufode

locode

Past

Participle

deniedfylled

lufod

locod

Class I - the stem-suffix -i

The class includes many verbs formed from other nouns,adjectives or verbs. All of them have a front root vowel — theresult of the palatal mutation due to the -i- element of the stem-suffix.

e.g. deman <- domfyllan <r- ful

In the course of time this palatal stem-suffix was as a rulelost. It was preserved only in some participles in the form of -e-(after sonorous consonants):

deman — demde — demed.

Class II - the stem-suffix -oi

The o-element of the suffix is preserved in the past tense andin the Past Participle.

If the first class of the weak verbs reflected the palatalmutation of the root-vowel due to the i-element of the stem-suffix, the root vowel of the weak verbs belonging to the secondclass remained unchanged (because of the preceding 6).

luf-oian —> lufeian -» lufean —> lufianThe following table shows the paradigm of weak verbs.

' Of the third class there remained in Old English only three verbs — habban(haw), libban (live), sec3an (see).

117

PART I. LECTURES

Table 7-6. Conjugation of Old English weak verbs


3.3. Irregular verbs

Regularity means conformity with some unique principle orpattern. It does not require any exact material marker. That iswhy it is said that most verbs in Old English were regular I intheor conjugation they followed one of the patterns typical of thisor that class of strong or weak verbs. However, there were also afew irregular verbs, conjugated in some specific way.

Irregular weak verbs

The majority of the weak verbs belonging to the 1st and 2nd

classes were regular. The weak verbs of the 3rd class areconsidered to be irregular, because the class consists of only threeverbs, following their own individual patterns of form-building.However, among the Is1 class there were also some irregularverbs. This irregularity was inherent, but it was manifested inpre-historic times and in Old English differently. Here we mayspeak of such verbs as

tellan — talde — tald (to tell)sellan — salde — said (to sell)

The sign of irregularity of the weak verbs in Old English wasvowel interchange, a feature not typical of this group of verbs.The cause of it was the original absence of the sterrwformingsuffix -i- in Past Singular and Past Participle:

* talian — talde — tald

Under the influence of -i- only the form of the infinitivecould change during the process of palatal mutation:

* talian > tellan;

the other two remaining unchanged, and as a result the verbacquired vowel interchange.

119

PART 1. LECTURES

Irregular strong verbs

There was a group of strong verbs which in the pre-wnttenperiod lost some of their forms and'preserved the others,changing their lexical and grammatical meaning. F o n t i s

historically past changed so as to become present in meaning.These verbs are called preterite-present, for in the written penothey build their present tense forms from the original past(preterite) ones. The new past tense forms of these verbs in 0English are built with the help of dental suffixation, like weakverbs. The majority of preterite-present verbs are defective ver s— they do not have all the forms of regular verbs, which lostheir connection with the other forms and were dropped.

The group of Old English preterite-present verbs includes,among others, the following:

infinitive

азапcunnansculanтазап

PresentSingular

4cannscealтэез

mot

PresentPlural

азоп.cunnonsculonтазоп

moton

PastSingularahtecu5escoldemeahte

moste

Ратсц

азепcunnen—

—

The Old English forms of preterite-present verbs correspondto the following pre-written forms of the verb:

Pre-written

Written

Infinitive

ЛInfinitive

PastSingular

IfPresentSingular

PastPlural

PresentPlural

PastSingular

Participle u

Participle II

Preterite-present verbs were further to develop in a numberof different ways.

120


The verb a^an later developed into several words:— the infinitive азап as a result of phonetic changes gave

the New English verb owe with the past tense/participle II formowed built according to the pattern of weak verbs;

— the past participle азеп gave the New English adjectiveown from which there was later formed the regular verb own —owned ~ owned;

— the past tense singular ante developed into the modernmodal verb ought.

The verb cunnan lost its infinitive. The form can began tobe used for the present, the past tense form acquired the dentalsuffix -d, in Middle English began to be spelled with -ou- instead°f -u-, and later acquired the letter -I- on analogy with such verbsas should and would.

The verb тазап also lost its infinitive and participle I, usingthe form of таез for its present, and the former meahte gave usthe present-day might.

The verb mot has preserved but one form — must — whichgoes back to its past tense form moste and is understood as apresent tense form — it is an example of a second change of itsmeaning, when the new past form came to be understood as thepresent tense one.

The verb sculan, similar to other verbs of this group, lost itsinfinitive, using the form sceal for the present, and the formersceolde was to develop into should, both verbs nowadays beingused as modal or auxiliary.

Suppletive verbs

Supplition, as we know, is one of the oldest means of form-building. All Indo-European languages, and English among them,have suppletive verbs — those building different forms fromdifferent roots. Each of them is a class in itself. Among suchverbs we may mention the following:

121

PART 1. LECTURES

beon —wesan (be)3§n — eode (go)don — dyde (do)

The first verb of each of the pairs above is the root for thePresent tense forms, the second — for the past.

A similar phenomenon is observed in German: sein w a

— ich bin, Russian: быть — есть, иду — шел, Latin: sum -*fui, French: aller —je vais —j'irai. In fact, the forms of the verbcortresponding to the present-day be are derived from threedifferent roots: wes~, es- and be- (for a complete paradigm of theverbs Ьёоп/wesan and jan/eode see table 7-7 on the next page)-

* * *

Summary

If we compare the system of conjugation with that of thesystem of declension we shall observe a number of instances oibasic difference between them.

— The principal grammatical means used in the paradigm ofdeclension was suffixation, in the paradigm of conjugation —'vowel gradation.

— With reference to the structure of the noun we generallyspeak .of three elements of word-structure: root + stem-suffix +grammatical ending. In the verb we very often have only twoelements — the root and the grammatical ending.

— The system of declension manifested a tendency tosimplification from the point of view of the number of.declensions and the number of grammatical categories, thesystem of conjugation preserved its principal groups and classesof verbs and also retained and developed its original grammaticalcategories.

122

7. OLD ENGUSH GRAMMAR. THE VERBAL SYSTEM

Table 7-7. Conjugation of beon/wesan and зап/eode

Infinitive

Present hid.Sing. 1

23

Plur.

Present Subj.Sing.Plur.

ImperativeSing.Plur.

Participle I

Past /nd.Sing. 1

23

Plur.

Past Subj.Sing.Plur.

Participle II

wesan/beon

eom beoeart bistis bif>sint, sindon beob

sy, si beosyn, sin beon

Wfes beowaesaf) beof)

wesende beonde

waeswsereW£BS

WJBl'On

waerewSren

3an/eode

3a

зФ

За3§n

За

3ande, 3an3ende

codeeodestcodeeodon

eodeeoden

a*»

123

PART 1. LECTURES

Some more facts...

Reduplication

The seventh class of Old English strong verbs is formed by

the so-called reduplicating verbs, which, as the name implies,

used repetition of their elements as a means of'form-building,

although due to later contracting we see but traces of it in u

English. These verbs are put in a class by themselves because Щ

their unusual pattern of preterits and are significant as fanning

a connecting link between the Teutonic1 and other Indo-

European languages, such as Greek and Latin, which also №

reduplication — one of the oldest word- and form-building

means of any language, encountered even now in some cieo

languages, for example:

now-now (immediately),

fast-fast (very fast)

- in South African English.

Reduplication was perfectly preserved only in Gothic, the

oldest representative of Teutonic, where past tense was formed

by repeating the root syllable, for example:

haitan (to call) —- haihait

tekan (to touch) — taitok.

In Anglo-Saxon examples of reduplication are far lessdistinctly preserved, some of the most evident of them being:

hatan (to call) — heht (Gothic 'haihait'),

which shows reduplication by the repetition of'h';

rcedan (to advise)— reord (Gothic 'rairoth'),

which shows reduplication by the repetition of Y;

lacan (to skip) — leolc (Gothic 'lailaik'),

which shows reduplication by the repetition of T.

More commonly the repeated consonant is lost, and ci

diphthong is substituted for the root vowel, as in:

Teutonic = Germanic

124


Gothic Old English

faifall feoll (fell)

haihald heold (held)

Reduplicating verbs differed in one other respect from theremaining strong verbs, since their four principal steins had buttwo different vowels, one for the present and participle andanother —for the preterite singular and plural. However, due tolater changes most of them have lost the pattern, preserving thevowel interchange to become 'irregular', such as

beat, blow, fall, grow, hold, know, let, throw,

or started to use dental suffixes for their past and participle,losing the vowel difference completely and thus becoming'regular':

blend, claw, dread, fold, glow, leap, row, salt, swoop,wheeze, wield.

The only certain example of the pattern remaining in ModernEnglish is hight (to call), which in Old English was heht, thepast tense ofhatan and in Gothic — haihait, as shown above.

after O.F. Emerson and J.C. Nesjicld

LECTURE 8.CHANGES IN THE PHONETICSYSTEM IN MIDDLE ENGLISH

AND NEW ENGLISH

William the Conqueror listeningto his messenger, fragment of acontemporary embroidery("Bayeux tapestry", or "QueenMathilde's tapestry", Musee deBayeux).

List of principal questions:1. Changes in the phonetic system in Middle English

1.1. Vowels in the unstressed position

1.2. Vowels under stress1.2.1. Qualitative changes1.2.2. Quantitative changes

1.3. Consonants2. Changes in the phonetic system in New English

2.1. Vowels in the unstressed position2.2. Vowels under stress

2.2.1. Qualitative changes2.2.2. Quantitative changes

2.3. Consonants3. Changes in alphabet and spelling in Middle and

New English126

8. CHANGES IN THE PHONETIC SYSTEM IN MIDDLE AND NEW ENGLISH

1. Changes in the phonetic systemin Middle English


All vowels in the unstressed position underwent a qualitativechange and became the vowel of the type of [э] or [e] unstressed.This phonetic change had a far-reaching effect upon the systemof the grammatical endings of the English words which now dueto the process of reduction became homonymous. For example:

—forms of strong verbs

Old English writan — wrat — writon — writenwith the suffixes -an, -on, -en different only in the vowelcomponent became homonymous in Middle English:

writen — wrpt — writen — writen

—forms of nouns

Old English Nominative Plural a-stem fiscasGenitive Singular fisces

Middle English for both the forms is fisces;

or

Old English Dative Singular fisceGenitive Plural fisca

Middle English form in both cases is fisce.

1.2. Vowels under stress

1.2.1. Qualitative changes

— Changes of monophthongs

Three long monophthongs underwent changes in MiddleEnglish:

127

PART 1. LECTURES

Table 8-1. Long Monophthongs

^-\Per iods

a > 9

y > I

Old English

stanbat

slaepan

fyr

Middle English

st9nbot

slfpen

fir

(New English)

stone

boat

sleep

fire

the rest of the monophthongs presenting their original quality, o»

example:

(though the spelMdevices may be

different)

6 [5]

п1

Old English

teptop

uttTma

Middle English

teethtoothouttime

Out of the seven principal Old English short monophthongs-a, e, o, i, u, ге, у — two changed their quality in Middle English,thus [ae] became [a] and [y] became [i], the rest of themonophthongs remaining unchanged, for example:

but:

Old English

paetwsesfyrst

tell anhorssinganputan

Middle English

that

wasfirst

tellenhorssin genputten

128

. S. CHANGES IN THE PHONETIC SYSTEM IN MIDDLE AND NEW ENGLISH

— Changes of diphthongs

All Old English diphthongs were contracted (becamemonophthongs) at the end of the Old English period.

Table 8-2. Diphthongs

"\Periods

Sounds^\^

ёо>ёёа>|eo>eea>a

Old English

deopbreadseofoneald

Middle English

deepbreadsevenaid

But instead of the former diphthongs that had undergonecontraction at the end of the Old English period there appeared intyTiddle English new diphthongs. The new diphthongs sprang intobeing due to the vocalization of the consonant [j] after the frontvowels [e] or [ae] or due to the vocalization of the consonant [y]or the semi-vowel [w] after the back vowels [o] and [a]. Forinstance:

Old English

da?3 > da3we3 > we3gr§3 > gre3ёгазап > drawenаз an > 8 wenЬоза > bowe

Middle English

> dai> wei> grei> drauen> ouen> boue

(New English)

daywaygrey

draw

ownbow

Thus in Middle English there appeared four new diphthongs:

[ai], [ei], [au], [ou].

129

PARTI. LECTURES

1.2.2. Quantitative changes

Besides qualitative changes .mentioned above vowels understress underwent certain changes in quantity.

— Lengthening of vowels

The first lengthening of vowels took place as early as lateOld English (IX century). All vowels which occurred before thecombinations of consonants such as mb, nd, Id became long.

Old English Middle English (New English)

[i] > [i:] climban climben climbfindan finden findcild cild child

[u] > [u:] hund hound hound

The second lengthening of vowels took place in MiddleEnglish (XII—XIII century). The vowels [a], [o] and [e] wereaffected by the process. This change can be observed when thegiven vowels are found in an open syllable.


a > a talu tale talee > e sprecan speken speak09 hopian hopen hope

— Shortening of vowels

All long vowels were shortened in Middle English if they arefound before two consonants (XI century).


cepte cepte keep

wisdom wisdom wisdom

Through phonetic processes the lengthening and theshortening of vowels mentioned above left traces in grammar andwordstock.

130


Due to it vowel interchange developed in many casesbetween:

— different forms of the same word;

— different words formed from the same root.

For instance:

Middle English [i:] — [i] child children[e:] — [e] kepen but kept[k] — [i] wis wisdom

1.3. Consonants

The most important change in the consonant system that canbe observed if we compare the Old English and the MiddleEnglish consonant system will be the development of thefricative consonant [J] and the affricates ftp and [d3] from OldEnglish palatal consonants or consonant combinations. Thus:

И > [tj]

[sk1] > [J]

[g'l > [d3]

Old English

cildbenccincicen

scipsceal

brycx

Middle English

childbenchchinchicken

shipshall

bridge

Thus we can notice that variants of some Old Englishconsonant phonemes developed differenly. For example:

The phoneme denoted in Old English by the letter с had twovariants: [k] — hard and [k1] — palatal, the former remainingunchanged, the latter giving us a new phoneme, the phoneme [tj].

131

PART 1. LECTURES

The phoneme denoted by the letters "g" or "сз" and which

existed in four variants: [g1], [g] — in spelling "сз" and Ц], IYI

in spelling "g" had the following development:

[g1] > [d3] bridgeШ> [Yl w e r e vocalized: das3>dai, 3iet>yet,

Ьоза>Ьоие, dra3an>drauen

[g] remained unchanged: 3od > good

Special notice should be taken of the development of su ^consonant phonemes that had voiced and voiceless vananOld English, such as:

[fj — [v] in spelling f[s] — [z] in spelling s[9] —[5] in spelling p, 5

They became different phonemes in Middle English.

* * *

Summary — Middle English

1. Levelling of vowels in the unstressed position.

2. No principally new monophthongs in the system of thelanguage appeared, but the monophthongs of the [o] and [e] typemay differ: they are either "open" — generally those developedfrom the Old English a (stan > stpn) or "close" — developingfrom the Old English о (boc > bok (book)).

2. The sounds [аз] and [y] disappeared from the system of thelanguage.

3. There are no long diphthongs.

4. New diphthongs appeared with the glide more close thanthe nucleus (because of the origin) as contrasted to Old Englishwith the glide more open than the nucleus.

5. No parallelism exists between long and shortmonophthongs different only in their quantity.

132


6. The quantity of the vowel depends upon its position in theword, (a, o, e — always long in an open syllable or before Id, mb,nd. All vowels are always short before two consonants, with theexception of Id, mb, nd).

Only in one position — in a closed syllable before oneconsonant vowels of any quantity could be found (wls but pig).

7. New affricates and the fricative [J] appeared in the systemof the language.

8. The resonance (the voiced or the voiceless nature) of theconsonants ([fj, [v], [s], [z] and [9], [6]) became phonemic.

2. Changes in the phonetic systemin New English


Vowels in the unstressed position already reduced in MiddleEnglish to the vowel of the [э] type are dropped in New Englishif they are found in the endings of words, for example:

Old English Middle English New English

nama name name [neim]writan writen write [rait]sunu sone son [sAn]

The vowel in the endings is sometimes preserved — mainlyfor phonetic reason:

wanted, dresses

"— without the intermediate vowel it would be very difficult toPronounce the endings of such words.

133

PART 1. LECTURES

S. CHANGES IN THE PHONETIC SYSTEM IN MIDDLE AND NEW EN GUSH

the resulting vowel is more open, than the resulting vowel in suchcases when the long vowel undergoing the Shift was followed bya consonant other than "r". For example:

[ei] but [еэ] fate but fare[i:] but [is] steep but steer[ai] but [ais] time but tire[ш] but [иэ] moon but moor[аи] but [аиэ] house but hour

As a result of the Great Vowel Shift new sounds did notappear, but the already existing sounds appeared under newconditions. For instance:

[ei][u:]

[i:]

The sound existedbefore the Shift

weyhoustime

The sound appearedafter the Shift

makemoonsee, etc.

Two short monophthongs changed their quality in newEnglish (XVII century), the monophthong [a] becoming [as] andthe monophthong [u] becoming [л]. For instance:


[a] > [аз] that that[и]>[л] cut cut

However, these processes depended to a certain extent uponthe preceding sound. When the sound [a] was preceded by [w] itchanged into [o]. Compare:


[a] > [аз] that that[a] > [o] was was

(but: wax [wseks]).135

Where the sound [u] was preceded by the consonants [p], И

or [f], the change of [u] into [л] generally did not take place,

hence:

bull, butcher, pull, push, full, etc.

But sometimes even the preceding consonant did not preven

the change, for instance:


[u] > [л] but [but] but [bAt]

— Changes of diphthongs

Two out of the four Middle English diphthongs changed mNew English, the diphthong [ai] becoming [ei] and the diphthong[au] contracted to [o:] For example:


[ai] > [ei] dai day[au]> [o:] lawe law

2.2.2. Quantitative changes

Among many cases of quantitative changes of vowels in NewEnglish one should pay particular attention to the lengthening ofthe vowel, when it was followed by the consonant [r]. Short vow-els followed by the consonant [r] became long after the disap-pearance of the given consonant at the end of the word or beforeanother consonant:


[a] > [a:] farm farm[o] > [o:] hors horse

When the consonant [r] stood after the vowels [e], [i], [u],the resulting vowel was different from the initial vowel not onlyin quantity but also in quality. Compare:

136


herfir

fur -

or [h] before [t]: might, night, light.

2.3. Consonants

The changes that affected consonants in New English are notvery numerous. They are as follows.

1) Appearance of a new consonant in the system of Englishphonemes — [3] and the development of the consonants [d3J andЩ] from palatal consonants.

Thus Middle English [sj], [zj], [tj], [dj] gave in New Englishthe sounds [J], [3], [tf], [cfc]. For example:

fcj] > [J] Asia, oceanfcH > [3] measure, treasureШ > [tf] nature, culture, centuryШ > [d3] soldier

Note should be taken that the above-mentioned change tookplace in borrowed words, whereas the sounds [tf], №3], Ш whichappeared in Middle English developed in native words.

2. Certain consonants disappeared at the end of the word orbefore another consonant, the most important change of the kindaffecting the consonant [r]:

farm, form, horse, etc.

(see above, quantitative changes of vowels).

3. The fricative consonants [s], [0] and [f] were voiced afterUnstressed vowels or in words having no sentence stress — theso-called "Verner's Law in New English":

possess, observe, exhibition; dogs, cats; the, this, that,there, then, though, etc.

137

•I* V V

Summary — New EnglishThe changes that affected the vowel and the consonant

system in New English were great and numerous.

Vowels — Qualitative changes:

1. Disappearance of vowels in the unstressed position at the

end of the word.

2. Changes of all long vowels — the Great Vowel Shift.

3. Changes of two short vowels: [a] > [аг] or [o] and [u] >

[л].

Vowels — Quantitative changes:

4. Changes of two diphthongs: [ai] > [ei], [au] > [o:].

5. Lengthening of vowels before [r] — due to thevocalisation of consonants.

Consonants:

6. Appearance of the consonant [3] and the consonants [yJ>[d3] in new positions.

7. Disappearance or vocalisation of the consonant [r].

8. Voicing of consonants — Verner's Law in New English.

9. Positional disappearance:

r vocalised at the end of the word: farw before r writeк before n knighth before t light

138

S. CHANGES IN THE PHONETIC SYSTEM IN MIDDLE AND NEW ENGLISH

3. Changes in alphabet and spellingin Middle and New English

As we remember, the Old English spelling system wasmainly phonetic.1 However, the 13th and 14th centuries witnessedmany changes in the English language, including its alphabet andspelling. As a result of these modifications the written form ofthe word became much closer to what we have nowadays.

In Middle English the former Anglo-Saxon spelling traditionwas replaced by that of the Norman scribes reflecting theinfluence of French and often mixing purely phonetic spellingwith French spelling habits and traditions inherited from OldEnglish. The scribes substituted the so-called "continentalvariant" of the Latin alphabet for the old "insular writing". Someletters came into disuse, replaced by new means of expressing thesounds formerly denoted by them — thus the letters p ("thorn")and p ("wen"), being of runic origin, unknown to the Normanscribes, disappeared altogether. Some letters, already existing inOld English but being not very frequent there, expanded theirsphere of use — like the letter k. New letters were added —among them j , w, v and z. Many digraphs — combinations ofletter!? to denote one sound, both vowel and consonant —appeared, mostly following the pattern of the French language.

The following letters disappeared:

5, p [6/9] replaced by th: bat — that

3 [g. j] g 3od — g° d

or у зеаг — yearae [e] e lsetan — leten (let)P [w] w

Strictly phonetic spelling means that every sound is represented by onlydistinct symbol, and no symbol represents more than one sound

one

139

PARTLLECTURES

The following letters were introduced:

gfor [g] in god and Щ] in singej for $3] in words of French origin: joy, judgeк for [k] instead о/ с before front vowels and n:

drincan — drinken, cnawan — taiowen.у for [v] instead off as a separate phoneme:

lufu — love [luva]q/ог [k] {followed by u) in quay

or [kw] in cwen—queen to replace OE cw2

г for [z] as a separate phoneme: zel ( # я "

The following digraphs appeared:

consonant digraphs:ch for the sound [tj] cild — childdg У3] Ьгусз — bridge§ h 1X3 ri3t—right,th [5, 6] pencan — thinken,

modor — mothersh [J] scip — shipph [f] щ w < ? r ^ borrowed from Latin'-

phoneticsch [к] in words borrowed from Latin'-

chemistryvowel digraphs — to show the length of the vowel:

еа [е] mete — meatее [е] fet — feetоа [о] bat — boatоо [о] fot — footie [e:] feld — fieldou/ow [u:] hus — hous, tun — town

Until the 17* century reform v was an allograph of u, the two letters oftenbeing interchangeable: over—ouer, love—loue.

" Although sometimes [z] is still rendered by s: losen (lose), chesen (choose).140


Some changes were made for ease of reading and for a bettervisual image of the word:

к instead of с boc — book in the final position forУ i by, my better visual separationw u now of words

Besides, у and w were considered more ornamental than iand u at the end of the word, allowing to finish it with an elegantcurve.

о instead of u cumen — come close to lettersопзштеп — bigonne consisting onlysunu — sone of verticallu$a — love strokes, such asmunuc — monk u/v, n, m

The New English period witnessed the establishment of theliterary norm presupposing a stable system of spelling. However,the spelling finally fixed in the norm was influenced by manyfactors, objective and subjective in character, preserving separateelements of different epochs and showing traces of attempts toimprove or rationalise it.

In New English with the revival of learning in the 16th

century a new principle of spelling was introduced, later to becalled etymological. It was believed that, whatever thepronunciation, the spelling should represent to the eye the formfrom which the word was derived, especially in words of Latin orGreek origin. Thus,.the word dett borrowed from French dettewas respelled as debt, for it could be traced to Latin debitum,dout borrowed from French douter — as doubt from Latindubitare.

However, the level of learning at that age was far fromPerfect, and many of the so-called etymological spellings wereWrong. Here it is possible to mention such words as:

141

PART 1. LECTURES

ME ake (from OE acan) respelt as ache from a wrongfully

supposed connection with Greek achos;

ME tonge (from OE tunge) respelt-as tongue on analogy

with French langue, Latin lingua; a

ME iiand (from OE igland) respelt as island fromwrongfully supposed connection with French isle, Latin insu a.

ME scool borrowed in OE from Latin and always writwith sc- (OE scool) respelt as school, because in Latin the sou[k] in words of Greek origin was rendered as ch;

ME delit borrowed from French delit came to be spelt wimute dighraph -gh- on analogy with light — delight, etc.

At the same time, the major phonetic changes of the регю and first of all, the Great Vowel Shift, found practically n^corresponding changes in spelling. This resulted in the preseday system where one sound can be denoted in several ways,instance:

3 — torn, co&mel, herd, heard, bird, blwrred, erred, stirred,word;

ou — note, noble, both, toad, toe, soul, dough, mow, brooch,

oh, mauve, beau, depof, yeoman, sew;

one symbol can stand for different sounds:

ch — cfeaos, c/taise, such, cho'u; dracAm (mute)

о — hot, cold, wolf, women, whom, son, button, lost, hero

In addition, there are many so-called "silent letters", the

presence of which can be explained only historically. Among the

latter there are often mentioned the following:.

e {mute e) at the end of words: house, takeb after m: lamb, limb, combb before t: debt, doubtch — yachtg before n and m: gnaw, phlegmh — heir, hour, exhibitor

142

S. CHANGES IN THE PHONETIC SYSTEM IN MIDDLE AND NEW ENGLISH

к before n: knife, knee

1 — could, yolk, palm

n after m: autumn, column

s — island, aisle

t after s and f and before 1 or n — listen, often, wrestle,soften

w — wrap, sword, answer

There are also double consonants used not to denote the

quality or quantity of the consonant, but the quantity of the

preceding vowel: bigger, redder, stopper.

All these features make the present-day English system of

spelling one of the most complex and complicated in the world.

As Walter Skeat, the famous specialist in the History of English,

puts it, "we retain a Tudor system of symbols with a Victorian

pronunciation".

Some more facts...

Shakespeare's Pronunciation

Shakespeare's pronunciation, though not ours, was muchmore like ours than has always been realized. He pronounced[e] for [i] in some words just as Pope could still say lay for tea.The falling together of er, ir, ur (e.g., herd, birth, hurt) wasunder way but not yet completed. As is known, M.E. ё wassometimes open, sometimes close [s: e:] and the two soundswere still distinct in Shakespeare's day, [e;] and [i:] respectively.Consequently sea [se:] does not normally rime with see [si:],heap with keep, speak with seek, etc. Toward the close of thefifteenth century an attempt was made to distinguish betweenthem by the spelling. The closer sound was often spelled with ееor ie (deep, field) while the more open sound was as oftenwritten ea (sea, clean). But the practice was not consistentlycarried out. Although the two sounds are now identical, this

143

PART 1. LECTURES

variation in spelling is a reminder of the difference i»

pronunciation that long existed.

We should also probably notice considerable difference mthe pronunciation of words containing M.E. д. This regula) уdeveloped into fu:J, as in room, food, roof, root, and it retainsthis sound in many words today. In some words the vowel wasshortened in the fifteenth century and was unrounded tot esound in blood, flood. In still other words, however, it retainedits length until about 1700, but was then shortened without beingunrounded, giving us the sound good, stood, book, fool,apparent that in Shakespeare's day there was much fluctuation inthe pronunciation of words containing this Middle Eng 'vowel, both in the different parts of the country and in the usageof different individuals.

Consequently we find in the poetry of the period word weflood riming not only with blood but with mood and good. №fact, as late as Dryden we find in the same rime flood—mood-good, the three developments of the sound at the present day-is only in recent times that the pronunciation of these words w$been standardized, and even today there is some vacillationbetween a long and short vowel in some of them, e.g., in broom,room, and roof.

In addition to such differences in the quality of vowels therewere some differences of accent. Shakespeare said persev'er,demon'strate, and generally aspect', de'testable, while he hascharact'er, com'mendable, envy', se'cure, welcome', etc., i"contrast to the accentuation that is customaiy in these wordstoday.

On the whole, however, we should probably have little moredifficulty in understanding Shakespeare's pronunciation than weexperience in listening to a broad Irish brogue.

after A.C. Baugh and T. Cable

LECTURE 9.CHANGES IN THE NOMINAL

SYSTEM IN MIDDLE ENGLISH ANDNEW ENGLISH

Soldier of James I (1566—1625) from "A Schoole forYoung Soldiers, containing inbriefe the whole Discipline ofwarre"

List of principal questions:1. General survey of grammar changes in Middle and

NewEnglish.

2. The noun2.1. Middle English

2.1.1. Morphological classification2.1.2. Grammatical categories

2.2. New English2.2.1. Morphological classification

2.1.2. Origin of irregular noun forms2.1.3. Grammatical categories

3. The adjective4. The pronoun5. The article

145

PART 1. LECTURES

1. General survey of grammar changesin Middle and New English

The grammar system of the language in the Middle and ewEnglish periods underwent radical changes. As we remember,principal means of expressing grammatical relations in Old bngwere the following:

—suffixation— vowel interchange— use of suppletive forms,

all these means being synthetic. . .In Middle English and New English many grammatical

notions formerly expressed synthetically either disappeared trothe grammar system of the language or came to be expressed Уanalytical means. There developed the use of analytical formconsisting of a form word and a notional word, and also word order,special use of prepositions, etc. — analytical means. .

In Middle English and New English we observe the process orthe gradual loss of declension by many parts of speech, formenydeclined. Thus in Middle English there remained only three declinableparts of speech: the noun, the pronoun and the adjective, against fiveexisting in Old English (the above plus the infinitive and the participle)-In New English the noun and the pronoun (mainly personal) are theonly parts of speech that are declined.

2. The noun

2.1. Middle English

1.1.1. Morphological classification

In Old English there were three principal types of declensions: a-stem, n-stem and root-stem declension, and also minor declensions —

146

9. CHANGES IN THE NOMINAL SYSTEM IN MIDDLE AND NEW ENGLISH

i-stem, u-stem and others. These types are preserved in MiddleEnglish, but the number of nouns belonging to the same declension inOld English and Middle English varies. The n-stem declension thoughpreserved as a type has lost many of the nouns belonging to it whilethe original a-stem declension grows in volume, acquiring new wordsfrom the original n-stem, root-stem declensions, and also differentgroups of minor declensions and also borrowed words. For example:


a-stem singular stan (stone) singular stpnplural stanas plural stpnes

n-stem singular nama (name) singular nameplural namen plural namen

root-stem singular boc (book) singular bookplural bee plural bookes

Borrowed singular corage (courage)plural corages

2.7.2. Grammatical categories

There are only two grammatical categories in the declension ofnouns against three in Old English: number and case, the category ofgender having been lost at the beginning of the Middle English period.

Number

There are two number forms in Middle English: Singular andPlural. For example:

Singular

Plural


fisc fishstan stpnnama name

fiscas fishesstanas stpnesnaman names

147

PART 1. LECTURES

Case

The number of cases in Middle English is r e d u | J JJ*compared to Old English. There are only two cases m №English: Common and Genetive, the Old English Nomin^ ^Accusative and Dative case having fused into one caseCommon case at the beginning of Middle English.

For example:


Nominative stan nama 1Accusative stan naman \ —» Common case stpn n a

Dative stane naman JGenitive stanes naman => Genitive case stones nam

Thus we see that the complicated noun paradigm that existeOld English was greatly simplified in Middle English, which 1reflected in the following:

1) reduction of the number of declensions;2) reduction of the number of grammatical categories;3) reduction of the number of categorial forms within one

of the two remaining grammatical categories — the categoryof case.

2.2. New English

The process of the simplification of the system of noun declensionthat was manifest in Middle English continued at the beginning of theNew English period.

2.2.1. Morphological classification

In Old English we could speak of many types of consonant andvowel declensions, the a-, n- and root-stem being principal amongthem. In Middle English we observe only these three declensions:

148

P. CHANGES IN THE NOMINAL SYSTEM IN MIDDLE AND NEW ENGLISH

a-stem, n-stem, root-stem. In New English we do not find differentdeclensions, as the overwhelming majority of nouns is declined inaccordance with the original a-stem declension masculine, the endingsof the plural form -es and. the Possessive -s being traced to theendings of the original a-stem declension masculine, i.e.:


Nominative & Accusative Common PluralPlural ending -as ending -es

Genitive Singular Genitive Singularending -es ending -s

Of the original n-stem and root-stem declensions we have inNew English but isolated forms, generally referred to in moderngrammar books as exceptions, or irregular noun forms.

2.2.2. Origin of modern irregular noun forms

All modern irregular noun forms can be subdivided into severalgroups according to their origin:

a) nouns going back to the original a-stem declension, neutergender, which had no ending in the nominative and accusative pluraleven in Old English, such as:

sheep — sheep (OE sceap — sceap)deer — deer (OE deor — deor)

b) some nouns of the n-stem declension preserving their pluralf°rm, such as:

ox — oxen (OE oxa — oxan)

c) the original s-stem declension word

child — children (Old English cild — cildra)

In Middle English the final vowel was neutralised and the ending -n added on analogy with the nouns of the original n-stem declension.This shows that the power of the n-stem declension was at the timestill relatively strong.

149

PART

d) remnants of the original root-stem declension, such as:

foot — feet (OE fot — fet)tooth — teeth (OE to6 — ted)

e) "foreign plurals" — words borrowed in Early New Englishfrom Latin. These words were borrowed by learned people fromscientific books who alone used them, trying to preserve their oiigmform and not attempting to adapt them to their native language. Amongsuch words are:

datum — data, automaton — automata, axis — axes, etc.It should be noted that when in the course of further history these

words entered the language of the whole people, they tended to aregular plural endings, which gave rise to such doublets as:

molecula—moleculae and moleculas,formula —formulae and formulas,antenna—antennae and antennas,

the irregular form being reserved for the scientific style.

2.2.3. Grammatical categories

The category of gender is formal, traditional already in OldEnglish; in Middle English and New English nouns have no category отgender.

The category of number is preserved, manifesting the differencebetween singular and lural forms.

The category of case, which underwent reduction first to threeand then to two forms, in New English contains the same number ofcase-forms as in Middle English, but the difference is the number ofthe nouns used in the Genitive (or Possessive) case — mainly livingbeings, and the meaning — mainly the quality or the person whopossesses something.

the boy's booka women's magazinea two miles' walk

150


Inanimate nouns are not so common:

the river's bankthe razor's edge

In Modern English, however, we observe a gradual spreading ofthe ending -s of the Possessive case to nouns denoting inanimatethings, especially certain geographical notions, such cases asEngland's prime minister" being the norm, especially in political style.

3. The adjectiveOnly two grammatical phenomena that were reflected in the

adjectival paradigm in Old English are preserved in Middle English:declension and the category of number.

The difference between the Indefinite (strong) and the Definite(weak) declension is shown by the zero ending for the former and theending -e for the latter, but only in the Singular. The forms of the^finite and the Indefinite declension in the Plural have similar endings.

For instance:Singular Plural

Indefinite a yong squiern J • , yongeDefinite the yonge sonneThe difference between number forms is manifest only in the In-

definite (strong) declension, where there is no ending in the Singularbut the ending -e in the Plural.

In New English what remained of the declension in MiddleEnglish disappeared completely and now we have the uninflected formf°r the adjective used for all puiposes for which in Old English thereexisted a complicated adjectival paradigm with two number-forms,five case-forms, three gender-forms and two declensions.

As we have seen above, all grammatical categories anddeclensions in Middle and New English disappeared. Contrary to thatdegrees of comparison of the adjective were not only preserved butalso developed in Middle and New English. For example:

151

PART 1. LECTURES

Table 9-1. Degrees of Comparison

^ ^ \ ^ ^ Degree

Period ^ * " \ .

Old EnglishMiddle English

New English


New English


New English

Positive

heardhard

hard

ealdaid

old

3od3ood

good

Comparative

heardrahardre

harder

ieldra/yldraeldre

elder

beterabettre

better

Superlative

heardosthardest

hardest

ieldesteldest

eldest 1- • —

betstbest

best

It should be noted, however, that out of the three principal meansof forming degrees of comparison that existed in Old Englisuffixation, vowel interchange and suppletive forms, there remaineda productive means only one: suffixation, the rest of the means seeonly in isolated forms. At the same time there was formed andeveloped a new means — analytical, which can be observed in suecases encountered, for instance, in the works of J. Chaucer, as:

comfortable — more comfortable.

4. The pronounIn Old English all pronouns were declined, and the pronominal

paradigm was very complicated. In Middle English the system wasgreatly simplified and nowadays what remained of the pronominaldeclension is mainly represented by the declension of the personalpronoun and on a small scale — demonstrative and interrogative(relative).

152


Case

The four-case system that existed in Old English gave way to atwo-case system in late Middle English and in New English. Thedevelopment may be illustrated by the following scheme of thepronominal paradigm (see Scheme 9-1).

Scheme 9-1. Personal Pronouns


Nominative Ic =$ Nominative I ,=> Nominative IA c c u s a t i v e m e c ] > - , , . . л , . .

Dative me } Objective me => Objective me

Genitive mm

Possessive Pronouns => mine => mine

Gender

As a grammatical phenomenon gender disappeared already inMiddle English, the pronouns he and she referring only to animatenotions and it — to inanimate.

Number

The three number system that existed in Early Old English(Singular, Dual, Plural) was substituted by a two number systemabady in Late Old English.

5. The articleThe first elements of the category of the article appeared already

Ь Old English, when the meaning of the demonstrative pronoun wasWeakened, and it approached the status of an article in such phrasesas:

Se mann (the man), S60 see (the sea), "past lond (the land).153

LECTURES

However, we may not speak of any category if it is not representeby an opposition of at least two units. Such opposition arose only mMiddle English, when the indefinite article an appeared.

The form of the definite article the can be traced back to the OldEnglish demonstrative pronoun se (that, masculine, singular), whic 1the course of history came to be used on analogy with the forms otsame pronoun having the initial consonant [8] and began to be usewith all nouns, irrespective of their gender or number.

The indefinite article developed from the Old English numeral an.In Middle English an split into two words: the indefinite pronoun an,losing a separate stress and undergoing reduction of its vowel, and tnenumeral one, remaining stressed as any other notional word. Later mindefinite pronoun an grew into the indefinite article a/an, and togetheiwith the definite article the formed a new grammatical category — t"6

category of determination, or the category of article.

* * *

Summary

The system of the declinable parts of speech underwentconsiderable simplification, at the same time developing new analyticalfeatures:

1. Reduction in the number of the declinable parts of speech.

2. Reduction in the number of declensions (whatever is preservedfollows the a-stem masculine).

3. Reduction in the number of grammatical categories

4. • Reduction in the number of the categorial forms (the category ofnumber of personal pronouns and case — of all nominal parts ofspeech)

5. Formation of a new class of words — article.

154


Some more facts...TheSHEPuzde

Plotting the way sounds and words changed between Oldand Middle English can be an intriguing business, and onewhich cannot always be resolved, as the story of she illustrates.There is a fairly obvious relationship between most of the OldEnglish pronouns and their Modem English equivalents. Butwhat is the link between heo and she? The question has at-tracted several answers, and remains controversial.

• The simplest solution is to argue that there was a series ofsound changes by which heo gradually changed into she.

1. Sometime between Old and Middle English, thediphthong altered, the first element becoming shorter andlosing its stress, [he: 9] thus became [hjo:].

2. The fhj] element then came to be articulated closer to thepalate, as [3], in much the same way as happens to modernEnglish huge.

3. [3] then became [J], to give the modern consonant.

There are certain facts in favour of this theory. Spellingssuch as scho are found in very early Middle English in thenorth. Also, a similar development took place in a few placenames, such as Old Norse Hjaltland becoming modernShetland. The main argument against the theory is that there isno clear evidence for Step 3 elsewhere in English at any time —apart from in these few foreign place names. Is it plausible topropose a sound change which affected only one word? Also,we are still left with the problem of getting from [o:J to [e:],which is required in order to produce the modern sound of she.For this, we have to assume a process such as analogy — thevowel of she being influenced by that of he. But there is no clearevidence for this.

• Alternative theories argue that heo comes from seo, thefeminine form of the definite article. The simplest versionpostulates similar sound changes to the above, giving [sjo:J asa result. This is a short, plausible step away from Ifo:}.However, we are still left with the question of why the jo:)vowel became fe:].

155

PART I. LECTURES

• A third argument also begins with seo, but takes a different

phonological route. Sometime after the Conquest, we have a lot

of evidence to show that the sound of ёо [е:э] changed to

become close to ё [е:]. This would have had the effect of making

the words heo and he sound the same. In these circumstances,

there would be a need to find a way of keeping the two words

apart; and the suggestion is that seo filled this need.

Why seo? There is a close semantic link between personaland demonstrative pronouns in many languages, and it can beseen in Old English too, where seo meant "that" as well US"the". The same could apply to seo in its relation to heo. Itwould be very natural to use the phonetic distinctiveness of theformer to help sort out the ambiguity of the latter. All that

would then be needed was a further consonant change from [sito If], as the vowel is already on course for its modern sound.

The problem here is in this last step. How can [s] become [f]in front of an [e:] vowel? It would be the equivalent of a changefrom same to shame. To get from [s] to [f], there needs to besome intervening sound which "pulls" the s in the direction ofthe more palatal sound [J]. The obvious candidate is [j], itself apalatal sound, but the whole point of this third argument is thatthere is no [j] left in heo. The possibility of a [j] developing dis-appeared when we argued that ёо became [e:].

The origins of she thus remain one of the unsolved puzzles ltl

the history of English.

After D. Crystal

LECTURE 10.CHANGES IN THE VERBAL

SYSTEM IN MIDDLE ENGLISHAND NEW ENGLISH

Family worship in 1563(The Whole Psalms infoure partes, John Day,1563)


1. Non-finite forms (verbals)2. Morphological classification of verbs in Middle

English and New English2.1. Strong verbs

2.1.1. Classes of the strong verbs2.1.2. Principal forms of the strong verbs

2.2. Weak verbs2.2.1. Classes of the weak verbs2.2.2. Principal forms of the weak verbs

2.3. Origin of modem irregular verbs3- Grammatical categories of the English verb

157

PART I. LECTURES

1. Non-finite forms (verbals)A comparison of the verbals in Old English and in Middle

and New English shows that the number of verbals ш иEnglish was less than that in Middle and New English At the enof the Middle English period a new verbal developed —Gerund, in addition to the Infinitive and the Participle existingalready in Old English. The Gerund appeared as a result of ablend between the Old English Present Participle ending ш'-ende' and the Old English Verbal noun ending in '-inge'. №the Verbal noun the Gerund acquired the form (the ending'-ing(e)'), but under the influence of the Participle it becamemore "verbal" in meaning

In the process of English history the Verbals are graduallyshifting from the system of declension into the systemconjugation Thus in Old English the verbals existing at the time,the infinitive and the participle could be declined (see above, ОEnglish). In the course of history the Infinitive (already at the endof the Old English period) and the Participle (in Middle English)lost their declension. And at the end of the Middle English and inNew English they acquired elements of conjugation — t n e

grammatical categories of order, voice and aspect (the infinitive)and the grammatical categories of order and voice (the participleand the gerund). The Old English preposition to preceding theDative case of the infinitive loses its independent meaning andfunctions simply as a grammatical particle showing that theVerbal is an Infinitive.

But even in Modern English we can find such contexts wherethe form of the verbal is active, though the meaning is passive:

The book is worth reading.The coat needs ironing.

15X

, Ю- CHANGES IN THE VERBAL SYSTEM IN MIDDLE AND NEW ENGLISH

or the non-perfect form expresses order, i.e. is used to expressevents that took place prior to the action of the finite form of theverbs:

I remember doing...I thanked him for bringing the happy tidings.

Such phenomena reflect the previous stage of the development ofthe English language, when the given verbals were indifferent tovoice and order.

2. Morphological classification of verbsin Middle English and New English

2.0. The subdivision of Old English verbs into Strong andWeak is preserved with modifications in Middle English.

2.1. Strong verbs

2.1.1, Classes of the strong verbs

In New English, however, the original regularity that wasobserved in the group of strong verbs in Old English and partly inMiddle English is no longer felt due to the following:

0 Splitting of original classes into subclasses, for example:

Old English New English

<rise — rose — risen

bite — bit — bitten

2) Some strong verbs of one class entering another class.Thus, the Old English verb of the 5th class:159

PARTI. LECTURES

sprecan — sprsec — spraicon — sprecen

passed into the 5th class in Middle English with the forms

speken — spak — speken — spoken

on analogy with such verbs as

stelen — stal — stelen — stolen.

3) Passing of some strong verbs into the group of weak ver s

and (rarely) vice versa. For example:


I class gripan to gripglidan to glide

II class creopan to creepШозап to lie

III class climban to climbhelpan to help

VI class bacan to bakewaecnan to wake

The contrary process, as we have already said, is quite rare.


hydan to hidewaerian to wear

4) But some weak verbs acquired only some features of thestrong verbs, like the Old English weak verb sceawian •—Modern English show, showed, but shown.

2.1.2. Principal forms of the strong verbs

The strong Verbs in Old English had four principal forms, forexample:

writan — wrat — writon — writen (to write)bindan — band — bundon — bunden (to shake)

160

10. CHANGES IN THE VERBAL SYSTEM IN MIDDLE AND NEW ENGLISH

In Middle English, however, they exhibited a markedtendency to have the same vowel in both the forms of the pasttense, thus- gradually reducing the number of the principal formsto three. In New English we have only three principal forms inverbs originally belonging to the group of strong verbs:

write — wrote — writenThe vowel that is preserved in the Past tense is generally

traced back to the vowel of Old English past tense singular. Forexample:

Old English Middle English New EnglishI class wrat wrot wrote (to write)II class scoc shok shook (to shake)

but sometimes it is the vowel of the original past tense plural:Old English bitan —bat —biton —bitenMiddle English biten — bot — biten — bitenNew English • bite — bit — bitten

with the Past tense form deriving its vowel from the past tenseplural form of the verb.Sometimes the vowel of the past tense form was borrowed fromthe form of the past participle:

Old English stelan — stsel — staelon — stolenMiddle English stelen — stal — stelen — stolenNew English steal — stole — stolen

2.2. Weak verbs

As we have said above the number of strong verbs wasdiminishing in Middle English and New English mainly due tothe passing of some strong verbs into the weak conjugation. Weakvei'bs, however, were becoming more and more numerous, asthey not only preserved in Middle and New English almost all theverbs that were typical of the group in Old English, but also

i6 i

PART 1. LECTURES

added to their group the majority of borrowed verbs and aboutseventy verbs originally strong (see above), and also such veias:

to callto want Scandinavian borrowingsto guess

to pierceto punish French borrowingsto finish

to contributeto create Latin borrowingsto distribute

Alike strong verbs many weak verbs became irregular in thecourse of history, especially weak verbs of the first class Thisirregularity was mainly conditioned by qualitative andquantitative changes that many weak verbs underwent in MiddleEnglish and New English. For instance:

Old English cepan — cepte — ceptMiddle English kepen — kepte — keptNew English keep — kept — kept

As we see the Old English weak verb of the first classbecame irregular due to the quantitative change — shortening ofthe vowel in the second and third forms in Middle English(before two consonants — for example, pt), thus acquiringquantitative vowel interchange. This quantitative interchange wasfollowed by qualitative in New English after the Great vowelshift, which only the vowel of the first form, being long,underwent, the short vowel of the second and third formsretaining their quality.

162


2.2.1. Classes of the weak verbs

In Old English there were two principal classes of the weakverbs. In Middle English some verbs that did not becomeirregular lost the class difference and .we have but one class ofverbs going back mainly to the weak verbs of the second class.For instance:

Old English II class lufian — lufode — lufod (to love)Middle English loven — lov(e)de — luv(e)d

2.2.2. Principal forms of the weak verbs

In Old English there were three principal forms of the weakverbs, for instance:

cepan—cepte —cept (to keep)lufian — lufode — lufod (to love)

In Late Middle English — Early New English, with the lossof the final -e in the second form the second and the third formbecame homonymous, thus we speak of three principal forms ofsuch verbs as to love or to keep mainly on analogy with originalstrong verbs, and also because of the existing tradition as noModern English regular verb, originally belonging to the weakconjugation, shows any trace of difference between the secondand third forms.

Thus in New English due to different phonetic processes andchanges on analogy the two principal groups of verbs that existedm Old English, strong and weak, gave us two principal groups ofModern verbs: regular and irregular, neither of which is directlyderived from either of the Old English groups of strong and weakverbs.

163

PART I. LECTURES

2.3. Origin of modem irregular verbs

In Old English most verbs were regular, although there weiea number of irregular ones. In Middle English not only the ^Old English irregular verbs were preserved, but also nirregular verbs appeared. This was due, first of all, °disappearance of the division of verbs into strong and weak, m ^strong verbs losing their regular pattern of conjugation andbecoming irregular.

Another source of irregular verbs was the 1st class ofverbs the irregularity of which was due to several reasons. ^addition to the examples given above we can show three gr°Pof verbs originally belonging to the 1st class of weak verbs, wnilater became irregular:

a) verbs with a long root vowel, the root ending in -t or -d.

Old English metan — mette — mettMiddle English meten — mette — mettNew English meet — met — met

In Middle English the root vowel of the second and thirdforms is shortened due to the rhythmic tendency of the languagerequiring the shortening of all vowels if followed by twoconsonants. The vowel interchange in Middle English isquantitative only.

In New English the long root vowel in the first form due tothe great vowel shift is changed qualitatively, so now we haveboth quantitative and qualitative vowel interchange in the verb.

b) verbs with a long root vowel, the root ending in aconsonant other than -t or -d:

Old English cepan — cepte — ceptMiddle English kepen — kepte — keptNew English keep — kept — kept

164


In Middle English the dental suffixation of the 2nd and 3rd

forms is supplemented with a quantitative vowel interchangesimilar to that explained above, and in New English we have bothvowel interchange (quantitative and qualitative) and suffixationas form-building means.

c) verbs with a short root vowel, the root ending in -t or -d:

Old English settan — sette — settMiddle English setten — sette — settNew English set — set — set

No changes took place in the root vowel, the endingdisappeared due to the final reduction of unstressed vowels, andnow the verb forms its forms without any material manifestation.

Even in the 2nd class of weak verbs examples of irregularitycan be found. One of them is the verb to make.

Old English macian — macode — macodMiddle English maken — makede — makedNew English make — made — made

The middle syllable of the 2nd and 3rd forms was lost, makingthe verb irregular.

Still another source of irregular verbs may be found in someloan words borrowed into the language in Middle English andNew English. Although most borrowed verbs formed their formsin accordance with the weak verbs of the 2nd class, some of themare irregular. Here it is possible to mention Scandinavian strongverb borrowings which preserve their original vowel interchangeand thus are nowadays irregular, as:

give — gave — giventake — took — takenget — got — gotten.

Another irregular loan word is the French borrowing to catch(caught, caught) which is irregular, forming its forms on analogywith the verb to teach (taught, taught).

165

PARTLLECTURES

Thus, among New English regular verbs there may beencountered either native words (almost all Old English weakverbs of the 2nd class and some Old English strong verbs havinglost their irregularity and forming their forms on analogy with theweak verbs of the 2nd class, such as to help, to bake, etc.) orborrowings (almost all loan verbs).

3. Grammatical categoriesof the English verb

In Old English the verb had four categories: person, number,tense and mood.

In Middle English and New English there graduallydeveloped three more grammatical categories — order, voice anaaspect.

These grammatical categories used a new grammaticalmeans for the formation, namely, analytical forms. Theseanalytical forms developed from free word combinations of theOld English verbs habban, beon/wesan + an infinitive (orparticiple). The way of the formation of those analytical formswas the following:

In the free word combination habban, beon/wesan + a n

infinitive (or participle) the first element was gradually losing itslexical meaning, and the second — its grammatical one, thustending to become notionally and grammatically inseparable:idiomatic.

The category of order was the oldest, formed already inMiddle English from the Old English free combination habban +past participle.

ffie hsefdon hlera cynin.3 awor^enne(They had already overthrown their king)

166


The younge sonne hath in the Ram his halvecourse y-runne(The young sun has run its half-course in the Ram)

... Whan the sonne was to reste,So hadde I spoked with hem everichon...(When the sun was about to rest,

So I had spoken with every one of them)

The same idea of order is sometimes still expressed with thehelp of the combination to be + participle 2, going back to theOld English beon + past participle:

This gentleman is happily arrived.Now he is gone.

The category of voice appeared out of the free combination°f weorpan (beon) + past participle:

Old English he wearb ofslae3en(he was slain)

Middle English engendered is the flour(the flower is generated [born])

The category of aspect was formed in Middle English on thebasis of the free combination of ben (beon) + present participle:

Singinge he was ... al the dai(he was singing all the day)

The grammatical categories of tense and mood whichexisted in Old English acquired new categorial forms.

The Old English present and past tense forms weresupplemented with a special form for the future tense whichaPpeared in Middle English out of the free combination of theOld English modal verbs "sculan" and "willan" with theinfinitive. This free combination of words was split into twogroups: in the first, remaining free, the modal meaning isPreserved:

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PART 1. LECTURES

You shall do it — necessityI will do it — volition

in the second the independent meaning is lost and the fixed word

combination is perceived as the future tense form:

I shall go there.You will go there.

The category of mood in Old English was represented bythree mood forms, one for each of the moods (indicative,subjunctive and imperative). The subjunctive in Old English didnot show whether the events were probable or contrary to fact,but it had two tense forms — past and present, which in thecourse of history developed into two subjunctive moods:

- I/he be present — out of the Old English presenttense form of the subjunctive mood

- I/he were present — out of the Old English past tenseform of the subjunctive mood.

The difference between these two subjunctive moods now isin the shade of probability, and not in the tense, the second onedenoting events which are contrary to fact.

In addition to that at the end of Middle English and thebeginning of New English two more subjunctive mood formsappeared making use of the analytical form building means:

- I/he should be present — to show events which areprobable, though problematic

- Г should be present 1 — to show imaginary events,he would be present } contrary to fact.

Here should and would are the subjunctive mood forms ofthe Old English sculan and willan.

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* * *

Summary

Thus the system of conjugation in Middle English and NewEnglish is becoming more and more complicated:

1. New non-finite forms appear (the gerund).2. Conjugation of verbals and disapeareance of their

nomimal categories.3. New grammatical categories are formed.4. The already existing grammatical categories acquire new

forms.5. The predominant regularity of the verbs and' their

conjugation in Old English gives way to many diverseirregularities.

Some more facts...

Progressive forms

Among the developments as are of most significance in thelanguage of today one of great importance concerns the verb,English is distinctly more varied and flexible in some of itsverbal expressions than the other better-known modernlanguages. Thus, where the French say 'je chante' or theGerman 'ich singe', the English may say 7 sing\ 7 do sing', or7 am singing'. The do- forms are often called emphatic forms,and this they sometimes are; but their most important uses are innegative and interrogative sentences ( 7 don't sing', 'do yousing'). The forms with 'to be' and the present participle aregenerally called progressive forms since their most common useis to indicate an action as being in progress at the time impliedby the auxiliary. The wide extension of the use of progressiveforms is one of the most important developments of the Englishverb in the modern period.

!f>9

PARTLLECTURES

In Old English such expressions as 'he was la-rende' (he wasteaching) are occasionally found, but usually in translationsfrom Latin. In early Middle English, progressive forms aredistinctly rare, and although their number increases m №course of the Middle English period, we must credit thendevelopment mainly to the period since the sixteenth centui)'-The chief factor in their growth is the use of the participle as anoun governed by the preposition 'on' ('he burst oillaughing').* This weakened to 'he burst out a-laughing ana.finally to 'he burst out laughing'. In the same way 'he was onlaughing' became 'he was a-laughing' and 'he was laughing-Today such forms are freely used in all tenses ('is laughing >'was laughing', 'will be laughing', etc.).

The extension of such forms to the passive ('the house ibeing built') was an even later development. It belongs to thevery end of the eighteenth century. Old English had noprogressive passive. Such an expression as 'the man is love ,feared, hated' is progressive only in so far as the verbs 'loving >'fearing', 'hating' imply a continuous state. But no such forceattaches to 'the man is killed', which does not mean the man isbeing killed but indicates a completed act. The construction 'theman is on laughing 'was capable also of a passive significanceunder certain circumstances. Thus 'the house is on building' canonly suggest that the house is in process of construction- Thisuse is found from the fourteenth century on, and in its weakenedform the construction is not unknown today. Colloquially, atleast, we say 'there is nothing doing at the mill this week'. 'Thedinner is cooking' and 'the tea is steeping' are familial'expressions. In some parts of America one may hear 'there's anew barn a-building down the road'. When the preposition wascompletely lost (on building > a-building > building) the formbecame 'the house is building'. Since such an expression may attimes be either active or passive, it had obvious limitations. Thus'the wagon is making' is a passive, but 'the wagon is making anoise' is active. And whenever the subject of the sentence isanimate or capable of pe if arming the action, the verb is almostcertain to be in the active voice ('the man is building a house').With some verbs the construction was impossible in a passive

170


sense. Thus the idea 'he is always being called1 could not beexpressed by 'he is always calling'.

In the last years of the eighteenth century we find the firsttraces of our modern expression 'the house is being built'. Thecombination of 'being' with a past participle to form apanicipial phrase had been in use for some time. Shakespeare in'Hamlet' says: 'which, being kept close, might move more griefto hide'. This is thought to have suggested the new verb phrase.It seems first to have been recognized in an English grammar in1802. As yet it is generally used only in the present and simplepast tense ('is' or 'was being built'). We can hardly say 'thehouse has been being built for two years', and we avoid saying'it will be being built next spring'.

The history of the new progressive passive shows that Englishis a living and growing thing, that its grammar is not fixed, thatit will continue to change in the future as it has changed in thepast, even if more slowly. If the need is felt for a new and betterway of expressing an idea, we may rest assured that a way willbe found. But it is interesting to note that even so useful aconstruction was at first resisted by many as an unwarrantedinnovation.

Although supported by occasional instances, it wasconsciously avoided by some and vigorously attacked by others.In 1837 a writer in the North American Review condemned it as"an outrage upon English idiom, to be detested, abhorred,execrated, and given over to six thousand penny-paper editors."And even so enlightened a student of language as Marsh, in1859, noted that it "has widely spread, and threatens to establishitself as another solecism," "The phrase 'the house is being built'for 'the house is building'," he says, "is an awkward neologism,which neither convenience, intelligibility, nor syntacticalcongruity demands, and the use of which ought therefore to bediscountenanced, as an attempt at the artificial improvement ofthe language in a point which needed no amendment."

Artificial it certainly was not. Nothing seems to have beenmore gradual and unpremeditated in its beginnings. But, as lateas 1870 Richard Grant White devoted thirty pages of his Wordsand Their Uses to an attack upon what still seemed to him a

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PART 1. LECTURES

neologism. Although the origin of the construction can be tracedback to the latter part of the eighteenth century, itsestablishment in the language and ultimate acceptance requiredthe better part of the century just past.

after A.C. Baugli and T. Cable

LECTURE 11.ENGLISH VOCABULARY

The habit of smoking (from the title-pageof The Roaring Girle, or Moll Cut-Purseby T. Middleton and T. Dekker, 1611).In the 17th century tobacco played a greatpart in English colonial and commercialexpansion. Already in the 1590-ies the newAmerican weed, together with its name,was well familiar in England.


1. Old English1.1. General characteristics1.2. Means of enriching vocabulary

1.2.1. Internal means1.2.2. External means

2. Middle English2.1. General characteristics2.2. Means of enriching vocabulary


3. New English3.1. General characteristics3.2. Means of enriching vocabulary


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PART 1. LECTURES

1. Old English

1.1. General characteristics

The vocabulary of Old English was rather extensive. It issaid to have contained about 50 000 words. These words weremainly native words. They could be divided into a number orstrata. The oldest stratum was composed of words coming fromthe Common Indo-European parent tongue.

Many of these words were inherited by English together withsome other Indo-European languages from the same commonsource, and we shall find related words in various Indo-Europeanlanguages. Compare:

Old English New English Latin Russian

modor mother mater матьniht night nox ночьneowe new novus новыйberan bear ferre брать

Another layer, relatively more recent, was words inherited byEnglish and other Germanic languages from the same commonGermanic source. You will find them in many languages, but onlythose belonging to the Germanic group. Compare:

Old English New English German

еогбе earth Erdeland land Landsee sea Seegrene green grimfindan find finden

The third stratum, and that not very extensive, was made upof words that existed only in English, for instance, the word

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И. ENGLISH VOCABULARY

clypian (to call), the root preserved in the now somewhat obsoleteword yclept (named).

The vocabulary was changing all the time, old wordsbecoming extinct and new words entering the language, enrichingit.

As is known, there are two principal ways of enriching thevocabulary of a language: internal means — those that areinherent in the language itself, and external means, which resultfrom contacts between peoples. The English-speaking people ofthe period mainly used internal means of enriching thevocabulary to adapt their language to the expression of morevaried or new notions.

1.2. Means of enriching vocabulary

While creating new words the English language, as we havementioned above, principally resorted to its own, internal means:word derivation, primarily affixation and vowel interchange, andword composition.

1.2.1. Internal means of enriching vocabulary

— Word derivation

In Old English affixation was widely used as a word-building means.

There were very many suffixes, with the help of which newnouns, adjectives, adverbs and sometimes verbs were formed, forinstance:.

— noun suffixes of concrete nouns:

-ere fisc+ere (fisher) , denoting the doer-estre spinn+estre (spinster) } of the action-in3 'cyn+in3 (king) J

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PART I. LECTURES

— noun suffixes of abstract nouns:-6 treow+5 (truth)-nis 30d+nis (goodness)-Scip freond+SCip (friendship)-dom freo+dom. (freedom)-had cild+had (childhood)

— adjective suffixes-13 Ts+13 (icy), bys+ i3 (busy)-isc Engl+isc (English), Frens+lSC (French)-ful car+ful (careful)-leas slffip+ leas (sleepless)

Prefixes were used on a limited scale and they generally had

a negative meaning:

for- for+3iefan (forgive)mis- mis+dsed (misdeed)Ull- un+спб (uncouth)

Vowel interchange:

noun verbson3 (song) singan (to sing)dom (doom) deman (to deem)

— Word composition

Word composition was a well-developed means of enrichingvocabulary in Old English. For instance:

NounssaS+man (seaman), gold+smid (goldsmith),monan+da^3 (Monday), sunan+dae3 (Sunday),Engla+land (land of the Angles, England)

AdjectivesTc+ceald (ice-cold)

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11. ENGLISH VOCABULARY

1.2.2. External means of enriching vocabulary(Old English borrowings)

As we understand, borrowings into a language are a result ofcontacts with other nations. The Germanic tribes had but fewcontacts with other nations at the beginning of A.D.,consequently the number of borrowed words in Old English wasnot great. The main borrowings that we can single out in OldEnglish were Latin and Celtic borrowings.

— Latin borrowings

The first Latin borrowings entered the language before theGermanic tribes of Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians invaded theBritish Isles, i.e. at the time when they still lived on the continent.Due to trade relations with their southern powerful neighbour —the Roman empire — Germanic tribes learned a number ofproducts that had been unknown to then, and, consequently, theirnames. So the first stratum of borrowings are mainly wordsconnected with trade. Many of them are preserved in ModernEnglish, such as:

pound, inch, pepper, cheese, wine, apple, pear, plum, etc.

The second stratum of words was composed of loan Latinwords that the Germanic tribes borrowed already on British soilfrom the romanized Celts, whom they had conquered in the 5"1

century. Those were words connected with building andarchitecture, as the preserved nowadays:

tile, street, wall, mill, etc.

They denoted objects which the Germanic invadersencountered on the British Isles.

The third stratum of Latin loan words was composed ofwords borrowed after the introduction of the Christian religion.They are generally of a religious nature, such as the present-dayWords:

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PART 1. LECTURES

bishop, devil, apostle, monk.

As Latin was the language of learning at the time, there alsoentered the language some words that were not directlyconnected with religion, such as:

master, school, palm, lion, tiger, plant, astronomy, etc.

— Celtic borrowings

The Celtic language left very few traces in the Englishlanguage, because the Germanic conquerors partly exterminatethe local population, partly drove them away to the less fenimountaineous parts of the country, where they were not withmreach of the invaders. The Celtic-speaking people who remainedon the territory occupied by the Germanic tribes were slaves, andeven those were not very numerous. It is small wonder thereforethat the number of Celtic loan words was limited. Among the tewborrowed words we can mention:

down (the downs of Dover), binn (bin - basket, crib, manger).

Some Celtic roots are preserved in geographical names, suchas:

kil (church — Kilbrook), ball (house — Ballantrae), esk (water —

river Esk)

and some others.

2. Middle English

2.1. General characteristics

An analysis of the vocabulary in the Middle English periodshows great instability and constant and rapid change. Manywords became obsolete, and if preserved, then only in somedialects; many more appeared in the rapidly developing language

17X


to reflect the ever-changing life of the speakers and under theinfluence of contacts with other nations.

2.2. Means of enriching vocabularyin Middle English


Though the majority of Old English suffixes are stillpreserved in Middle English, they are becoming less productive,and words formed by means of word-derivation in Old Englishcan be treated as such only etymologically.

Words formed by means of word-composition in OldEnglish, in Middle English are often understood as derivedwords.

2.2.2. External means of enriching vocabulary

The principal means of enriching vocabulary in MiddleEnglish are not internal, but external — borrowings. Twolanguages in succession enriched the vocabulary of the Englishlanguage of the time — the Scandinavian language and theFrench language, the nature of the borrowings and their amountreflecting the conditions of the contacts between the English andthese languages.

— Scandinavian borrowings

The Scandinavian invasion and the subsequent settlement ofthe Scandinavians on the territory of England, the constantcontacts and intermixture of the English and the Scandinaviansbrought about many changes in different spheres of the Englishlanguage: wordstock, grammar and phonetics. The relative easeof the mutual penetration of the languages was conditioned by thecircumstances of the Anglo-Scandinavian contacts (see above,Lecture 3).

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PART 1. LECTURES

Due to contacts between the Scandinavians and the English-speaking people many words were borrowed from theScandinavian language, for example:

Nouns: law, fellow, sky, skirt, skill, skin, egg, anger,awe, bloom, knife, root, .bull, cake, husband,leg, wing, guest, loan, race

Adjectives: big, week, wrong, ugly, twinVerbs: call, cast, take, happen, scare, hail, want, bask,

gape, kindle

Pronouns: they, them, their; and many others.The conditions and the consequences of various borrowings

were different.

1. Sometimes the English language borrowed a word forwhich it had no synonym. These words were simplyadded to the vocabulary. Examples:

law, fellow

2. The English synonym was ousted by the borrowing.Scandinavian taken (to take) and callen (to call) ousted theEnglish synonyms niman and clypian, respectively.

3. Both the words, the English and the correspondingScandinavian, are preserved, but they became different inmeaning. Compare Modern English native words andScandinavian borrowings:

Native Scandinavian borrowing

heaven skystarve die

4. Sometimes a borrowed word and an English word areetymological doublets, as words originating from thesame source in Common Germanic.

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U. ENGLISH VOCABULARY

Native Scandinavian borrowing

shirt skirtshatter scatterraise rear

5. Sometimes an English word and its Scandinavian doubletwere the same in meaning but slightly differentphonetically, and the phonetic form of the Scandinavianborrowing is preserved in the English language, havingousted the English counterpart. For example, ModernEnglish to give, to get come from the Scandinavian gefa,geta, which ousted the English 3iefan and 3ietan,respectively: Similar Modern English words: gift, forget,guild, gate, again.

6. There may be a shift of meaning. Thus, the word dreamoriginally meant "joy, pleasure"; under the influence ofthe related Scandinavian word it developed its modernmeaning.

— French borrowings

It stands to reason that the Norman conquest and thesubsequent history of the country left deep traces in the Englishlanguage, mainly in the form of borrowings in words connectedwith such spheres of social and political activity where French-speaking Normans had occupied for a long time all places ofimportance. For example:

— government and legislature:government, noble, baron, prince, duke, court,justice, judge, crime, prison, condemn, sentence,parliament, etc.

— military life:army, battle, peace, banner, victory, general,colonel, lieutenant, major, etc.

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PART 1. LECTURES

— religion:religion, sermon, prey, saint, charity

— city crafts:painter, tailor, carpenter (but country occupationsremained English: shepherd, smith)

— pleasure and entertainment:music, art, feast, pleasure, leisure, supper, dinner,pork, beef, mutton (but the corresponding names ojdomestic animals remained English: pig, cow, sheep)

— words of everyday life:air, place, river, large, age, boil, branch, brush,catch, chain, chair, table, choice, cry, cost

— relationship:aunt, uncle, nephew, cousin.

The place of the French borrowings within the Englishlanguage was different:

1. A word may be borrowed from the French language todenote notions unknown to the English up to the time:

government, parliament, general, colonel, etc.

2. The English synonym is ousted by the French borrowing:

English Frenchmicel largehere army§a river

3. Both the words are preserved, but they are stylisticallydifferent:

English Frenchto begin to commenceto work to labour

182


to leave to abandonlife existencelook regardship vessel

As we see, the French borrowing is generally more literary oreven bookish, .the English word - a common one; but sometimesthe English word is more literary. Compare:

foe (native, English) — enemy (French borrowing).

4. Sometimes the English language borrowed many wordswith the same word-building affix. The meaning of theaffix in this case became clear to the English-speakingpeople. It entered the system of word-building means ofthe English language, and they began to add it to Englishwords, thus forming word-hybrids. For instance, thesuffix -ment entered the language within such words as"government", "parliament", "agreement", but later thereappeared such English-French hybrids as:

fulfilment, amazement.

The suffix -ance/-ence, which was an element of suchborrowed words as "innocence", "ignorance", "repentance", nowalso forms word-hybrids, such as

hindrance.A similar thing: French borrowings "admirable", "tolerable",

"reasonable", but also:readable, eatable, unbearable.

5. One of the consequences of the borrowings from Frenchwas the appearance of ethymological doublets.

— from the Common Indoeuropean:

native borrowedfatherly paternal

— from the Common Germanic:183

PART 1. LECTURES " "

native borrowedyard gardenward guardchoose choice

— from Latin:

earlier later(Old English) (Middle English)borrowing borrowingmint moneyinch ounce

6. Due to the great number of French borrowings thereappeared in the English language such families of words,which though similar in their root meaning, are differentin origin:

native borrowedmouth oralsun solarsee vision

7. There are caiques on the French phrase:

It's no doubt - Se n'est pas douteWithout doubt- Sans douteOut of doubt - Hors de doute.

3. New English3.1. General Characteristics

The language in New English is growing very rapidly, theamount of actually existing words being impossible to estimate.Though some of the words existing in Old English and MiddleEnglish are no longer used*In New English, the amount of newwords exceeds the number of obsolete ones manifold.

184


Both internal means and external means are used for thepurpose of enriching the vocabulary, and the importance of eitherof them is hard to evaluate.

3.2. Means of enriching vocabularyin New English


The principal inner means in New English is the appearanceof new words formed by means of conversion. Usually newwords are formed by acquiring a new paradigm and functionwithin a sentence. Thus, book (a noun) has the paradigm book —books. Book (a verb) has the paradigm book — books — booked— booking, etc. (The book is on the table - He booked a room.)Similarly:

man (n) — man (v)stone (n) — stone (v) — stone (adj)(as in "a stone bench"), etc.

3.2.2. External means of enriching vocabulary

Very many new words appear in New English due toborrowing. It is necessary to say here that the process ofborrowing, the sources of loan Words, the nature of the newwords is different from Middle English and their appearance inthe language cannot be understood unless sociolinguistic factorsare taken into consideration.

Chronologically speaking, New English borrowings may besubdivided into borrowings of the Early New English period —XV—XVII centuries, the period preceeding the establishment ofthe literary norm, and loan words which entered the languageafter the establishment of the literary norm — in the XVIII—XXcenturies, the period which is generally alluded to as late NewEnglish.

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PART 1. LECTURES

— Early New English borrowings (XV—XVII centuries)

Borrowings into the English language in the XV—XVIIcenturies are primarily due to political events and also to thecultural and. trade relations between the English people andpeoples in other countries. Thus , in the XV century — the epochof Renaissance, there appeared in the English language manywords borrowed from the Italian tongue:

cameo, archipelago, dilettante, fresco, violin,balcony, gondola, grotto, volcano;

in the XVI century — Spanish and Portuguese words, such as:

armada, negro, tornado, mosquito, renegade,

matador

and also Latin (the language of culture of the time), for instance:— verbs, with the characteristic endings -ate, -ute:

aggravate, abbreviate, exaggerate, frustrate,separate, irritate, contribute, constitute, persecute,prosecute, execute, etc.,

— adjectives ending in -ant, -ent, -ior, -al:arrogant, reluctant, evident, obedient, superior,inferior, senior, junior, dental, cordial, filial.

As a result of numerous Latin borrowings at the time thereappeared many ethymological doublets:

Latin

strictum

(direct) strict strait (through French)

seniorem

senior sir

186


f ас turn

fact feat

defectum

defect defeat

In the XVII century due to relations with the peoples ofAmerica such words were borrowed as:

canoe, maize, potato, tomato, tobacco, mahogany,cannibal, hammock, squaw, moccasin, wigwam,

etc.

French boirowings — after the Restoration:

ball, ballet, billet, caprice, coquette, intrigue,fatigue, naive.

—Late New English borrowings (XYHJ—XX centuries)

— German:

kindergarten, waltz, wagon, boy, girl

— French:

magazine, machine, garage, police, engine,nacelle, aileron

— Indian:

bungalow, jungle, indigo

— Chinese:

coolie, tea

— Arabic:caravan, divan, alcohol, algebra, coffee, bazaar,orange, cotton, candy, chessIS7

PART 1. LECTURE

—Australian:

kangaroo, boomerang, lubra

— Russian:

Before the October Revolution the borrowings from theRussian language were mainly words reflecting Russian realm оthe time:

borzoi, samovar, tsar, verst, taiga, etc.After the Revolution there entered the English language such

words that testified to the political role of this country in theworld, as:

Soviet, bolshevik, kolkhoz.

Cultural and technical achievements are reflected in sueborrowings as:

sputnik, lunnik, lunokhod, synchrophasotron

and recently such political terms as:glasnost, perestroika.

In New English there also appeared words formed on thebasis of Greek and Latin vocabulary. They are mainly scientificor technical terms, such as:

telephone, telegraph, teletype, telefax,microphone, sociology, politology, electricity, etc.

Some more facts...

The Change of Calendar

Most of the new words coming into the language today havebeen derived from the same sources or created by the satnemethods as those that have long been familiar. Among them areborrowings, many of them reflecting events and changes in thelife of the people, committing to memory the names of their per-petrators. Here we may recollect the history of calendar.

Julius Caesar in 46 ВС fixed the length of the year at 365

188


days, and 366 days every fourth year. The months had thirty andthirty-one days alternately, with the exception of February (thenthe last month of the year), which had twenty-nine in ordinaryyears, and thirty in leap years. To mark this change of calendarJuly was named after its originator.

The Emperor Augustus upset this arrangement by namingAugust after himself, and in order that it should have the samenumber of days as July, i.e. thirty-one, took one day from Febru-ary in both ordinary and leap years.

The Julian Calendar made a slight error in the length of theyear, a mere eleven minutes and fourteen seconds; but by thesixteenth century the cumulative error was about ten days. Thiswas rectified by Pope Gregory XIII who, in 1582, decreed that 5October should become the fifteenth. In order to prevent arecurrence of the fault it was ordained that the centurial years(i.e. 1600, 1700, etc.) should not be Leap years unless divisibleby 400.

England did not accept this Gregorian calendar until 1752,thereby causing much confusion between English andContinental dates, whilst the disparity between the Julian andGregorian calendars was now eleven days. An Act of Parliamentin 1750 made 2 September 1752 into 14 September and movedthe first day of the year from 25 March (still reckoned as the be-ginning of the financial year) to 1 January — 24 March 1700,for example, was followed by 25 March 1701. In this wayEngland was brought into line with the rest of Europe.

After E. R. Deldeifield

LECTURE 12.ETHYMOLOGICAL STRATA

IN MODERN ENGLISH

Figures of Red Indianson the announcement ofThe Lottery for Virginia,1615 intended forraising money requiredfor colonisation ofAmerica.

List of principal questions:1. General characteristics2. Native element in Modern English

2.1. Common Indo-European stratum2.2. Common Germanic stratum

.3. Foreign element in Modern English (borrowings)

3.1. Latin element3.2. Scandinavian element3.3. French element

4. Word-hybrids5. Ethymological doublets

10. ETHYMOLOGICAL STRATA IN MODERN ENGLISH

1. General characteristics

The English vocabulary of today reflects as no other aspectof the language the many changes in the history of the people andvarious contacts which the English speakers had with manynations and countries. The long and controversial history of thepeople is reflected in its vocabulary and especially in the numberof loan words in it, different in origin and time of their enteringthe language and the circumstances under which the acquisitionof the foreign element took place. So large is the number offoreign words in English that it might at first be supposed that thevocabulary has lost its Germanic nature.

However, the functional role of the native element: thelotions expressed by native words, their regularity and frequencyof occurrence, lack of restrictions to their use in written and oralspeech of different functional styles, proves that the Germanicdement still holds a fundamental place, and the Englishvocabulary should be called Germanic.

2. Native element in Modern English

English native words form" two ethymological strata: theCommon Indo-European stratum and the Common Germanicstratum.

2.1. Common Indo-European stratum

The words forming this stratum are the oldest in thevocabulary. They existed thousands of years B.C., at the timewhen it was yet impossible to speak about separate Indo-European languages, as well as about various nations in Europe.Words of the Common Indo-European vocabulary have been'nherited by many modem Indo-European languages, not only

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PART 1. LECTURES

Germanic, which is often a possible proof of these wordsbelonging to the Common Indo-European stratum. Compare:

English Latin Russian

mother mater матьbrother frater братnight nox (noctem) ночьbe fieri бытьstand stare стоятьtwo duo дваthree tres триten decem десять, etc.

2.2. Common Germanic stratumThere are also words inherited from Common Germanic

Common Germanic is supposed to exist before it began splittinginto various subgroups around the 1st century B.C.—Г1 centuryA.D. These words can be found in various Germanic languages,but not in Indo-European languages other than Germanic.

English German Swedish

man mann manearth erde jordharm harm harmgreen gran grongrey grau gra

The occurrence or non-occurrence of corresponding words inrelated languages is often a proof of their common origin. But, ofcourse, the word could be borrowed from the same source intodifferent languages, especially if we speak about languages inmodern times.

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10. ETHYMOLOG1CAL STRATA IN MODERN ENGLISH

3. Foreign element in Modern English(borrowings)

As we know, borrowed words comprise more than half thevocabulary of the language. These borrowings entered thelanguage from many sources, forming consequently variousethymological strata. The principal ones here are as follows:

— the Latin element— the Scandinavian element— the French element.

3.1. Latin element

The first Latin words entered the language of the forefathersof the English nation before they came to Britain. It happenedduring a direct intercourse and trade relations with the peoples of[he Roman empire. They mainly denote names of household•terns and products:

apple, pear, plum, cheese, pepper, dish, kettle, etc.Already on the Isles from the Romanized Celts they

borrowed such words as:

street, wall, mill, tile, port, caster (camp — in suchwords as Lancaster, Winchester).

Words of this kind denoted objects of Latin material culture.

Latin words such as:altar, bishop, candle, church, devil, martyr, monk,nun, pope, psalm, etc.

Were borrowed after the introduction of the Christian religion (7!h

century), which is reflected in their meaning.The number of these words inherited from Old English is

almost two hundred.193

PART I. LECTURES

We mentioned these words as Latin borrowings in the sensethat they entered English from Latin, but many of them wereGreek borrowings into Latin, such as

bishop, church, devil

and many others.Another major group of Latin borrowings entered English

with the revival of learning (15th—I6ll! centuries). Latin was drawnupon for scientific nomenclature, as at the time the language wasunderstood by scientists all over the world, it was considered thecommon name-language for science. These words were mainlyborrowed through books, by people who knew Latin well andtried to preserve the Latin form of the word as much as possible.Hence such words as:

antenna — antennae, index — indices, datumdata, stratum — strata, phenomenon —phenomena, axi s— axes, formula — formulae,etc.

Very many of them have suffixes which clearly mark them asLatin boiTOwings of the time:

— verbs ending in -ate, -ute:

aggravate, prosecute

— adjectives ending in -ant, -ent, -ior, -al:

reluctant, evident, superior, cordial.

These word-building elements together with the stylisticsphere of the language where such words are used are generallysufficient for the word attribution.

3.2. Scandinavian element

Chronologically words of Scandinavian origin entered thelanguage in the period between the 8th and the 10th centuries dueto the Scandinavian invasions and settlement of Scandinavians on

194


the British Isles, with subsequent though temporary union of twoimportant divisions of the Germanic race. It is generally thoughtthat the amount of words borrowed from this source was about500, though some linguists surmise that the number could havebeen even greater, but due to the similarity of the languages andscarcity of written records of the time it is not always possible tosay whether the word is a borrowed one or native, inherited fromthe same Common Germanic source.

Such words may be mentioned here, as:

they, then, their, husband, fellow, knife, law, leg,wing, give, get, forgive, forget, take, call, ugly,wrong.

As we said, words of Scandinavian origin penetrated into theEnglish language so deeply that their determination is by nomeans easy. However, there are some phonetic/spelling featuresof the words which in many cases make this attribution authenticenough. These are as follows:

— words with the sk/sc combination in the spelling, as:

sky, skin, skill, scare, score, scald, busk, bask

(but not some Old French borrowings as task, scare, scan, scape)

— words with the sound [g] or [k] before front vowels [i], [e]fei], in the spelling i, e, ue, ai, a (open syllable) or at the end ofthe word:

give, get, forgive, forget, again, gate, game, keg,kid, kilt, egg, drag, dregs, flag, hug, leg, log, rig.

There are also personal names of the same origin, ending in•son:

Jefferson, Johnson

or place names ending in -ly, -thorp, -toft (originally meaning"village", "hamlet"):

Whitly, Althorp, Lowestoft.

195

PART 1. LECTURES

These places are mainly found in the north-east of England,where the Scandinavian influence was stronger than in other partsof England.

3.3. French element

The French element in the English vocabulary is a large andimportant one. Words of this origin entered the language in theMiddle and New English periods.

Among Middle English borrowings we generally mentionearlier borrowings, their source being Norman French — thedialect of William the Conqueror and his followers. They enteredthe language in the period beginning with the time of Edward theConfessor and continued up to the loss of Normandy in 1204.

Later Middle English borrowings have as their sourceParisian French. The time of these borrowings may be estimatedas end of the 13th century and up to 1500.

These words are generally fully assimilated in English andfelt as its integral part:

government, parliament, justice, peace, prison,court, crime, etc.

Many of these words (though by no means all of them) areterms used in reference to government and courts of law. •

Later Middle English borrowings are more colloquial words:

air, river, mountain, branch, cage, calm, cost,table, chair.

The amount of these Middle English borrowings is asestimated as much as 3,500.

French borrowings of the New English period entered thelanguage beginning with the 17th century — the time of theRestoration of monarchy in Britain, which began with theaccession to the throne of Charles II, who had long lived in exileat the French court:

196


aggressor, apartment, brunette, campaign, caprice,caress, console, coquette, cravat, billet-doux, carteblanche, etc:

Later also such words appeared in the language as:

garage, magazine, policy, machine.

It is interesting to note that the phonetics of Frenchborrowings always helps us to prove their origin.

These phonetic features are at least two: stress and specialsound/letter features. Concerning the first (stress), words whichdo not have stress on the first syllable unless the first syllable is aprefix are almost always French borrowings of the New Englishperiod. Words containing the sounds [$"] spelled not sh, [d3] —£°-£ dg, [tj"] — not ch and practically all words with the sound [3] •are sure to be of French origin:

aviation, social, Asia, soldier, jury, literature,pleasure, treasure.

4. Word-hybridsThe extensive borrowing from various languages and

assimilation of loan words gave rise to the formation in English°f a large number of words the elements of which are of differentorigin — they are generally termed word-hybrids.

English French

be- -cause becausea- -round arounda- curse accurseout cry outcryover power overpowerfore front forefrontsalt cell(ar) salt-sellerfalse hood falsehood

197

5. Ethymological doubletsEthymological doublets are words developing from the same

word or root, but which entered the given language, in our caseEnglish, at different times of through different channels.Classifying them according to the ultimate source of the doubletswe shall receive the following:

Ultimate Modern

source doublets

Common Indo-European

*pater fatherlypaternal

Period and channel

nativeM.E. French borrowing

148

PART 1. LECTURES

French Englishhobby horse hobbyhorsescape goat scapegoat'trouble some troublesomeplenty ful plentifulaim- -less aimlessre- take retake

English Scandinavianpar- take partakebandy- leg bandy-legged

French Scandinavianre- call recall

Latin Frenchjuxta- position juxtaposition


Common Gexmamc.

*gher- yard nativegarden M.E. French borrowing

*gens- choose nativechoice M.E. French borrowing

*wer ward nativeguard M.E. French borrowing

*sker shirt nativeskirt M.E. Scandinavian borrowing

*skhed shatter nativescatter M.E. Scandinavian borrowing

Latin

discus disk O.E. Latin borrowingdisc N.E. Latin borrowing

moneta mint O.E. Latin borrowingmoney M.E. Latin borrowing

uncia inch O.E. Latin borrowingounce M.E. Latin borrowing

defectum defect N.E. Latin borrowingdefeat M.E. Latin borrowing

factum fact N.E. Latin borrowingfeat M.E. Latin borrowing

seniorem senior N.E. Latin borrowingsir M.E. Latin' borrowing

Greekadamas diamond Early M.E. French borrowing

adamant Later M.E. French borrowing

fantasia fancy N.E. French borrowingfantasy M.E. French borrowing

199

PART 1. LECTURES

Hebrewbasam balm M.E. French borrowing

balsam N.E. Latin borrowing

The examples of various ethymological strata in the ModernEnglish vocabulary mentioned above may serve as a sufficienttestimony of a long and complicated .history of the Englishnation and the English language. They prove that languagechanges can be understood only in relation to the life of thepeople speaking the language.

Some more facts...

Folk etymologyWhen people hear a foreign or unfamiliar word for the first

time, they try to make sense of it by relating it to words theyknow well. They guess what it must mean — and often guesswrongly. However, if enough people make the same wrong guess,the error can become part of the language. Such erroneousforms are called folk or popular etymologies.

Bridegroom provides a good example. What has a groom gotto do with getting married? Is he going to groom the bride? Orperhaps he is responsible for horses to carry him and his brideoff into the sunset? The true explanation is more prosaic. TheMiddle English form was bridgome, which goes back to OldEnglish brydguma, from "bride" + guma "man". However,gome died out during the Middle English period. By the 16"century its meaning was no longer apparent, and it came to bepopularly replaced by a similar-sounding word, grome, "servinglad". This later developed the sense of "servant having the careof horses", which is the dominant sense today. But bridegroomnever meant anything more than "bride's man".

Here are a few other folk etymologies:• sparrow-grass — a popular name for asparagus —

though this vegetable has nothing to do with sparrows.

200


• cockroach — the name came from Spanish cucuracha,the first part of which must have been particularly obscure toEnglish ears. There is no connection with cock.

• salt-cellar — in Old French a salier was a salt-box. Whenthe word came into English, the connection with salt wasevidently not clear, and people started calling the object a salt-saler. The modern form has no connection with a cellar.

• sirloin — the first part of the word is simply derived fromthe French word sur "above". The form must have greatlypuzzled the people of the Early Middle English period. Unusedto French, they etymologized the form to sir, and then thoughtup a legend to make sense of it (the story of the English kingwho found this joint of meat so splendid that he gave it aknighthood.)

After D. Crystal

Tart Z. Seminars

he front panel of the Franks' casket, carved out of whale's bone inNorthumbria in about AD 750 and depicting scenes from classicalegend, Germanic mythology and the Bible. A runic inscription

bribes each panel.(The original is kept at the British Museum, London)

LIST OF SEMINARS205

1. Introductory. Germanic languages2. Chief characteristics of Germanic languages.

Grammar3. Survey of the periods in the history of English.

General characteristics of the Old English period 21?17

4. Old English phonetics. Vowels990

5. Old English phonetics. Consonants

6. Old English grammar. Noun 2 2

7. Old English grammar. Verb 2 2

8. Old English. Discussion 2 2 8

9. General characteristics of the Middle English

period 2 ^ '

10. Middle English phonetics. Vowels 240

11. Middle English phonetics. Consonants 2^

12. Middle English grammar. Noun 2^

13. Middle English grammar. Verb 2 ^ '

14. Middle English. Discussion 248

15. General characteristics of the New Englishperiod 251

16. New English phonetics. Vowels 261

17..New English phonetics. Consonants .• 263

18. New English grammar. Noun 267

19. New English grammar. Verb 271

20. English wordstock 272

21. Vocabulary layers 274

22. Modern regular and irregular noun and verb forms 277

SEMINARS 1—2.GERMANIC LANGUAGES

1- Introductory. Germanic languages

2. Chief characteristics of Germanic languages. Grammar

An early engraving of a gold horn roughly dated about550 AD, found in Jylland, Sweden. It has a maker's

formula cut in runes round the brim.

205

PART 2. SEMINARS

Seminar 1.Introductory. Germanic languages

Topics for discussion in class1. Position of Germanic languages within the Indo-European

family (main groups of languages, with special reference toGermanic, Celtic, Slavonic).

2. Formation of national Germanic languages in the late MiddleAges and the new period.

3. Classification of Modern Germanic languages; countrieswhere they are spoken. The West and North Germanicsubgroups.

4. Old Germanic tribes and dialects: "Common Germanic".Differentiation of Common Germanic into Germanicdialects. East, North and West Germanic groups and theirrepresentatives.

5. Development of the system of consonants in the pre-writtenperiod.

6. Grimm's law, Verner's law. Reasons for the departure fromVerner's law in the pre-written period.

Questions and assignments1. What are the aims of studying the history of a language?

2. What is meant by the outer and inner history of a language?

3. Make a table showing the relationship of English to the otherlanguages of the Indo-European family. Show the position ofEnglish among allied Germanic languages.

4. What do we mean by the statement that two languages are"related"? Explain the relations between English and French,English and Greek, English and Welsh, English and Danish.

206

GERMANIC LANGUAGES

5. What is called the pre-written and written period of alanguage?

6. What alphabets employed in the history of Germaniclanguages do you know? Speak on the origin and structure ofGermanic alphabets.

7. What is meant by a phonetic law?

8. Show carefully how Grimm's law or any apparent exceptionto it is illustrated by the following words:

stand, father, third, sweet.

9. Write down five illustrations of Grimm's law and fiveillustrations of Verner's law.

207

PART 2. SEMINARS

Seminar 2.Chief characteristics of Germanic

languages. Grammar

Topics for discussion in class1. Development of the system of declension in the pre-written

period.

2. Development of the system of conjugation in the pre-writtenperiod.

3. Means of form-building in the pre-written period.

4. Vowel interchange as a form-building means in the pre-written period. Ablaut.

Questions and assignments1. Explain and illustrate the terms "synthetic" and "analytic"

languages. Give examples of modern synthetic and analyticallanguages.

2. What form-building means were used in Germaniclanguages?

3. What verbal and nominal categories existed in Germaniclanguages? Compare them with the categories of modernlanguages.

4. Prepare for reading Old English texts: study the table belowand learn to read Old English letters.

208

GERMANIC LANGUAGES

Reading of Old English texts

Letters &

ж

9

У

P

6

f

s

3

h

с

Sounds

[8]

[6]

[f][v]

[s]и[у][gJШ

[к']

M

Examples

at, cwas6, hwasnne

mpnn, lpnd, ond

pystrodon, clypode, ymb

past, pystrodon, top

cwaed, оббе, ducwe6an, hwe6er, Ьгобог

faeder, fot, faranhlaford, wifan, griefe

Isaac, his, 3eseonrlsan, forleosan, wyrsa

ёазап, da3as, SI03Запз, sin3an, 1епзгаdae3, be3ite, 3efeohtan,

his, he, mihte

супе, cyssan, cinclypode, 3esceot, boc

209

SEMINARS 3—8.OLD ENGLISH

3. Survey of the periods in the history of English.General characteristics of the Old English period

4. Old English phonetics. Vowels

5. Old English phonetics. Consonants

6. Old English grammar. Noun

7. Old English grammar. Verb

8. Old English. Discussion

A runic memorial stone fromYttergarde, Sweden, telling ofa Viking warrior who madethree expeditions to England inthe early 11th century.

211

PART 2. SEMINARS

Seminar 3.Survey of the periods in the historyof English. General characteristics

of the Old English period

Topics for discussion in class1. Survey of the three periods in the history of English (dates,

principal historical events and linguistic facts).2. Old English historical background (Germanic settlement,

West Germanic tribes and Old English dialects).3. Old English alphabet and pronunciation.4. Old English written records: runic inscriptions, religious

works, Anglo-Saxon chronicles.

Questions and assignments1. What is called the pre-written and written Old English?2. What is the time of the written records below (seminars

3—6)?3. What is the dialect reflected in the records below (seminars

3—6)?4. How do we pronounce words in Old English texts (vowels

and consonants — make use of the table in Seminar 2)?5. How many vowels and consonants were there in Old

English?6. How does the quality of the consonant depend on the

position of the word in the text?7. Study the model of phonetic analysis of an Old English text.

Read and translate the text into Modern English / Russian.

212

OLD ENGLISH

Continue the phonetic analysis following the model (analyseonly the underlined words). Check your variant with the key.

From the Alfredian Version of Orosius'sWorld History; about 893 A.D.

Alfred the Great (849—900), King of Wessex, was an outstandingmilitary leader, educator and a man of letters of the time. He tried torestore the cultural traditions of Anglo-Saxon England severelydamaged by the barbaric "inroads of the Danes" and to revivelearning and literature in his country. He also brought about a greatreform in the schools.

He translated into his native tongue some books on geography,history and philosophy written by the popular authors of IV—VIIIcenturies. This was fortunate for the language which became a mediumof expression in the simpler forms of speech itself.

King Alfred's translation from Latin of "The History of the World"by the Spanish, monk Orosius (V century) is especially valuable as itcontains his own insertions — the descriptions of the sea-voyages in theNorth West of Europe of the two Scandinavian merchants, Ohthere andWulfstan.

King Alfred's writings favoured flourishing of literature in Wessexand marked the beginning of the literary tradition later known as "theAlfredian prose"'.

The extract given below is "From Ohthere's account of his firstvoyage". It contains interesting geographical and ethnographicalinformation of the places he visited. The dialect is West Saxon.

213

PART 2. SEMINARS

Ohthere's account of his first voyage

Ohthere saede his hlaforde, yElfrede cynin?e, bast he gaixaNor5monna пофтев! bude. He cwae5 bast he bude on разт lanclenoфweardum wip ba Westsas. He ssde beah bset bast land sie s\#£1апз поф bonan; ас hit is eal weste, buton on feawum stowumstycce-maslum wlcia5 Finnas, on huntoSe on wintra and on sumeraon fiscabe be bsere sai.

He sajde bast he a?t suraum cirre wolde fandian hu 1опзе j)£tland пофгуЬле 1аёзе obbe hwas5er з з т з т о п Ьепогбап раетwestenne bude. J>a for he пофгуЫе be bsem lande; let him ealnewe3 baet weste land on 6st steor-bord. and -ha wTd-see on 6set bjefcbord. brie da3as. I>a was he swa feor поф swaba hwselhuntan fil£S§ifarab. I>a for he ba 3iet пофгу^е swa feor swa he meahte on Ьзгтobrum brim da3um 3esi3lan. M Ьёаз past land bjgr east-rynte °^ e

seo see in on 5set lond, he nysse hwasder, buton he wisse 5ast he бгёгbad westanwindes and hwon пофап, and si3lde 5a east be lande,swa-swa he meahte on feower da3um 3esi3ian.

M sceolde he баёг bldan гуМ-пофапу/Ыез; for6aem ba&t landЬеаз baer subryhte obbe seo sae in on 6aet land he nysse hwseber. P&si3lde he bonan sudryhte be lande, swa-swa he on fif da3um 3esi3lan.Da 1ЖЗ.ЪЗГГ an micel ea up-in on bget land. Pa cirdon hie up-in on oaea, for-jbiem hie ne dorston &ф bi Ьззге ёа si3lan for unfripe; for-pasm 6ast land waes eall зеЬпп on obre healfe bare eas. Ne mette heffir nan зеЬпп land, sibban he from his азпит ham for.

Fela spella him ssedon ba Beormas зззЬег зе of hiera азпитlande зе of baem landum be ymb hie utan wseron, ac he nyste hwjetbass sobes wass, for-Ъгёт he hit self ne 3eseah. M Finnas, him buhte,and ba Beormas sprascon neah an 3ebeode. SwTbost he for 6ider,t5-eacan bas landes sceawun3e. for bsem hors-hwselum, for-бдатhie habbad swlbe sepele ban on hiora t5bum, — ba t§6 hie brohtonsume bsem cynin3e —, and hiora hyd.

214

OLD ENGLISH

Model of phonetic analysis

Word as used Analysis Parallels from NE wordm the text cognate

languages orI related OE words

side [s] — voiceless initially; OE SK^de said[as] — lengthening of [ae](variant form)due to loss of [g]

cynirnje [у] — palatal mutation of OHG kuning king[u] — caused by [ij; laterM>[i]

ealra [ea] — breaking of [эе] Gt alls allbefore [l]+consonant,[ж] — from PG [a]

Nor5monna -monn: [o]=[a] — from Gt mann(a) NormanPG [a], later [a >a>as]

lande [a] — before nasal Gt land landconsonants; [a] — fromPG [a], later [а >а>аг]

t'eah [ea] — from PG [au] Gt fcauh though

SWT{)e p] — lengthening due . Gt s w i n g e —to loss of [n] beforea fricative

stycce [y] __ palatal mutation OHG Stukki rel. to s t o c kof [u] caused by [i]

fiscafce [fj — from [p] by R пескарь rel to fishGrimm's Law •

cirre fi] _ . from [ie] — OS kerrian (v) charmonophthongisation ofdiphthongs in EOE

norjjryhte -ryht: [y] — from [ie] — Gt raihts [e] rightmonophthpngisation ofdiphthongs in EOE

215

PART 2. SEMINAR,

hwa25er

steor-bord

baec-bord

brie

da3as

WffiS

firrest

farab

3iet

meahte

obram

Ьёаз

Ьэзг

east

с

[б] — voiced inter-vocally, [se] — fromPGfaf

[Её] — palatal mutationof [a] caused by [i]

steor: Гёо] — fromPG [iuj;bord: [d] — hardeningof [3]

[SE] — from PG [a]

[9] — from [t] byGrimm's Law

[a] — is caused bya back vowel in thenext syllable

[se] — from PG [a]

[i] — palatal mutationof [eo] — (feor)caused by [i](-ist) — suffix ofsuperlative degree:[eo>ie>i]

[a] — from PG [o]

[Те] — (Wess) from PG[ё] — diphthongisationafter palatal [j]

[ea] — breaking of [ac]before [h]: [a>ae>ea]

[o] — from PG [a];lengthening due to the

• loss of [n] before africative

[ea] — from PG [au]

[Щ — from PG [a],[8] «— initially voiceless

[ea] — from PG [au]

Gt hvabar

cp OE an

rel. to Gtstiurjan (v)Cf. OSk bord

OSk bak

/?три

Gtdagos

OHG was

EOE fierest

Gt faran (inf)

GtytX

OHG maht

Gt anbar

Gt baug

Gt bar

Gt austr

whether

any

star-board

back

three

days

was

farther

fare

yet

might

other

bow

there

east

216

OLD ENGLISH

Seminar 4.Old English phonetics. Vowels

Topics for discussion in class1. The system of Old English vowels and their origin.

2. Assimilative changes of vowels (breaking, palatal mutation)and their traces in Modern English.

Questions and assignments'• Make a list of Old English vowels and analyse the

differentiating features between them (in quality andquantity).

2. Describe the Old English diphthongs and comment upontheir phonological status.

3. Explain the origin of short diphthongs in Old English:

eald (New English old), tealde (New English told),earm (New English arm), feohtan (New English fight).

4. What are the phonetic conditions of palatal mutation? Givesome Old English or reconstructed forms showing theseconditions. Analyse the results of palatal mutation:

(a) in form-building of nouns in the root-stem declension,e.g. Old English fot — fgt (New English foot —feet),

mUS —mys (New English mouse — mice)',

(b) in word-building of weak verbs of class 1 from noun andadjective stems,e.g. Old English dom — deman (New English doom — deem),

fod — fedan (New English food —feed),ful — fyllan (New English full —fill).

217

PART 2. SEMINARS

5. Read and translate the text below into Modern English /Russian (part 1). Make the phonetic analysis following themodel given in Seminar 3 (analyse only the underlinedwords). Check your variant with the key.

From the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

A. 1013

The Old English Chronicle, sometimes called the Anglo-SaxonChronicle, contains the history of Britain from the time of Caesarsinvasion to the reign of Henry II (1154).

It presents the original and authentic testimony of contemporarywriters to the most important events in the history of the country,including many interesting facts relative to architecture, agriculture,coinage, commerce, naval and military events, laws, liberty anareligion. This ancient record is believed to be the second greatphenomenon in the history of mankind after the Old Testament, pithere is no other work, ancient or modern, which exhibits at one view aregular and chronological panorama of a people, described in rapwsuccession by different writers, through so many ages, in their ownvernacular language. That is why it may be considered not only as theprimaeval source of factual material for all subsequent historians ojEngland, but also as a faithful depository of the national idiom,providing a very interesting, and extraordinary example of the changesincident to a language, as well as to a nation, in its historical progress.

The writers of the Chronicle are not known, probably they weremonks, as MSS come from different monasteries. The dialect of theextract given below is West Saxon. It describes the time of ScandinavianInvasions in Britain and the fall of the Saxon dynasty.

(Part I)

On бает asftran зёаге рё se arcebiscop wass 3emartyrod, secynin3 3esette Lyfine biscop to Cantwarabvrh t5 6am arcest5le;and on pissum ylcan зёаге, toforan pam топбе Augustus, comSwe3en сутпз mid his flotan to SandwTc, and wende pa swi6e

218

OLD ENGLISH

габе abutan Eastenglum into Humbra muban. and swa upweardandlang Trentan, 66 he com to 3enesburuh; and ba sona beahUhtred eori and ealle Nor6hymbre to 'him; and eall baet folc onLindesi3e, and si65an baet folc into Flfburhingum. and габе baeseall here be погбап \Vsetlin3a straete, and him man sealde 3islasof aelcere sclre. Sy66an he unde^eat bast eall folc him to 3ebogenwas, pa bead he {)set man sceolde his here mettian and horsian;and he 5a wende sybban su6weard mid fulre fyrde, and betsehtef>a scipu and ba 3islas Cnute his suna; and sy66an he com oferWstlinga strEete, worhton baet maeste yfel bast еётз here donmihte. Wende pa to Oxenforda, and seo buruhwaru sona beah and3'slude, and banon to Winceastre, and hi pat ylce dydon. Wendefra banon eastwerd to Lundene, and mycel his folces adrang onTemese, for6am be hi nanre Ьгусзе ne cepton.

(Part 2)

f*a he to бгёге Ьупз com, ba nolde seo burhwaru Ьизап асheoldan mid fullan wi3e опзеап. for5an Ьжг waes inne se cyng^belred and Purkyl mid him. Е»а wende Swe3en cyng banon toWealingforda, and swa ofer Temese westweard to Baban, and sastba5r mid his fyrde. And com ЛЕре1тэег ealdorman byder, and 5awesternan Ьезепав mid him, and Ы130П ealle to Swe3ene, and hi3»sludon. I>a he 5us 3efaren heefde. wende ba nor5weard to hisscipum, and eall peodscype hine haefde ba for fulne cyng; and seoburuhwaru after 5am on Lundene beah and 3islude, forSon hiQJDdredon baet he hT fordon wolde. Pa wses se cyning vEbelredsume hwTle mid bam flotan be on Temese. 1аез, and seo hla3fdi3egewende ba ofer sae to hire Ьгёбег Ricarde, and se cyninggewende ba fram 5am flotan to bam middanwintra to Wihtlande,and waes баёг ba tTd; and sefter Ьэзге tide wende ofer 5a see toRicarde, and wses базг mid him ob bone byre b«e(: Swe3en wear6dead.

219

PART 2. SEMINARS

Seminar 5.Old English phonetics. Consonants

Topics for discussion in class1. The system of Old English consonants and their origin.2. Grimm's law, Verner's law; voicing, devoicing, hardening

. and rhotacism in Old English.

Questions and assignments1. Make a list of Old English consonants and analyse the

differentiating features between them.2. What consonant correlations may be observed between

words in English and any other Germanic languages?3. Find in the text examples showing that voiced and voiceless

fricative consonants (f/v, 0/6, s/z) were conditioned variants(allophones) of the same phonemes.

4. Read and translate the text above into Modern English /Russian (part 2). Make the phonetic analysis following themodel given in Seminar 3 (analyse only the underlinedwords). Check your variant with the key.

220

OLD ENGLISH

Seminar 6.Old English grammar. Noun

Topics for discussion in class1 • Old English nominal system. Means of form-building.

2. Grammatical categories of nouns, adjectives and pronouns.

3. Morphological classification of Old English nouns (types ofdeclensions).

4. Traces of the Old English declensions in Modern English.

5. Degrees of comparison of adjectives in Old English and theirfurther history.

Questions and assignments1- What form-building means were used in the Old English

nominal system?

2. Enumerate the grammatical categories of nouns, adjectivesand pronouns and state the difference between them.

3. Into what types of declensions did the Old English nounsfall? Why are they termed "stems"?

4. Look through the noun paradigm and find instances ofdifferent means used in form-building.

5. Copy and learn the declension of an a-stem, masculine (e.g.Stan, New English stone), a root-Stem (e.g. man. New English man)and an n-stem (e.g. nama. New English name) noun. Point outthe forms or endings which have survived in ModernEnglish.

6. Explain the difference between the groupings of nouns intotypes of declension and the two declensions of adjectives.

221

PART 2. SEMINARS

7. Define the case, number and gender of nouns, pronouns andadjectives in the following:

foa wildan hranas; ealra norbmonna;hiera азпшп lande; his yldran sunu;mine da3as; to him

8. Study the model of grammar and vocabulary analysis of anOld English text. Consult the text and your translation notesfor Seminar 3 (Ohthere's account of his first voyage).Continue the grammar and vocabulary analysis following themodel given below. Check your variant with the key.

Model of grammar and vocabulary analysis

Words as usedin the text

Analysisnotes

CorrespondingNew Englishword

Translation

Ohthere

sa;de

his

hlaforde

/Elfrede

сушпзе

noun proper,nominative singular

verb, Ул personsingular, past tense,indicative mood ofsecgan. weak verb,class III

pronoun personal,Ул person singular,masculine, genitive

noun, dative singularof hlaford, masculine,a-stem

noun proper, dativesingular

noun, dative singular ofcynin3, masculine,a-stem

say

his

lord

Alfred

king

Ohthere(name)

said

(to) his

lord

Alfred

the King

222

paet

he

ealra

Nor6monna

пофтеБ!

bude

cwae5

beet

bude

conjunction

pronoun personal,3^ person singular,masculine, nominative

pronoun indefinite,plural, genitive of eal

noun, genitive plural ofNor5monn,masculine, root-stem

adverb

verb, 3rd personsingular, past tense,indicative or subjunctivemood of buan.anomalous verb

verb, 3rd personsingular, past tense,indicative mood ofcwse6an, strong verb,class V

conjunction

see above

that

he

all

northmen

northmost

obs. quoth

that

OLD ENGLISH

that

he

of all

Northmen(Scandinavians)

to the north

lived(or had lived)

said

that

lived

o n preposition ОП

P ^ m pronoun demonstrative, thatdative singular,masculine of se. seo. pact

lande noun, dative singular of landland, neuter, a-stem

norjbweardum adjective, dative northwardsingular, neuter ofnoroward. usedadverbially

whp preposition with

P§ pronoun demonstrative, thataccusative singular,feminine of se. seo. feast

(or had livedj

on

the

land

to the North

of

that (the)

223

PART 2. SEMINARS

Westsaj

beah

jbaet

baet

land

sle

swibe

1апз

поф

£onanас

hit

is

eal

weste

buton

on

noun proper, accusativesingular of Westsse,feminine, i-stem

conjunction

conjunction

pronoun demonstrative,nominative singular,neuter of se. seo, past

noun, nominativesingular, neuter, a-stem

verb, 3"1 personsingular, present tense,subjunctive mood ofbeon. suppletive verb

adverb

adjective, nominativesingular, neuter, strongdeclension

adverb

adverb

conjunction

pronoun personal, 3 r i

person singular, neuter,nominative

verb, 3rd person singular,present tense, indicativemood of beon, irregularverb

pronoun/adverb

adjective, nominativesingular, neuter, strongdeclension

conjunction

see above

west sea

though

that

that

land

be

—

long

north

thence

—

it

is

all

—

but

on

AtlanticOcean

also

that

that

land

is

very

long

north

from there

but

it

is

all

uninhabited(waste)

but

on/in/at

224

OLD ENGLISH

sae noun, dative singular of§ш, feminine, i-stem

on

hunto5e

on

wintra

and

on

sumera

fiscafce

be

f>Sre

a-stem

preposition

noun, dative singular ofhuntoS. masculine,a-stem

see above

noun, dative singular ofwinter, masculine, u-stem

conjunction

see above

noun, dative singular ofsumor/er. masculine,u-stem

noun, dative singular offisco57a6. masculine,a-stem

preposition

pronoun demonstrative,dative singular, feminineof se. seo. f>a;t

on

hunt

on

winter

and

on

summer

fish

bythat

on/by

hunting

on/in

winter

and

on/in

summer

fishing

by/from

that

sea sea

225

feawum adjective, dative plural of few fewfeaw, strong declension

Stowum noun, dative plural of Stow placesst5w. feminine, wo-stem

stycce- adverb stockmeal here andmaelum there

wlciad verb, У person plural, — livepresent tense, indicativemood of wTcian, weakverb, class II

Finnas noun proper, nominative Finn (the) Finnsplural of Finn, masculine,

PART 2. SEMINARS

Seminar 7.Old English grammar. Verb

Topics for discussion in class1. Old English verbal system. Means of form-building.

2. Grammatical categories of finite and non-finite forms of theverb.

3. Morphological classification of Old English verbs.

4. Traces of the Old English verb conjugation in ModernEnglish.

Questions and assignments1. Enumerate the grammatical categories of the finite and non-

finite forms, indicating the number of members within eachcategory.

2. Look through the verb paradigm and find instances ofdifferent form-building means used.

3. What are the main differences between the weak and thestrong verbs? •

4. Why did the strong verbs fall into seven classes? Point outthe differences between them.

5. Copy and learn the principal forms of the strong verbs ofclass 1 (e.g. writan. New English write), class 3 (e.g. drincajl,helpan. New English drink, help), class 5 (e.g. wesan, New Englishbe).

6. Account for the division of the weak verbs into classes andpoint out the differences between them.

226

OLD ENGLISH

7. Copy the conjugation of a weak verb (e.g. locaian. NewEnglish look or macian. New English make) in the present and

past tenses of the indicative mood and say by what means theverb distinguished person, number and tenses.

8. Define the person, number, tense, mood and themorphological class of the verb in the following:

he saide; Ohthere bad; he hwa?5;ba aras he; buhte me; clypode he;pa Isaac ealdode; bu 3esihst; his ёазап bystrodon

9. Read the text in Seminar 4 (The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle).Consult your translation notes for Seminars 4—5. Make thegrammar and vocabulary analysis following the model givenin Seminar 6. Check your variant with the key.

227

PART 2. SEMINARS

Seminar 8.Old English. Discussion

Topics for discussion in class1. Chronological division in the history of English.2. Old English. Outer and inner history of the period.3. Principal features of the Old English phonetic system.4. Principal features of the Old English grammar system.

Questions and assignments1. With what languages of Europe is the English language most

closely connected? Describe these relations in more detail.2. What is meant by runes? Have any runic letters been

admitted to the English alphabet?3. What Old English phonemes no longer exist in New

English? Give examples from the set of Old English vowelsand consonants.

4. What grammatical categories of Old English no longer existin New English? Give examples from the nominal and verbalparadigm.

5. Read and translate the text below into Modern English /Russian. Make a complete phonetic, grammar andvocabulary analysis of the text following the models ofSeminar 3 and Seminar 6. Hand in your written work asPart 1 of your course project.

228

OLD ENGLISH

From ^Elfric's Translation of the Genesis;ab. 1000 A.D.

Aelfiic, the most outstanding author of the clerical prose of late OldEnglish, was abbot of the Ensham Benedictine monastery and a nativeofWessex. His chief writings are numerous Homilies, his translation of

The Lives of Saints" and from the Old Testament as well as of thebook "Ars Grammatica" by Donatus Aurelius (Latin, IV century)

The extract given below is "The Story of Jakob's Deceit" (OldTestament, Genesis 27) and represents the classical Late West Saxondialect.

The Story of Jacob's Deceit

I. Da Isaac ealdode and his ёазап bystrodon, f>aet he nemihte nan bin3 3eseon, pa clypode he Esau, his yldran sunu, 2.and cwae6 to him: ' M 3esihst Jjaet ic ealdi3e, and ic nat hwasnneKline da3as азапе beod. 3. Nim bin 3esceot, binne cocur andpinne Ьозап, and запз ut; and, bonne bu ззшз Ь т з be3ite baes-bef>u wene 4. paet me Iyci3e, Ьгшз me, paet ic ete and ic pe bletsi3e,®r-bam-be ic swelte.' 5. Da Rebecca paet 3ehTrde and Esauuta3an wass, 6. ba cwseb heo to Iacobe, hire suna: 'Ic 3ehlrde pastpin fasder с^азб to Esauwe, pmum Ьгёбег: 7. "Влпз me of binumhunto6e, paet ic bletsi3e бё beforan drihtne, азг ic swelte." 8.Sunu mm, hlyste mTnre lare: 9. far to базге heorde and Ьппз metwa ba betstan tyccenu, baet ic maci3e mete pinum feeder разг-of,and he ytt lustllce. 10. Donne 6u 6a in brin3St, he ytt and bletsabbe, aer he swelte.' 11. Da cwae6 he to hire: 'J>u wast bast Esau,mm Ьгббиг, ys ruh, and ic eom sme6e. 12. 3if mm fasder mehandla6 and me 3ecnaew6 ic ondraBde baet he wene baet ic hinewylle beswTcan and baat he wiri3e me, nass na bletsi3e.' 13. Dacwasd seo modor to him: 'Sunu mm, S13 seo wiri3nys ofer me! Doswa ic be эесзе: far and Ьппз P a pin3 be ic be bead.'

229

PART 2. SEMINARS

14. He ferde pa and brohte and sealde hit hys meder, and heohit 3earwode, swa heo wiste past his feeder llcode. 15. And heoscrydde Iacob mid bam deorwurpustan reafe pe heo aet ham mid •hire haefde; 16. and befeold his handa mid pasra tyccena fellum;and his swuran, pair he nacod waes, heo befeold. 17. And heosealde him pone mete pe heo seap, and hlaf; and he brohte pasthis faeder 18. and cwas5: 'Faeder mini' He andswarode and cwas5:'Hwset eart рп, sunu mln?' 19. And Iacob cwae5: 'Ic eom Esau,pin frum-cenneda sunu. Ic dyde swa рп me bebude. ArTs upp andsite, and et of mlnum hunto5e, past pu me bletsi3e.' 20. Eft Isaaccwas6 to his suna: 'Sunu mm, hu mihtest рп hit swa hraedllcefindan?' Pa andswarode he and cwae5: 'Hit waes 3odes willa, bastme hrasdlice опзёап com past ic wolde.' 21. And Isaac cwas6: '3ahider near, past ic aethrine pin, sunu mm, and fandi3e hwas5er рпS13 mln sunu Esau, pe ne S13.' 22. He eode to pam faeder; andIsaac cwa?5, pa pa he hyne 3e3rapod hasfde: 'WitodlTce seo stemnys Iacobes stefn, and pa handa synd Esauwes handa.' 23. And hene 3ecneow hine, for-pam pa ruwan handa wseron swilce paesyldran bropur. He hyne bletsode pa 24. and cwasb: 'Eart pu Esau,mm sunu?' And he cwse6: 'la leof, ic hit eom.' 25. M cweed Ш'Brin3 me mete of blnum hunto6e past ic pe bletsi3e.' P»a he ponemete brohte, he brohte him eac win. Pa he hasfde 3edruncen, 26.ba cwae6 hi to him: 'Sunu mm, запз hider and cysse me.' 27. Henealeahte and cyste hine. Sona, swa he hyne on3eat, he bletsodehine and cw3s6: 'Nfl ys mines suna stenc, swilce pass landes stencpe drihten bletsode. 28. Sylle pe 3od of heofenes deawe and ofеогбап fastnisse, and micelnysse hwastes and wines. 29. Andbeowion pe eall folc, and 3eeadmedun pe ealle тгёзба. Вео pupinra brof)ra hlaford and sin pinre modur suna 3ebi3ed beforanbe. Se бе бе wiri3e, si he awiri3ed; and, se pe be bletsi3e, si hemid bletsun3e 3efylled.'

230

SEMINARS 9—14.MIDDLE ENGLISH

9. General characteristics of the Middle English period10. Middle English phonetics. Vowels11. Middle English phonetics. Consonants12. Middle English grammar. Noun13. Middle English grammar. Verb14. Middle English. Discussion

The pilgrims outside the walls of the city of Canterbury,an early 14"' century illustration

PART 2. SEMINARS

Seminar 9.General characteristics

of the Middle English period

Topics for discussion in class1. Historical events affecting the English language (the

Scandinavian invasion and the Norman conquest).2. Changes in Middle English word-stock as compared with

Old English.3. Innovations in spelling in Middle English as compared with

Old English.4. Middle English written records.

Questions and assignments1. Comment on the position of French in the 12th—13'

centuries.2. Speak of the role of foreign influence in Middle English.3. Comment on the peculiarities of Middle English borrowings,

their character and distinctive features.4. What new letters and digraphs denoting consonants appeared

in Middle English?5. Comment on the origin of the underlined letters and digraphs

in the examples below:with, that, shoures, droughte, every, Zeghirus

Find more examples of this kind in the text assigned for theseminar.

6. Study the rules of reading a Middle English text (see the

232

MIDDLE ENGLISH

table below). What new spelling devices denoting vowelsappeared in Middle English?

Use the following examples from the text below asillustrations:

a) shoures, foweles, yonge;

b) soote, breeth;

c) droghte.

7. Study the model of phonetic analysis of a Middle Englishtext. Read and translate the text into Modern English /Russian (part 1, lines 1—18). Continue the phonetic analysisfollowing the model (analyse only the underlined words).Check your variant with the key.

Reading of Middle English texts

Letters & Sounds Examples

/. Vowels1.1. Single letters

a [a] whan, and[a:] bathed, maken

e [e] ende, wende[e:] slepen, seken

i [i] his, first[i:] inspired, shires

u [u] nature, vertu[u:] but

233

PART 2. SEMINARS

0

У

ее

ie

0 0

ou

au

ai,

ei,

2.

с

g

f

V

s

1.2.

, ow

, aw

ay

ey

[o][o:][u]

[i]

[i:]

Digraphs

[e:]

[i:]

Co:]

[uO[ou]

[au]

[ai]

[ei]

croppes, fromspoken, opensonne, come

fyngresnyne, ryght

breeth, eek

grief

root, soote

shoures, howsoule, know

straunge, lawe

fair, day

wey, reysed

Consonants2.1. Single letters

M[s]

[g]№>]

[f]

[v]

[s]И

courage^ licour, Caunterburycertain, perced

goon, goosengendred, corages, pilgrimages

fowels, bifil, y-falle

veyne, vertu, devout

his, is, soundryseson, devyse

234

2.2.

sh

ch

th

gh

wh

Digraphs

mMI[e][6]

№']

[hw]

MIDDLE ENGLISH

shoures, shires, shortly

chaumbres, everichon

that, thinketh, thebathed, worthy

nyght, ryght, knight

whan, what

From Chaucer's Prologueto his "Canterbury Tales";

ab. 1384—1400

Geoffrey Chaucer (? ab. 1340—1400) was a bom Londoner. Hisfather and relatives had some associations with the wine trade and withthe Court. For his early schooling he was sent to St. Paul's Almony andlater went on to be a page in the household of the Countess of Ulster.There he acquired the finest education in good manners, a matter ofgreat importance not only in his career as a courtier but also in hiscareer as a poet. Later in his life he was many times sent abroad onsome commercial and diplomatic missions and finally became aComptroller of the customs and Justice of the Peace.

He had a passion for books and read a lot in Latin, French, Anglo-Norman and Italian. He made himself a considerable expert incontemporaiy sciences — astronomy, medicine, physics and alchemy.He was a man of Renaissance and he heralded the beginning ofEnglish Renaissance in literature.

Chaucer's writings are numerous and diverse in subject and literarymanner but "The Canterbury Tales" are his greatest work.

It is a narrative of a pilgrimage that led to the outskirts ofCanterbury to the shrine of St. Thomas a Becket (the archbishop ofCanterbury in the XII century, murdered by the order of the king andcanonized by the Catholic Church). "The Canterbuiy Tales" are not

235

PART 2. SEMINARS

finished. They consist of a Prologue and 24 stories told by the personsdescribed in the Prologue. These people are of different degrees of themedieval English society. The Prologue is the portrait of an entirenation, high and low, old and young, lay and clerical, town andcountry. The tales these pilgrims tell come from all over Europe, fromChaucer's contemporaries (Dante, Boccaccio, Petrarch), from theancients, from the Orient.

Geoffrey Chaucer was the most outstanding figure of his time. He isconsidered to be "the Father of English Poetry", the founder of literarylanguage.

He wrote in the London dialect which had by that time acquiredprevailing East Midland features with a considerable Southerndialectal element. As it was the rise of national English standardvarious forms coexisted, both dialectal, old and new (e.g. for to seke —for to seken; soote — sweete; y-ronne; spoken; hem, her(<OE) — they(Sc.)), hi bis rhymes (the meter is iambic pentameter); there are manye-forms (Southern dialectal features descending from Kentish).

The Prologue

i Whan that Aprille with his shoures sooteThe droghte of March hath perced to the roote.And bathed every veyne in swich licour,Of which vertu engendred is the flour:

5 Whan Zephirus eek with his swete breethInspired hath in every holt and heethThe tendre cropes, and the vonge sonneHath in the Ram his halve cours y-ronne,And srnale foweles maken melodye,

io That slepen al the nyght with open ye —So priketh hem nature in here corages —Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,

236

MIDDLE ENGLISH

To feme halwes, couthe in sondry londes;is And specially, from every shires ende

Of Engelond to Caunterbury they wende,The hooly. blisful martir for to seke,That hem hath holpen, whan that they were seeke:Bifil that in that seson on a day.

20 In Southwerk at the Tabard as I lay,Redy to wenden on my pilgrymageTo Caunterbury with ful devout corage,At nyght were come into that hostelryeWei nyne and twenty in a compaignye

25 Of sondry folk by aventure y-falleIn felaweshioe, and pilgrimes were they alle,That toward Caunterbury wolde ryde.The chaumbres and the stables weren wyde.And wel we weren esed atte beste.

30 And shortly, whan the sonne was to reste,So hadde I spoken with hem everichon,That I was of her felaweshipe anon,And made forward erly for to ryse.To take oure wey ther, as I yow devyse.

35 But natheless, whil I have tyme and space,Er that I ferther in this tale pace.Me thynketh it acordaunt to resounTo telle yow al the condiciounOf ech of hem, so as it semed me,

40 And whiche they were, and of what degree.And eek in what array that they were inne;And at a khyght than wol I first bigynne.

237

PART 2. SEMINARS


238

Word as usedin the text

whan

that

with

his

shoures(shour)

soote

droghte

percedtpercen)

Changes of spelling and sounds

Old English

hwsenne[hw]

hw

pastЫ[в]x replaced byp replaced by

wit)[6]p replaced by

his[s]

scur[sk']

u replaced bysc replaced by

swote/swete[e:]

ёгпзоб

[u:]u replaced by3 replaced by

—

Middle English

whan[hw]

> [a]replaced by

that> [a]> [6]

ath

with> [в]

th

his[s]

shour/showr> m

[u:rlou/ow

sh

swote/sweete> [e:]

droght(e)/drought

> [u:]o/ou

gh

percen[c:] + vocalized |

New English

when> [w]> [e]

w

that> [ae]> [5]

with> [3]

his> [z]

shower> Ш> [аиэ]

sweet> П:]

drought

> [аи]

piercer)> [IQ]

MIDDLE ENGLISH

roote

bathed(bathen)

swich

which

vertu

flour

—

badode[a] (open syl.) >[ode] >5 replaced by

SWilc[k'J >

с replaced by

hwilc[k'l >(hwjhw replaced byс replaced by

—

—

rote/rootelo:] > Iu:] >

bathed[a:] >[ede] >th

swich/s(w)uch[tfl >tu] >ch

which[Ш >[hw] >whch

vertufi] + vocalized [r]>

flour[u:] + vocalized [r]>

root[u] beforea dental cons.

bathed[el]W

suchал[Л]

which№[wj

virtue[э:]

flower[аиэ]

239

PART 2. SEMINARS

Seminar 10.Middle English phonetics. Vowels

Topics for discussion in class1. Qualitative changes of long and short vowels in Middle

English.

2. Quantitative changes of vowels in Middle English:lengthening and shortening.

Questions and assignments1. What phonetic conditions affected the length of vowels in

Middle English?

2. What change affected the Old English monophthongs inMiddle English? Were the changes positional orindependent? Give examples from the text to illustrate points1 and 2.

3. What changes did the unstressed vowels undergo in MiddleEnglish? How did it affect the grammatical endings?

4. Comment on the changes of the short monophthongs [as] and[y] and long monophthongs [а], [аз], [у] in Middle English.

5. Speak of the Old English diphthongs in Middle English.

6. Read and translate the text above into Modern English /Russian (part 2, lines 19—42). Make the phonetic analysisfollowing the model given in Seminar 9 (analyse only theunderlined words). Check your variant with the key.

240

MIDDLE ENGLISH

Seminar 11.Middle English phonetics. Consonants

Topics for discussion in class1 • Consonant changes in Middle English. The rise of sibilants

and affricates.2. Development of diphthongs due to vocalisation of

consonants.

Questions and assignments1- What is the origin of the Modern English consonant

phonemes []"], [tf], $3] in native words?2- Account for the underlined consonants in:

ship, child, bridge.3- What is the origin of the diphthongs [ai], [au], [ou] in

day, now, owe?4. Read and translate the following text into Modern English /

Russian. Make the phonetic analysis following the modelgiven in Seminar 9 (analyse only the underlined words).Check your variant with the key.

From Trevisa's Translationof "The Polychronicon"; 1387

John de Trevisa {1326 —1412) of Cornwall, though educated atOxford, lived most of his life in Gloucestershire (South West ofEngland) serving as chaplain.

241

PART 2. SEMINARS . •

Trevisa's "The Polychronicon" is the translation from Latin of aworld history written by the English monk Ranulf Higden in the mumof the 14"1 century. In his translation Trevisa inserted his own commemmarking it by his name (Trevisa), and by (R) the continuation ojHigden's text.

The extract below shows the language situation in England in tmLate Middle English period and the role of French in tlteE^sflsociety of the time: the 14"' century witnessed the ascendancy ofbngusin public life; whereas the practice had been to use French as sawlanguage (so Higden tells us in his Polychronicon), by the tune JTrevisa English also gained a new place in the schools.

Trevisa's English of the Polychronicon combines Midland and SouthWestern dialectal forms, (typical South Western dialect features are weending of the Present tense, Plural -eth< OE -ath; the form ojParticiple II (e.g. i-meddled); /y/ > /u/(e.g. burthe < OE ge-byrd).

About the languages of the inhabitantsChapter 59

As it is i-knowe how meny manere peple beef) in faS ilfiSS'pere beep also so many dyvers longages and tonge_s; nopelesWalsche men and Scottes, f>at beep nou3t i-medled wip sfcslnaciouns, holdefc wel nyh hir firste longage and speche,; but 311the Scottes pat were somtyme confederat and wonede wip Pe

Pictes drawe somwhat after hir speche; but pe Flemmynges batwonep in pe weste side of Wales havep i-left her straunge specheand spekep Saxonliche i-now. Also Englische men, pey haddefrom the bygynnynge pre manere speche, norperne, sowjieffle'and middel speche in pe myddel of pe lond, as pey come of f>re

manere peple of Germania, nopeles by comyxtioun and mellyngefirste wip Danes and afterward wip Normans, in meny pe contray.longage is apayred, and som usep straunge wlafferynge,chiterynge, harrynge, and garrynge grisbayting. This apayrynge ofthe burbe of pe tunge is bycause of tweie pinges; oon is for

242

MIDDLE ENGLISH

children, in scole aqenst pe usage and manere of alle operenaciouns beef) compelled for to leve hire owne langage, and forto construe hir lessouns and- here pynges in Frensche, and so peyhavej> sep pe Normans come first in to Engelond. Also gentil menchildren beef) i-tau^t to speke Frensche from pe tyme pat peybeep i-rokked in here cradel. and kunnep speke and playe wip aSbiides broche: and uplondisshe men wil likne hym self to gentilmen, and fondep wip greet besynesse for to speke Frensche, for tobe btojde of. Pis manere was moche i-used to for firste deth andis sippe sumdel i-chaunged; for John Cornwaile, a maister ofgrammer, chaunged pe lore in gramer scole and construccioun ofFrensche in to Englische; and Richard Pencriche lerned pemanere techynge of hym and of opere men of Pencrich; so patflow, pe зеге of pure Lorde a powsand pre hundred and foureScore and fyve, and of pe secounde kyng Richard after peconquest nyne. in alle pe gramere scoles of Engelond, childrenievep Frensche and construep and lernep an Englische, and hauep{)erby avauntage in oon side and disavauntage in anoper side;here avauntage is pat pey lernep her gramer in lasse tyme panchildren were i-woned to doo; disavauntage is pat now children°f gramer scole connep na more Frensche pan can hir lift heele.and pat is harme for hem and bey schulle passe pe see andtravaille in straunge landes and in many oper places.

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PART 2. SEMINARS

Seminar 12.Middle English grammar. Noun

Topics for discussion in class1. Simplification of the case system and types of declension in

Middle English.2. Means of form-building in Middle English.3. Rise of the article.

Questions and assignments1. Describe and account for the loss of inflexions in English

nouns, speak about the remaining inflexions.2. Discuss the grammatical elements of the words

children's; leaves; men; brethren's; ships3. Speak of the changes in the adjective paradigm in Middle

English.4. Study the model of grammar and vocabulary analysis of a

Middle English text. Consult your translation notes forSeminars 9—10 (Chaucer, The Prologue). Continue thegrammar and vocabulary analysis following the model.Check your variant with the key.

244

MIDDLE ENGLISH

Model of grammatical and ethymological analysis

wnan that

Aprille

with

his

shoures

soote

the

droghte

of

March

hath perced

to

roote

and

conjunction

noun proper

preposition

pronoun possessive,masculine, 3rd personsingular

noun, common case,plural

adjective, plural •

definite article

noun, common case,singular

preposition

noun proper

verb, present perfect,31X| person, singular ofpercen. weak verb,class 2

preposition


conjunction

OE hwsenne(adverb/pronoun)pffit (pronoun)

OF avrill,L aprilis

OE his (pronounpersonal)

OE sciir

OE swote/swete

OE se, seo, pset

OE drii3o6

ftEof

OF mars, march(dial.), L martius

OE habbanOF percier

OE to

OSk rot

OE and

when that(when)

April

with

his

shower

sweet

the

drought

of

March

pierce (haspierced)

to

root

and

245

PART 2. SEMINARS

bathed

every

veyne

in

swich

licour

of

which

vertu

engendred is

flour

verb, present perfect(hath bathed), 3rd person,singular of bathen. weakverb, class 2

pronoun indefinite

nolin, common case,singular

preposition

pronoun indefinite


preposition

pronoun indefinite/interrogative


verb, passive voice,present tense, 3rd personsingular of engendren.weak verb, class 2


OE ba6ian

OE aefre

OE veine

0 £ i n

OE swilc

OF licur, L liquor

OEof

OE hwilc

OF vertu

OF engendrer,L ingeneraneOE is

OF four

bathe {hasbathed)

every

vein

in

such

liquor(moisture)

Of

which

virtue(force)

engender(isengendered)

flower(blossoming)

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MIDDLE ENGLISH

Seminar 13.Middle English grammar. Verb

Topics for discussion in class1. Historical changes in the verbal system. History of the Old

English categories of tense, number, mood and person.

2. Development of analytical forms and new grammaticalcategories in Middle English.

Questions and assignments1- Give two examples each of (i) strong verbs which have

acquired the weak-type conjugation; (ii) weak verbs whichhave acquired the strong-type conjugation.

2. Account for the present and past tense forms of the principalauxiliary verbs.

3- Account for the past tense forms of the following verbs:

taught, sold, sought, fed, felt, caught

4- Mention some verbs that, being originally preterites, havecome to be used as presents, and account for their usage.

5. Read the text in Seminar 11 (Trevisa, About the languages ofthe inhabitants). Consult your translation notes for theSeminar. Make the grammar and vocabulary analysisfollowing the model given in Seminar 12. Check your variantwith the key.

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PART 2. SEMINARS

Seminar 14.Middle English. Discussion

Topics for discussion in class1. Middle English. Outer and inner history of the period.2. Changes in the Middle English spelling system.3. Changes in the Middle English phonetic system.4. Changes in the Middle English grammar system.5. Changes in the Middle English vocabulary.

Questions and assignments1. What new spelling devices appeared in Middle English?2. What environment allowed a stressed vowel to preserve its

Old English quantity?3. What were the sources for the appearance of new categorial

forms? Give exampes from the nominal and verbalparadigm.

4. Speak on the principal sources of enriching the vocabulary mMiddle English.

5. Read and translate the text below into Modern English /Russian. Make a complete phonetic, grammar andvocabulary analysis of the text following the models orSeminar 9 and Seminar 12. Hand in your written work asPart 2 of your course project.

248

MIDDLE ENGLISH

From Capgrave's Chronicle of England;ab. 1463

John Capgrave (1393—1463) was a friar of the Augustinian Orderin England. He obtained a theological university education and wasregarded as one of the most learned men of his time.

Capgrave resided most of his life in the friary at King"s Lynn, wherehe wrote in Latin and English sermons, theological works andcommentaries to many books of scripture. Among his books is achronicle of English history, which is of considerable importance as anearly English prose work

"The Chronicle of England" starts from the Creation of the Worldand ends with the year 1417, evidently stopped by the death of theauthor.

It is written in the London dialect bearing but few traces of otherlate Middle English dialects.

[1393] In the month of Auguste was it proclamed thorowouteYnglond that alle Erishmen be at hom, in her owne lond, in thefest of Nativite of oure Lady, in peyne of lesing of her hed. It wasproved be experiens that there were com to Ynglond so manyErischmen that the Erisch cuntre, whech longeth to the king ofYnglond, was so voyded fro his dwelleris that the wilde Erischwere com in, and had dominacioune of al that cuntre. And, moreovyr, it was noted, that in Kyng Edward tyme the Thirde, whan hehad set there his bank, his juges, and his chekyr, he receivedevery зеге XXX M. pound: and now the kyng Richard was faynto paye зег1у to defens of the same cuntre XXX M. mark.

(In this зеге, in the XXI. day of Aprile, was that frere borewhech mad these Annotaciones.)

And in the same зеге Kyng Richard went into Erland, withthe duke of Glouceter, and erles March, Notingham andRuthland. Many of the Erisch lordis wold ha lettid his comyng;

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PART 2. SEMINARS

but her power was ovyr weyk. Ther was he fro the Nativite ofoure Lady onto Esterne. And in that tyme were sent onto him, bethe clergi of this lond, the archbishop of York and the bishop ofLondon, praying him that he wold come horn ageyn to oppressethe malice of Lollardis. For thei laboured sore to take away allethe possessiones of the Cherch, and aftir to distroye alle the lawesthat were mad to favoure of the Cherch. Whan the kyng herd this,he hastid him in al goodly maner to com horn ageyn.

[1394] In the XVIII. зеге the kyng held his Parlement atDulyn, and thidir com alle the lordes that had mad subjecciononto him.

And in that same tyme, Edmund, duke of York, Keper ofYnglond, held a Parlement at London; to whech Parlement camthe duke of Gloucetir fro Yrlond, expressing the kyngis costid inYrlond: and his legacion was so acceptabil, that the clergygraunted him a dyme, and the lay fe a fiftene.

In this tyme the Lolardis set up scrowis at Westminster and atPoules, with abhominable accusaciones of hem that long to theCherch, whech sounded in destruccioune of the Sacramentis, anaof statutes of the Cherch. The meynteyneris of the puple thatwere so infect were these: Richard Storry, Lodewik Clifford,Thomas Latymer, Jon Mountagw. Thei were principalinstraetouris of heretikes. The kyng, whan he had conceyved themalice of these men, he cleped hem to his presens, and snybbedhem; forbad hem eke thei schuld no more meynten no swechmateres. Of Richard Story he took a hooth; for he swore on abook that he schuld nevyr meynten no swech opiniones. And aftirthis hooth the kyng saide: "And I swere here onto the, If evyr thoubreke thin ooth, thou schal deye a foul deth." Thei that were giltyin this mater withdraw gretly her oterauns of malys.

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SEMINARS 15—22.NEW ENGLISH

15. General characteristics of the New English period

16. New English. Phonetics. Vowels

17. New English. Phonetics. Consonants

18. New English Grammar. Noun

19. New English Grammar. Verb

20. English wordstock

21. Vocabulary layers

22. Modern regular and irregular noun and verb forms

William Shakespeare • • the engraving for the First Folio (1623)251

PART 2. SEMINARS

Seminar 15.General characteristics

of the New English period

Topics for discussion in class1. Formation of the British nation and the English national

language in the Early New English period.2. Expansion of English overseas. Contacts with other

languages.3. Early New English vocabulary. New means of word-

formation (conversion).4. Influence of Latin and other languages in the New English

period. Etymological doublets.5. New English spelling. Principal ways of indicating the

sounds in Modern English.

Questions and assignments1. Compare the effect of different outside contacts upon the

English language.2. Speak of the ways of enriching the vocabulary of a language.

Which of them were more important for the New Englishperiod?

3. Speak of "mute" letters in New English.4. What digraphs are used in New English? Give examples and

explain their pronunciation.5. What sounds are denoted by the following letters in New

English: a, e, i, o, u?Which of them are the oldest and which are the newest?

252

NEW ENGLISH

6. Study the model of phonetic analysis of a New English text.Read and translate the text into Modern English / Russian(part 1). Continue the phonetic analysis following the model(analyse only the underlined words). Check your variant withthe key.

William Shakespeare; ab. 1600

William Shakespeare (1565—1616) was born at Stratford-on-Avon.His father was engaged in various kinds of trade and held variousmunicipal offices. Shakespeare was educated at a grammar schoollearning to read and write and studying the works of some classicalhistorians, moralists and poets, but he did not go to the university. Hemarried at the age of 18. How Shakespeare spent the next 8 years or sountil his name begins to appear in London theatre records is notknown. By 1592 he seems to have attracted the attention of the Earl ofSouthampton. It was very important for him: although the puritanicaltity of London was generally hostile to the theatre many of the nobilitywere good patrons of the drama and friends of actors. From 1594onward he was a recognised member of the Lord Chamberlain sCompany of players: they had the best theatre, the Globe, and the bestdramatist, Shakespeare. He became a full-time professional man of hisown theatre. For 20 years Shakespeare devoted himself to his art,writing more than a million words of poetic drama.

Shakespeare lived at a time when ideas and social structureestablished in Middle Ages still influenced man 's thought andbehaviour. Alongside that, economic and social orders were disturbedby the rise of capitalism, expansion of education and by the new wealthfrom the discovery of new lands. An interplay of new and old ideas wastypical of the time (in "Hamlet" discussions on man, belief, a"rotten" state, and times "out of joint" clearly reflect a growingdisquiet and scepticism.)

It is a usual and reasonable opinion that Shakespeare's greatness isnowhere more visible than in the series of tragedies — "Hamlet","Othello", "King Lear". -

With a few exceptions Shakespeare did not invent the plot of hisplays. Sometimes he used old stories ("Hamlet"), sometimes he workedfrom the stories of comparatively recent Italian writers, the chronicles,

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PART 2. SEMINARS

the popular prose fiction of his contemporaries. The source of the plot("Tragical History of Hamlet, prince of Denmark") was probably theIcelandic saga of Amleth narrated by Saxo Grammaticus in his historyof Denmark, in "Hamlet" the drama of revenge acquired newphilosophic aspects introduced by the genius of the author.

Given below is an extract from "Hamlet" (mostly MS 2-nd quarto,published in 1604) which is the Performance "The Murder o]Gonzago " played by the actors at Hamlet's request.

The language of Shakespeare's plays gives a full representation <?/the literary language of the Elizabethan Age (the age of literaryRenaissance in Early New English). In Shakespeare's day the syntaxand other aspects of English grammar and vocabulary1 were in a stateof transition from an earlier, highly inflected language. The loss ojendings obscured the distinguishing marks of various parts of speecand the result was not so much confusion as freedom.

Shakespeare's ability to create new words and use the living ones inthe full range of their polysemy, his versatile grammar are general^typical of the Early New English period and sometimes are specificall)Shakespearean (e.g. more than one negation in the sentence "nor itnot strange"; one stem used as both Past Tense and Participle '"begunn "; placing a simple verb before the subject in questions Whameans this...?"; subject-verb semantic agreement "the fruit...sticks..№fall..."; polysemy of words when all the meanings of the word 'wornat a time, e.g. posie — 1) poetry, 2) a motto, a short inscription,mich(ing) — 1) to skulk or retire from view, 2) to steal small things, Dto pilfer, 4) to play truant, etc.)

From Hamlet, Act III, Scene II.The Performance

(pan 1)

The Trumpets sounds. Dumbe show followes: Enter a King and a

Oueene. the Queene embracing him, and he. her, he takes her vp,

and declines his head vpon her песке, he lyes him downe upon a

bancke of flowers, she seeing him asleepe, leaues him: anori

come in an other man, takes off his crowne. kisses it, щщЦ254

NEW ENGLISH

poyson in the sleepers eares. and leaues him; the Queenereturne.i finds the King dead, makes passionate action, thepoysner with some- three or foure come in againe, seeme tocondole with her, the dead body is carried away, the poysnerwooes the Queene with gifts, shee seemes harsh awhile, but in theend accepts hue.

Oph. What meanes this my Lord?

Ham. Marry that munching Mallico, it meanes mischiefe.

Oph- Belike this show imports the argument of the play.

Ham. We shall know by this fellow, [Enter Prologue.]

The Players cannot keepe, they'le tell аЦ.

Oph. Will a tell vs what this show meant?

Ham. I, or any show that you will show him, be not

you ash am'd to show, heele not shame to tell

you what it meanes.

Oph. You are naught, you are naught. He mark the play.

Prol. For vs and for our Tragedie,

Heere stooping to your clemencie,

We begge your hearing patiently.

Ham. Is this a Prologue, or the posie of a ring?

Oph. Tis breefe my Lord.

Ham. As womans loue.

Enter King and Queene.

King. Full thirtie times hath Phebus cart gone roundNeptunes saj£ wash, and Tellus orb'd the ground,And thirtie dosen Moones with borrowed sheeneAbout the world haue times twelue thirties beeneSince loue our harts, and Hymen did our handsVnite comutuall in most sacred bands.

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PART 2. SEMINARS

Quee. So many iourneyes may the Sunne and MooneMake vs againe count ore ere loue be doone,But woe is me, you are so sicke of late,So farre from cheere. and from our former state,That I distrust you, yet though I distrust,Discomfort you my Lord it nothing must.For women feare too much, euen as they loue.And womens feare and loue hold quantitie,Eyther none, in neither ought, or in extremitie.Now what my Lord is proofe hath made you know,And as my loue is ciz'd, my feare is so,Where loue is great, the litlest doubts are feare.Where little feares grow great, great loue growes there.

King Faith I must leaue thee loue, and shortly to,My operant powers their functions leaue to doAnd thou shalt Hue in this faire world behind.Honour'd. belou'd, and haply one as kind.For husband shalt thou.

(part 2)

Quee. О confound the rest,Such loue must needes be treason in my brest,In second husband let me be accurst.None wed the second, but who kild the first.

Ham. That's wormwood

The instances that second marriage moueAre base respects of thrift, but none of loue,A second time I kill my husband dead,When second husband kisses me in bed.

King I doe belieue you thinke what now you speake.But what we doe determine, oft we breake,Purpose is but the slaue to memorie,

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NEW ENGLISH

Of violent birth, but poore validitie,Which now the fruite vnripe sticks on the tree.But faH vnshaken when they mellow bee.Most necessary tis that we forgetTo gay our selues what to our selues is debt.What to our selues in passion we propose,The passion ending, doth the purpose lose.The violence of eyther, griefe. or ioy,Their owne ennactures with themselues destroy,Where ioy most reuels, griefe doth most lament,Greefe ioy, ioy griefes, on slender accedent,This world is not for aye, nor tis not strange.That euen our loues should with our fortunes change:For tis a question left vs yet to proue.Whether loue lead fortune, or els fortune loue.The great man downe, you marke his fauourite flyes,The poore aduaunc'd. makes friends of enemies,And hetherto doth loue on fortune tend,For who not needes, shall neuer lacke a friend,And who in want a hollow friend doth try,Directly seasons him his enemy.But orderly to end where I begunne.Our wills and fates doe so contrary runne.That our deuises still are ouerthrowne.Our thoughts are ours, their ends none of our owne,So thinke thou wilt no second husband wed,But die thy thoughts when thy first Lord is dead.

257

PART 2. SEMINARS





trumpet - trompet trumpet[u] > [л]

о - a ME spelling device

sound - soun sound[u:] > [аи]

dumbe dumb domb dumb[u] [u] > [л]

[b] lost in NEu replaced by о - a ME spelling device

show rel. to v. sceaw(ian) «. shewe show[sk1] > Ш > Шsc replaced by sh

enter - fn/entre(n) enterunstressed [e] + vocalised [r] > [э]

king сушпз kyng king[y] > [i] (East Midland

dialect)с replaced by к

queene cwen queene queene[e:] > [e:] > [i:lcw replaced by qu

embracing — inf. embrace embrace[a:] > [ci]

258

259

NEW ENGLISH

he he he he[e:] > [e:] > [i:l > [i-]

her hire her/e her[i] [e] + vocalised [r] > [э:]

take(s) inf. takan taken take[a] [a:] open syllable > [ei]с replaced by к

decline(s) - inf. declynen decline[i:] > [ai]

his his his his[s] [s] > M

head head head head[ea:] > [e:] > [e] before a dental

consonant

tye(s) inf. Нсзеп liggen/lyen lie[g] > Из]

[i:] > M

down of-dune a-doune down[u:] > [u:] > [аи]u replaced by ou/ow

bancke — banke bank[a] > [ее]

flower(s) - flour flower[u:] + vocalised [r] > [аиэ]ou replaced by ow

see(ing) inf. seon seen see[e:] > [e:] > [i:]

PART 2. SEMINARS

asleep • on-slaep asleep asleep[ffi] > [e:] > [i'-lге replaced by ее '

leaues inf. ISfan leven leave[аз:] > [e:] > [i:lгг replaced by eaf replaced by v

NEW ENGUSB

Seminar 16.New English. Phonetics. Vowels

Topics for discussion in class1- Quantitative and qualitative changes of vowels in Early New

English.

2. The Great Vowel shift and other New English vowelchanges; their effect on Modern English.

Questions and assignments'• What phonetic conditions affected the length of vowels in

Early New English?

2. What change affected the monophthongs [a] and [u] in NewEnglish? Were the changes positional or independent? Giveexamples from the text to illustrate points 1 and 2.

3. Make a list of vowels that underwent the Great Vowel shift.What is the general direction of the shift?

4. What changes did the unstressed vowels undergo in NewEnglish? How did it affect the grammatical endings?

5. Copy the principal forms of the Old English verb wrltan andthe paradigm of the Old English noun stan and trace theendings to New English.

6. Write out words from the text to show the different spellingof the sounds [ae], [e:], [ou], [ei], [л], [о], [i:] and explain theorigin of the sounds and spelling.

7. Account historically for the differences in the sound value ofthe same letter or digraph, such as "ow", "ea", V \ "i" (instressed position). Find words in the text to illustrate youranswer.

261

PART 2. SEMINARS

Read and translate the text above into Modern English /Russian (part 2). Make the phonetic analysis following themodel given in Seminar 15 (analyse only the underlinedwords). Check your variant with the key.

NEW ENGLISH

Seminar 17.New English. Phonetics. Consonants

Topics for discussion in class1. Early New English consonant changes.

2. The rise of sibilants and affricates in Early New English.

Questions and assignments1- What is the origin of the Modern English consonant

phonemes Ц], [3], [tfl, №3] in borrowed words?

2. Account for the underlined consonants in:

a) literature, Asia, soldier, measure.

b) shall, drudgery, occasion, nature

3. Account for the spelling of the fricatives and find examplesin the text to illustrate the same spelling and/or sound.

4. Find words in the text to illustrate the so-called "Verner'sLaw" in New English.

5. Account for the "mute" letters "gh", "k" and "1", "r" before"n" and at the end of words, position of stress in native andborrowed words.

6. Read and translate the text below into Russian. Make thephonetic analysis following the model given in Seminar 15.

263

PART 2. SEMINARS

Ben Jonson; ab. 1606—1607

Ben Jonson (1572—1637) began to work as player and playwrightin 1597. He was a very prolific writer, and his plays were given, amongmany others, by Shakespeare's company, some with WilliamShakespeare in the cast. Ben Jonson is mostly known for court masques— dramatic entertainments involving dances and disquises, andcomedies which often had a morale in them.

"Volpone, or The Fox" is a comedy first acted in 1606 and printeda year later. Volpone, a rich Venetian without children, feigns that he isdying, in order to draw gifts from his would-be heirs. Mosca, hisparasite and confederate, persuades each of these in turn that he is tobe the heir, and thus extracts costly presents from them. One of thevictims of their deceit is Voltore. •

From "Volpone, or The Fox"

MOSCA. You still are what you were, sir. Only you,Of all the rest, are he, commands his love;And you do wisely to preserve it thusWith early visitation, and kind notesOf your good meaning to him, which, I know,Cannot but come most grateful. — Patron! sir!Here's Signior Voltore is come —

VOLPONE. What say you?

MOSCA. Sir, Signior Voltore is come this morningTo visit you.

VOLPONE. I thank him.

MOSCA. And hath broughtA piece of antique plate, bought of Saint Mark,With which he here presents you.

264

NEW ENGLISH

VOLPONE. He is welcome.

Pray him to come more often.

MOSCA. Yes.

VOLTORE. What says he?

MOSCA. He thanks you, and desires you see him often.

VOLPONE. Mosca.

MOSCA. My patron!

VOLPONE. Bring him near; where is he?

I long to feel his hand.

MOSCA. The plate is here, sir.

VOLTORE. How fare you, sir?VOLPONE. I thank you, Signior Voltore.

Where is the plate? mine eyes are bad.VOLTORE. I'm sorry

To see you still thus weak.

MOSCA. That he is not weaker.

VOLPONE. You are too munificent.

VOLTORE. No, sir, would to Heaven,I could as well give health to you, as that plate!

VOLPONE. You give, sir, what you can. I thank you.Your loveHath taste in this, and shall not be unanswered.I pray you see me often.

VOLTORE. Yes. I shall, sir.

VOLPONE. Be not far from me.

MOSCA. Do you observe that, sir?

VOLPONE. Hearken unto me still. It will concern you.

MOSCA. You are a happy man, sir; know your good.

VOLPONE. I cannot now last long —265

PART 2. SEMINARS

MOSCA. — You are his heir, sir.

VOLTORE. Am I?

VOLPONE. I feel me going — Uhluh! uh! uh!I'm sailing to my port — Uh! uh! uh! uh!

And I am glad I am so near my haven.

MOSCA. Alas, kind gentleman! Well, we must all go

VOLTORE. But, Mosca —

MOSCA. Age will conquer.

VOLTORE. Pray thee, hear me.Am I inscribed his heir for certain?

MOSCA. Are you!I do beseech you, sir, you will vouchsafeTo write me i' your family. All my hopesDepend upon your worship. I am lost,Except the rising sun do shine on me.

VOLTORE. It shall both shine and warm thee,Mosca.

MOSCA. Sir.I am a man that hath not done your loveAll the worst offices: here I wear your keys,See all your coffers,.and your caskets locked,Keep the poor inventory of your jewels,Your plate and monies: am your steward, sir,Husband your goods here.

VOLTORE. But am I sole heir?

266

NEW ENGLISH

Seminar 18.New English. Grammar. Noun

Topics for discussion in class'• Historical changes in the nominal system. History of the Old

English categories of case, number and gender.

2- Origin of modern categorial forms.

3. Development of personal and demonstrative pronouns.

Questions and assignments1- What form-building means are used in New English as

compared to those in Old English?

2. What is the origin of the Modern English plural ending "es"and the genitive ending "s" in:

lessons, mother's?

3. Speak of the changes in the number of cases of nouns andpersonal pronouns in Middle English and New English.

4. What new personal and possessive pronouns appeared inEnglish in the course of history?

5. Write out the personal and possessive pronouns from the textbelow and account for their origin.

6. Speak of the degrees of comparison of the adjectives in thetext below.

7. Study the model of grammar and vocabulary analysis of aNew English text. Consult your translation notes forSeminars 15—16. Continue the grammar and vocabularyanalysis following the model. Check your variant with thekey.

267

PART 2. SEMINARS

Model of grammatical and ethymological analysis

CorrespondingNE word,translation

Words asused inthe text

268

trumpets noun, genitive ME trompette, OF Irompette trumpet(S )case, plural

sounds n. common case, ME soun; OF soun SOUnd(s)

plural (oboes play)

dumbe adjective OE dumb; ME domb dumb

show n. common case, ME sheue, rel. to show

singular OE sceawian (v);ME shaven (v)

followes verb, present OE fo^ian, weak, 2; follow(s)tense, 3"1 person, ME followen (The dumbsingular ot show enters)follow

enter verb, present ME entren weak, 2\ OF entrer entertense, pluralof enter

a article, indefinite OE an; ME a/an a

king n. common case OE суптз; ME kyng kingsingular

and conjunction OE and; ME and and

queene n. common case OE cwen; ME queen queensingular (actors playing

the roles ofthe King andthe Queen)

NEW ENGLISH

269

the queene the queenembracing absolute ME embracen, weak 2: embracing

participial OF embracer.construction(nominative withparticiple I)

him pronoun OE him, hire; ME him himpersonal,objective case,3'* person,singular,masculine

he pronoun OE he; ME he hepersonal,nominativecase, 3rd person,singular,masculine

her pronoun OE hire; ME her(e) herpersonal,objective case,3™ person,singular,feminine

takes verb, present OE takan, sir. 6; ME taken taketense, 3|U person,singular of take

vp adverb OE up, upp; ME up up(raises herfrom the knees)

declines verb, present ME declynen; OF decliner decl inetense, 3'J person,singular of decline

his pronoun OE his; ME his hispossessive,3rd person,singular,masculine

PART 2. SEMINARS

270

head n. common case, OE heafod; ME heed headcase, singular

Vpon preposition OE uppon; ME upon upon

песке п. common case, OE hnecca; ME nekke necksingular (on her

shoulder)

lyes verb, present OE Исзап, sir. 5; ME lyen lietense, 3rJ person,singular of lie

downe adverb OE of-dfme; ME a-doune down

bancke n. common case, ME banke bank (bed)singular

Of preposition OE of; ME of of

flowers n. common case, OF flour flower(s)plural

she pronoun OE heo; ME he/she shepersonal,nominative case,3rf person,singular,feminine

seeing v., participle 1 OE seon, sir. 5; ME seen seeing'of see

asleepe adjective OE on-slajp; ME on sleep, asleepasleep

leaues v., present OE lsefan, weak, 1; ME leven leave(s)tense,3"* person,singularof leave

NEW ENGLISH

Seminar 19.New English. Grammar. Verb

Topics for discussion in class' • Historical changes in the verbal system. History of the Old

English categories of tense, number, mood and person.2- Development of analytical forms and new grammatical

categories in Early New English.3- Origin of the main groups of standard and non-standard

verb-forms.

Questions and assignments'• What form-building means are used in New English as

compared to those in Old English?2. Write out the analytical verb-forms from the text and

account for their origin.3- Speak of the origin of non-finite verb forms: the infinitive,

the participles, the gerund.4- Read the text (Ben Jonson, Volpone, or The Fox). Consult

your translation notes for Seminar 17. Make the grammarand vocabulary analysis following the model given inSeminar 18.

271

PART 2. SEMINARS

Seminar 20.English wordstock

Topics for discussion in class1. Historical changes in English wordstock.

Questions and assignments1. Write out from the text examples of native English words,

French (or Latin) and Scandinavian borrowings and tracethem back to the Middle English or Old English periods.

2. Analyse the word-building elements in the following wordsand comment on their origin:

favourable, miscalled, nominally, recall, good-natured

3. Account for the etymological layers in the English word-stock which you discover in the text by describing therelevant events in the history of Britain.

4. Speak of phonetic marks and components in themorphological structure of the word helping to distinguishetymological layers in the English word-stock.

5. Give examples from the text of hybrids with differentetymological components.

6. Read and translate the text given below into Modern English/ Russian. Make a complete phonetic, grammar andvocabulary analysis of the text following the models orSeminar 15 and Seminar 18. Check your variant with thekey.

272

NEW ENGLISH

William Shakespeare,Sonnets, ab. 1600

Another form of literary work at which Shakespeare excelled was thewriting of sonnets, lyric verse fashionable in Elizabethan England. It isjustly said that there were few poetic compositions of any author or agethat have evoked so much admiration as Shakespeare's sonnets. Most ofthem were probably written between 1593 and 1599 and were firstpublished as a collection in 1609.

Sonnet #153

Cupid laid by his brand, and fell asleep:A maid of Dian's this advantage found,And his love-kindling fire did quickly steepIn a cold valley-fountain of that ground;Which boirow'd from this holy fire of LoveA dateless lively heat, still to endure,And grew a seething bath, which yet men proveAgainst strange maladies a sovereign cure.But at my mistress' eye Love's brand new-fired,The boy for trial needs would touch my breast;I, sick withal, the help of bath desired,And thither hied, a sad distemper'd guest,But found no cure: the bath for my help liesWhere Cupid got new fire — my mistress's eyes.

273

PART 2. SEMINARS

Seminar 21.Vocabulary layers

Topics for discussion in class1. Geographical expansion of English in the course of history.

2. Etymological strata in New English vocabulary and theirhistorical explanation.

3. Influence of Latin on English in different periods.4. Influence of the French language on English in different

periods.

5. Latin and French word-building elements in English.

Questions and assignments1. From what languages and when did the English language

received the following words:

orange, receive, street, chess, kiln, sovereign,potato, fetish?

Prove your point of view.

2. Give five examples each of Latin words borrowed to Englisndirectly and via French and state the time of the borrowing-

3. What are word-hybrids? Give examples of word-hybridsconsisting of three or more elements different by origin.

4. Read and translate the text given below into Russian. Make agrammar and vocabulary analysis of the text following tn e

model of Seminar 18. Pay particular attention to foreignword-building elements. Check your variant with the key.

274

NEW ENGLISH

Ch. Dickens, "David Copperfield",

a. 1850

Charles Dickens (1812—1870), the son of a government clerk,underwent in early life, as the result of his family's poverty resultingfrom his father's imprisonment, experiences similar to some of thosedepicted in "David Copperfield", and received little education. Hebecame newspaper reporter of debates in the House of Commons andcontributed to other periodicals, the articles that were subsequentlyrepublished as "Sketches of Boz, Illustrative of Every-Day Life andEvery-Day People" (1836—37). These were immediately followed by"The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club", where Dickensreached the plentitude of his power and achieved success and financialease. "David Coppetfield" appeared in monthly numbers in 1849—50.Later Dickens was to write of it: "Of all my books I like this the best. "

Extract from Chapter 4

Shall I ever forget those lessons! They were presided overnominally by my mother, but really by Mr. Murdstone and hissister, who were always present, and found them a favourableoccasion for giving my mother lessons in that miscalled firmness,which was the bane of both our lives. I believe I was kept athome for that purpose. I had been apt enough to learn and willingenough, when my mother and I had lived alone together. I canfaintly remember learning the alphabet at her knee. To this day,when I look upon the fat black letters of the primer, the puzzlingnovelty of their shapes, and the easy good nature of О and Q andS seem to present themselves again before me as they used to do.But they recall no feeling of disgust or reluctance. On thecontrary, I seem to have walked along a path of flowers as far asthe crocodile-book, and to have been cheered by the gentleness ofmy mother's voice and manner all the way. But these solemn

275

PART 2. SEMINARS

lessons which succeeded those, I remember as the death-blow atmy peace, and a grievous daily drudgery and misery. They werevery long, very numerous, very hard — perfectly unintelligible,some of them, to me — and I was generally as much bewilderedby them as I believe my poor mother was herself.

Let me remember how it used to be, and bring one morningback again.

NEW ENGLISH

Seminar 22.Modern regular and irregular

noun and verb forms

Topics for discussion in class1 • Origin of New English irregular noun forms.

2. Groups of modern non-standard verbs descending from OldEnglish weak verbs.

3. Groups of modern non-standard verbs descending from OldEnglish strong verbs.

Questions and assignments1- What traces of the Old English n-stem and root-stem

declensions can we find in New English plural forms ofnouns?

2. Comment on the forms of nouns:

foot — feet; child — children; deer — deer;ox — oxen; axis — axes

3. Speak of the peculiarities of modal verbs (former preterite-present) and the verb "to be".

4. Group all verbs in the text below into regular and irregular.Trace them back to Old English and determine whether theywere weak or strong.

5. Say if the modern division of the verbs into regular andirregular corresponds to the Old English division into strongand weak, give examples from your list of verbs to confirmyour answers.

6. Read and translate the text given below into Russian. Make a277

PART 2. SEMINARS

complete phonetic, grammar and vocabulary analysis of thetext following the models of Seminar 15 and Seminar 18.Hand in your-written work as Part 3 of your course project.

D. Chrystal, The CambridgeEncyclopedia of the English Language,

1995

David Crystal, a former professor of linguistics at the University tfReading, is a well-known writer, editor, lecturer and broadcasterdivides Ins time between work on language and work on generreference publishing. He has written over 40 books on languag >including "Linguistics", "Clinical Linguistics" and "The Cfxbr3^e

Encyclopedia of Language". In one of his latest books,Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language ", he exPi0> ,various aspects of the history, structure, variety and range of u s .Jf.English worldwide, writing about difficult concepts in a language aand accessible to all.

Many observations concerning the English language havebeen based on the analysis of language data samples collectetogether as a corpus. Compiling a corpus is very different потthe traditional practices of citation-gathering or word-watchingwhich have guided work on dictionaries since the time of v\-Johnson. Corpora are large and systematic enterprises: wholetexts or whole sections of text are included, such aconversations, magazine articles, brochures, newspapeis,lectures, sermons,, broadcasts and chapters of novels.Considerable thought is given to the selection of material so that,in the most general case, the corpus can stand as a reasonablyrepresentative sample of the language as a whole — a general, оstandard corpus.

A well-constructed general corpus turns out to be useful inseveral ways. It enables investigators to make more objective an

278

NEW ENGLISH

confident descriptions of usage that would be possible throughintrospection. It allows them to make statements about frequencyof usage in the language as a whole, as well as comparativestatements about usage in different varieties. It permits them, inprinciple, to arrive at a total account of the linguistic features inany of the texts contained in the corpus. And it provides themwith a source of hypotheses about the way the language works. Inaddition, a corpus which is widely accessible enables researchersin separate locations to collaborate in the analysis of particularproblems, and means that results from a range of projects arelikely to be somewhat more comparable than if different corporahad been employed.

An early printing shopSource: The New Uiihvrslty Library, 1973

LIST OF KEYS

Key to Seminars 3 & 6. Ohthere's account of his

first voyage 283

Key to Seminars 4,5 & 7. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 301

Key to Seminars 9, 10 & 12. Chaucer, Canterbury Tales 316

Key to Seminars 11 & 13. Trevisa, About thelanguages

of the inhabitants 338

Key to Seminars 15,16 & 18. Shakespeare, Hamlet 359

Key to Seminar 20. Shakespeare, Sonnet 396

Key to Seminar 21. Dickens, David Copperfield 405

Key to Seminars 3 & 6Ohthere's account of his first voyage

Ohthere told his lord, King Alfred, that he lived the furthest northof all Norwegians. He said that he lived in the north of Norway on thecoast of the Atlantic. He also said that the land extends very far northbeyond that point, but it is all uninhabited, except for a few places hereand there where the Finns have their camps, hunting in winter, and insummer fishing in the sea.

He told how he once wished to find out how far the landextended due north, or whether anyone lived to the north of theunpopulated area. He went due north along the coast, keeping theuninhabited land to starboard and the open sea to port continuouslyfor three days. He was then as far north as the whale hunters go attheir furthest. He then continued due north as far as he could reach inthe second three days. There the land turned due east, or the seapenetrated the land he did not know which — but he knew that hewaited there for a west-north-west wind, and then sailed east alongthe coast as far as he could sail in four days.

There he had to wait for a due northern wind, because there theland turned due south, or the sea penetrated the land he did not knowwhich. Then from there he sailed due south along the coast as far as hecould sail in five days. A great river went up into the land there. Theyturned up into the river, not daring to sail beyond it without permission,since the land on the far side of the river was fully settled. He had notpreviously come across any settled district since he left his own home.

The Beormas told him many stories both about their own countryand about the lands which surrounded them, but he did not know howmuch of it was true because he had not seen it for himself. "It seemedto him that the Finnas and the Beormas spoke almost the samelanguage. His main reason for going there, apart from exploring the

283

PART 3. KEYS

land, was for the walruses, because they have very fine ivory in their

tusks — they brought some of these tusks to the king — and their

hide.

Phonetic analysis

Word as used Analysis Parallels from NE wordin the text cognate

languages or. I related OE words —

SJEde [s] — voiceless initially; OE S&^de said[ae] — lengthening of [ffi] -(variant form)due to loss of [g]

сушпзе [у] — palatal mutation of OHG kuning king[u] — caused by [i]; later[yl>[i]

ealra [ea] — breaking of [ж] — Gt alls allbefore [l]+consonant,[ae] — fromPGfa]

Nor5monna -monn: [p]=[a] — from Gt mann(a) NormanPG[a],later[a>a>£e]

Iande [a]— before nasal Gfland landconsonants; [a] — fromPG[a],later[a>a>2e]

beah [ea]—fromPG[au] Gffcauh though

swibe [T] — lengthening due to Gt swinbe —loss of [n] — beforea fricative

Stycce [y 1 — palatal mutation of OHG Stukki rel. to Stock[u] — caused by [i]

fiscal {!] —from [p]—by R пескарь rel to fishGrimm's Law

cirre [i] —framfie]— OSkerrian (v) charmonophthongisation ofdiphthongs in EOE

norbryhte -ryht:[y] —from[ie]- G?raihts[e] rightmonophthpngisation ofdiphthongs in EOE

284

TEXT ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION

285

пи/агбег [б] — voiced intervocally, Gt hvabar whetherM —fromPG[a]

ffini3 Щ — palatal mutation of cp OE an any[a] — caused by [i]

steor-bord steonfio] — from ml. to Gt star-boardPG fiuj; stiurjan (v)bord: [d] — hardening Cf. OSk Ьогбof [9]

Ьагс-bord [ж]—from PG [a] OSk bak back

tine [0J—from[t] —by /г три threeGrimm's Law

°*a3aS [a] — is caused by a back Gt dagos daysvowel in the next syllable

Wffis [se] —fromPG[a] OHG was was

firrest [i]—palatal mutation of jE'OE'fierest farther[eo] — (feor) caused by [i](-ist)—suffix ofsuperlative degree:[eo>ie>i]

fara|> [a]—fromPG[o] Gtfaran(inf) fai«

3iet ре] _ (Wess) from PG [e] Gt 3et yet- diphthongisation afterpalatal Ц]

meahte [eal —breaking of [ге] — O F G m a h t mightbefore [h]: [a>se>ea]

Ф ш т [б]—from PG [a]; Gt atfyar otherlengthening due to theloss of [n] — before africative

Ьёаз [&]—fromPGfau] Gt baug bow

b S r r g ] _ froinPG[a],[0]— G^bar there

initially voiceless

east [ e a ] ~ from PG [аи] Gfaustr east

bad [a]—fromPGfai] Grbaid rel. to bide

PART 3. KEYS

sceolde [eo] — diphthongisation Angl scolde shouldof [ol— after [skp]

bidan H—fromPG[e+i] G f b e i d a n p ] bide

ff [T] — lengthening due to G/fimf fivethe loss of [m] — beforea fricative

]ЖЗ [a;]—fromPG[a] Gf lag rel. to lay

an fa]—fromPG[a+i] Gt ains one

unfribe [6] — in the intervocal OSkfridr —position

healfe [ea] — breaking of [ael— OSk halfr halfbefore [1+consonant]:[а>ге>еа]

азпит [a]~fromPG[a+i] G/aiginf/7) own

ham [a]—fromPG[a+i] Grhaims home

wsron [r]—rhotacismof[z],M cf.Gt wesum were- voicing of [s] byVerner's Law

hwait [ae] — fromPG[a] O^hvat what

3eseah (Wess.)[ea]— breaking Angl saeh sawof [ге] before [h]

|buhte [o] lengthening due to cf. Gt bahta thoughtthe loss of [n] before a (<*6a*)Xta)fricative

3e-£eode [eo] from PG [iu] Gff>iuda —

to-ёасап [ea]fromPG[au] rel. to Gt aukan eke

sceawun3e [ea] from PG [аи] rel. to OSk rel. to showskauwon (v)

habba5 [bb] — West Germanic OSfchafa havegennination (*hafjan >nabban)

tobum [6] in the intervocal toothposition

te6 [el — palatal mutation of teeth[o] caused by [i]

286


brohton

hyd

[6] from PG [a] Gi brahta

y] — palatal mutation of OHG hutп] caused by [i]

brought

hide

Grammar analysis

Ohthere noun proper, Ohtherenominative singular (name)

siSde verb, 3rd person say saidsingular, past tense,indicative mood ofsec5an, weak verb,class III

his pronoun personal, his (to) his3lxl person singular,masculine, genitive

hlaforde noun, dative singular lord lordof hlaford, masculine,a-stem

^Elfirede noun proper, dative Alfred Alfredsingular

cynirnje noun, dative singular of king the Kingcynin3. masculine,a-stem

P f f it conjunction that that

he pronoun personal, he he3rd person singular,masculine, nominative

e a " a pronoun indefinite, all of allplural, genitive of gal

Noromonna noun, genitive plural of northmen NorthmenЦогбтопп, (Scandinavians)masculine, root-stem

287


Analysisnotes


Translation

PART 3. KEYS

norbmest

bude

cwae5

t>aet

on

|эаёт

lande

norf)weardum

wij)

f*

WestsS

t>eah

fccBt

t>aet

adverb

verb, 3^ personsingular, past tense,indicative or subjunctivemood of buan.anomalous verb

verb, 3"1 personsingular, past tense,indicative mood ofcwa5an, strong verb,class V

conjunction

preposition

pronoun demonstrative,dative singular,masculine of se, seo. past

noun, dative singular ofland, neuter, a-stem

adjective, dativesingular, neuter ofnoroward, usedadverbially

preposition

pronoun demonstrative,accusative singular,feminine of se, seo. pset

noun proper, accusativesingular of Westssg.feminine, i-stem

conjunction

conjunction

pronoun demonstrative,nominative singular,neuter of se, seo. paet

northmost

obs. quoth

that

on

that

land

northward

with

that

west sea

though

that

that

to the north

lived(or had lived)

said

that

on

the

land

to the North

of

that (the)

AtlanticOcean

also

that

that

land noun, nominative land landsingular, neuter, a-stem

2S8


S J e verb, 3rd person be issingular, present tense,subjunctive mood ofbeon. supplelive verb

swibe adverb — very

' ^ З adjective, nominative long longsingular, neuter, strongdeclension

| 1 0 Ф adverb north north

jbonan adverb thence from there

ac conjunction — but

hit pronoun personal, 3rd it itperson singular, neuter,nominative

is verb, 3"1 person singular, is ispresent tense, indicativemood of beon, irregularverb

e al pronoun/adverb all all

Weste adjective, nominative — uninhabitedsingular, neuter, strong (waste)declension

buton conjunction but but

feawum adjective, dative plural of few fewfeaw. strong declension

Stowum noun, dative plural of stOW placesstow, feminine, wo-stem

styece- adverb stockmeal here andmaslum there

Wicia5 verb, 3"1 person plural, — livepresent tense, indicativemood ofwician.weakverb, class II

Finnas noun proper, nominative Finn (the) Finnsplural ofFinn, masculine,a-stem

o n preposition on on/by

289

290

PART 3. KEYS

hunto6e noun, dative singular of hunt huntinghunto6, masculine,a-stem

wintra noun, dative singular of winter winterwinter, masculine, u-stem

and conjunction and and

sumera noun, dative singular of summer summersumor/er, masculine,u-stem

fisca|)e noun, dative singular of fish fishingfiscooVad. masculine,a-slem

be preposition by by/from

pxre pronoun demonstrative, that thatdative singular, feminineof se. seo. ftaet

SEE noun, dative singular of s e a seasje, feminine, i-stem

ast preposition at at/for

sumum pronoun/adjective, some someindefinite, dative singularof sum, strong declension

cirre noun, dative singular of char timecyr/cir. masculine, i-stem

wolde verb, 3rd person singular, would Y°№A'past tense, indicative /Wisneamoodofwillan,anomalous verb

fandian verb, infinitive of fandian, — to explore

weak verb, class II

to adverb how how

1опзе adverb long longland noun, nominative land land

singular of land, neuter,a-stem


norbryhte adverb north right right(straight) tothe north

1жзе verb, 3'J person singular, lie laypast tense, subjunctivemood of Нсзап, strongverb, class V

о |фе conjunction — ОГ

hwae5er conjunction whether whether

«ВП13 pronoun indefinite any any[cf.an) 3 У

m o n noun, nominative m a n mansingular of man,masculine, root-stem

b e n o r d a n preposition north to the north

ba?m pronoun demonstrative, that (of) thatdative singular of JMgt,neuter

westenne noun, dative singular of — uninhabitedwesten. neuter, ja-stem land

ba adverb — then

for verb, 3rd person singular, fare went/sailedpast tense, indicativemood of faran, strongverb, class VI

be preposition by along

let verb, 3rd person singular, let letpast tense, indicativemood of laetan, strongverb, class VII

him pronoun personal, 3rd him himperson singular,masculine, nominative

ealnewe3 adverb always always

weste adjective, accusative — uninhabitedsingular of weste, neuter, (waste)strong declension

291

PART 3. KEYS

land noun, accusative singular land landof land, neuter, a-stem

steor-bord noun, accusative singular star-board star-boardof steor-bord. neuter,a-stem

ba pronoun demonstrative, that that (the)accusative singular ofseo. feminine

w!d-sa3 noun, accusative singular wide sea wide seaofwid-sae, feminine,i-stem

baec-bord noun, accusative singular back board backboardof bacc-bord. neuter, (port Side)a-stem

brie numeral, nominative three three/accusative of prie

da3as noun, nominative day days/accusative plural of das3..masculine, a-stem

ba adverb — then

W32S verb, 3rd person singular, was waspast tense, indicativemood of wesan. strongverb, class V

swa. . . s w a conjunction so (so) as ... as

feor adverb far far

norb adverb north (to the) north

ba pronoun demonstrative, those thosenominative plural of |>a

hwselhuntan noun, nominative plural whale hunt whalemenof hwaelhunta. masculine;n-stem

firrest adverb, superlative farthest farthestdegree of feor/fyr

farab verb, plural, present fare go/sailtense, indicative mood offaran, strong verb,class VI

292


ballet adverb yet yet

meahte verb, 3rd person singular, might couldpast tense, indicativemood ofma?an.preterite-present verb

bsem pronoun demonstrative, those thosedative plural of past

obrum pronoun indefinite, dative other other

plural of брег

frrlrn numeral, dative of £пе three three

da3um noun, dative plural of days daysda?3, masculine, a-stem

3esi3lan verb, indefinite of siglan, sail (to) sailweak verb, class I(3e—prefix)

ba adverb — then

Ьёаз verb, 3"* person singular, bow curvedpast tense, indicative (bowed)mood of biigan. strongverb, class П

bisr adverb there there

eastryhte adverb east right to the east

seo pronoun demonstrative, that (the) that (the)nominative singular ofsgo, feminine

n preposition in in

nysse = ne wisse: verb, 3"1 wit did not knowperson singular, pasttense, indicative mood ofwitan. preterite-presentverb

buton conjunction but but

Wisse verb, 3 r i person singular, wit knewpast tense, indicativemood of witan. preteritepresent verb

293

PART 3. KEYS

баёг adverb there there

bad verb, 3rf person singular, bide waited (for)past tense, indicativemood of bidan, strongverb, class I

westanwindes noun, genetive singular west wind wind fromof wcstan-wind, the west

masculine, a-stem

hwon adverb/adjective — a little

norban adverb north from the

north

east adverb east to the east

be =bi: adverb/preposition by by/along

swa-swa conjunction so so...as

feower numeral four four

da3um noun, dative plural of day daysds3, masculine, a-stem

SCeolde verb, singular, past tense, should should (had to)of sculan. preteritepresent verb

for-daem conjunction — asbeet pronoun demonstrative, that that

nominative singular ofpast, neuter

bair adverb there there

subryhte adverb south right right.*J ь (straight) to

the southseo pronoun demonstrative, that that

nominative singular,feminine

bonan adverb thence from there

fif numeral five five

ba adverb — then294

. TEXT ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION

' Ж 3 verb, 3r t person singular, lay lay (was)past tense, indicativemood of licgan, strongverb, class V

ЯП numeral one one

micel adjective much bige a noun, nominative —'• river

singular of ga, feminine,root-stem (anom.)

up-in adverb u p in u p in

cirdon verb, plural, past tense, char turnedindicative mood ofcyrran, weak verb, class I

™3 pronoun personal, 3"1 — theyperson nominative plural

oa pronoun demonstrative, that thataccusative singular ofsgo, feminine

6& noun, accusative s ingular— riverof ga, feminine, rootstem (anom.)

ne particle — not

dorston verb, plural, past tense, dare daredindicative mood ofdurran. preterite-presentverb

forp adverb forth forth(forward)

p S r e pronoun demonstrative, that thatdative singular of sgo,feminine

ea noun, dative singular of — riverga, feminine, root-stem(anom.)

f° r conjunction for for (out of)

unfripe; noun, dative singular of — hostilityon-frifl. masculine, a-stem

295

PART 3. KEYS .

W££S verb, Ъа person singular, was waspast tense, indicativemood of wesan. strongverb, class V

eall pronoun indefinite, all allsingular, nominative ofeal

ЗеЬпп verb, participle II of — uninhabitedbuan. anomalous verb

ofcre pronoun indefinite, other othersingular, accusative ofoper

healfe noun, accusative singular half halfof heal f. feminine, o-stem

fcalre pronoun demonstrative, that (of) thatgenitive singular of seo,feminine

Sas noun, genitive singular o f — riverga, feminine, root-stem(anom.)

n e r a e t t e verb, 3 r d person singular, meet did not m e e tpast tense, indicative (had not met)mood of metan, weakverb, class I

asr adverb ere till then

nan = ne+an: see above an - ПО (none) ПО (llOt one)

pronoun

si|5f>an conjunction/adverb since since

from adverb/preposition from from

his pronoun personal, Зы his hisperson singular,masculine, genitive of he

азпит adjective, dative singular own ownof азеп

ham noun, dative singular of home homeham, masculine, a-slem

fela adjective/adverb — many

296


spella noun, genitive plural of spell storiesspell, neuter, a-stem

. him pronoun personal, 3rd him himperson singular,masculine, dative of he

SiEdon verb, plural, past tense, say saidindicative mood ofsec3an. weak verb,class III

ba pronoun demonstrative, those those

nominative plural

Beormas noun proper plural Permians Permians

a^fcer зе. . .зе conjunction/pronoun either either ...or

of preposition of of/about

hiera pronoun personal, 3rd — theirperson plural genitive

atrium adjective, dative singular own ownof щеп

lande noun, dative singular of land landland, neuter, a-stem

Ьазт pronoun demonstrative, — thosedative plural

landum noun, dative plural of land lands

land, neuter, a-stem

be conjunction — that

ymb prcposiiion/adverb — about/around

hie pronoun personal, plural, — themaccusative

titan adverb out on (from)the outside

wEEron verb, plural, past tense, were wereindicative mood ofwesan. strong verb,class V


297

PART 3. KEYS ..

nyste = ne wiste: verb, 3"1 wit did not knowperson singular, pasttense, indicative mood ofwitan, preterite-presentverb

hwast pronoun interrogative/ what whatindefinite

f)aes pronoun demonstrative, — thatgenitive singular of baet.neuter

sdpes noun, genitive singular of sooth truthsob, neuter, a-stcm

waes verb, 3й1 person singular, was waspast tense, indicativemood of wesan, strongverb, class V

fbr-фгВт see above aS

hit pronoun personal it itsingular, neuter,accusative

self pronoun self himself

3eseah verb, 3 r d person singular, see did (not) seepast tense, indicativemood of seon. strongverb, class V

pa pronoun demonstrative, those thosenominative plural

spraecon verb, plural, past tense, speak speakindicative mood ofsprecan, strong verb,class V

neah adverb near nearly

an numeral/adjective one one

3epeode noun, accusative singular— languageof зе-'beode. neuter,ja-stem

SWIDOSt adverb, superlative — mostlydegree

298


dider adverb thither there (to thaiplace)

to-ёасап adverb/preposition — in addition(to)

pses pronoun demonstrative, — thatgenitive singular of fojgt,neuter

Iandes noun, genitive singular of land land'sland, neuter, a-stem

sceawur^e noun, genitive singular of showing survey/sceawun.3. feminine, explorationo-stcm

' o r conjunction for because of

рззт pronoun demonstrative, — thosedative plural

hors-hwaslum noun, dative plural of whale walruseshors-hw-cl, masculine,a-stem

hie pronoun personal, 3rd — theyperson plural, nominative

habbad verb, plural, present have havetense, indicative mood ofhabhan. weak verb,class III

swipe adverb — very

aepele adjective — excellent

ban noun, accusative singular bone boneof ban, neuter, a-stem

hiora pronoun personal, plural, — theirdative

tobum noun, dative plural of teeth teethiojj, masculine, root-stem

P^ pronoun demonstrative, those thoseaccusative plural

tso noun, accusative plural of teeth teethlofe, masculine, root-stem

299

PART 3. KEYS

brohton verb, plural, past tense, brought broughtindicative mood ofЬппзап. strong-weakverb

sume pronoun/adjective some someaccusative of sum

balm pronoun demonstrative, — (to) thatdative singular of sj,masculine

сушпзе noun, dative singular of king kingcynin3. masculine, a-stem

hyd noun, accusative plural hide hide (skins)ofhyd, feminine, l-stem

Key to Seminars 4, 5 & 7Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, A. D. 1013

The year after that Archbishop Elfeah was martyred, the kingappointed Lifing to the archiepiscopal see of Canterbury. And in thesame year, before the month August, came King Sweyne with his fleetto Sandwich; and very soon went about East-Anglia into the Humber-mouth, and so upward along the Trent, until he came to Gainsborough.Then soon submitted to him Earl Utred, and all the Northumbrians,and all the people of Lindsey, and afterwards the people of the FiveBoroughs, and soon after all the army to the north of Watling-street;and hostages were given him from each shire. When he understoodthat all the people were subject to him, then ordered he that his armyshould have provision and horses; and he then went southward withhis main army, committing his ships and the hostages to his son Knute.And after he came over Watling-street, they wrought the greatestmischief that any army could do. Then he went to Oxford; and thepopulation soon submitted, and gave hostages; thence to Winchester,where they did the same. Thence went they eastward to London; andmany of the party sunk in the Thames, because they kept not to anybridge.

When he came to the city, the population would not submit; butheld their ground in full fight against him, because therein was KingEthelred, and Thurkill with him. Then went King Sweyne thence toWallingford; and so over Thames westward to Bath, where he abodewith his army. Thither came Alderman Ethelmar, and all the westernthanes with him, and all submitted to Sweyne, and gave hostages.When he had thus settled all, then went he northward to his ships; andall the population fully received him, and considered him full king. Thepopulation of London also after this submitted to him, and gavehostages; because they dreaded that he would undo them. Then King

301

PART 3. KEYS

Ethelred abode some while with the fleet that lay in the Thames; and

the lady went aftei"vvards over sea to her brother Richard. Then went

the king from the fleet, about midwinter, to the Isle of Wight; and there

abode for the season; after which he went over sea to Richard, with

whom he abode till the time when Sweyne died.

Phonetic analysis

sefteran lac]—from PGlal rel. to Gt aftaro after

Зёаге [ёа] — diphthoneisation of OHG fixyear

[Щ after U ]

wses [a] from PG [a] Gt was was

сугапз [у] — palatal mutation of OHG kuning king[uj caused by [i]; laterly>[i]

(Cantware)- [y] — palatal mutation of OE buvh .Ьупз [u] caused by [i] (пот. case) borough(dative case)тбпбе [о] from PG [a] OHG manod month

swlde [I] — lengthening due lo Gt swings —loss of In] beforea fricative

East(englum) [ea] from PG [au] rel. to Gt austr EastAnglia

тпбап [п] — lengthening due to Gt munf)s mouthloss of [n] beforea fricative

up-weard Щ — breaking of [aj rel. in Gt wards upward(s)before [r+consonant]

andlang [a] from PG [a] before OsklungY alonga nasal consonant

302


Analysis Parallels fromcognatelanguages orrelated OE words

NE word


sona [ojfromPGla] OHGsan soon

bean |ёа] from PG[au] Gt baug bow

eorl [eo] —breaking of [e] OSaxerl earlbefore [r+consonant]

ealle [ea] — breaking of [a] Grails allbefore [11]

FTf(bui3um) [I] — lengthening due to Gffimf fiveloss of [m] before africative

straete [S]fromLat[a] Lat strata street

man [S] from PG [a] before a Gt mann(a) mannasal consonant; later[a]>[a]>[ae].

sealde (Wess) [ea] —breaking of fa] cf. Angl salde sold(past bid. of before [1+consonant] Gt say an sellSellan) ' [e] — palatal mutation of

[a] caused by Ц]11 — doubling due to lossof[j]

3ebogen [o] — LPG mutation of Gt bugans bowvowels

bead [eaJfromPG[au] Gt baud —

sceolde [eo] — diphthongisation AnWscolde shouldof [o] after [sk'3

betffihte (past [Щ — palatal mutation of cf. OE;tacen rel. to teachii]d.ofh&z [a] caused by [j] (Mi? token)tsecan)

ofer [v] — voicing in the overintervocal position

yfel [v] — voicing in the evilintervocal position

32ШЗ Щ] — palatal mutation of cf. OE an any[a] caused by [j]

adran3 [a] before nasal rel. to drinkconsonants

30?

Grammar analysis

On preposition Oil ( o n )

бзет pronoun demonstrative, that (that) thedative singular, neuteroffset

asfteran preposition after after

Зёаге noun, dative singular of year У е а г

3§ar, neuter, a-stem

f>e relative particle/ — whenconjunction

304


Analysisnotes


Translation

PART 3. KEYS -

опзеап [ea] ~ diphthongisation OHG againof [x] after [j] ingangene

гофап [6] — voicing in theintervocal position

f>sr [ie]fromPG[a] Gt f>ar there[8] voiceless initially

ealdor(man) [eaj — breaking of [a] OHGbk oldbefore [1+consonant]

3efaren [a] from PG [o] Gt farans rel. to fare

h&fde (past [v] — voicing in the G/habaida haduul. o/naboani intervocal position

[ae] from PG [a]

|)eodscipe [eo] from PG [iu] Gf friuda —

ondrsedon [a;] from PG [a] OHGintratan dread

dead [ea] from PG [au] Gt daufcs dead

wear6 [ea] —breaking of [a] Gt warfc —before [r+consonant]


s e pronoun demonstrative, that (the) that (the)masculine of senominative singular

arcebiscop noun, nominative archbishop archbishopsingular of arcebiscop.masculine, a-stem

w a e s verb, 3rd person singular, was waspast tense, indicativemood of wesan.anomalous verb

3emartyrod verb, participle II of martyr martyred3emartvrian, weak verb,class If

суптз noun, nominative king kingsingular of cynin3, супз,masculine, a-stem

3esette verb, 3* person singular, set set (placed)past tense, indicativemood of зе-settan. weakverb, class I

Lyfinc n o u n proper Lifing

biscop noun, accusative singular bishop bishopof biscop, masculine,a-stem

t° preposition to to

Cantwarebyrij noun proper Canterbury Canterbury

barn pronoun demonstrative, that thatdative singular,masculine of se

arcestole noun, dative singular of re), to arch- archiepiscopalarcestol. mascuhne, bishop seata-stem

bissum pronoun demonstrative, this thisdative singular,masculine of fees

ylcan filca, pronoun indefinite, ilk (in: of that samedative singular, weak ilk, archaic)declension

305

PART 3. KEYS

toforan adverb — before

monSe noun, dative singular of month monthтбпаб. masculine, t-stem

Augustus noun proper August August

com verb, 3"1 person singular, come camepast tense, indicativemood of cuman. strongverb, class IV

Sweden noun proper — Sweyne(the king ofDenmark)

mid preposition — with

his pronoun personal, his his3rd person singular,masculine, genitive of he> possessive pronoun

flotan noun, dative singular of float fleetflota. masculine, n-stem

SandwTc noun proper Sandwich Sandwich(a town inKent)

wende verb, 3rd person singular, wend wentpast tense, indicativemood of wendan. weakverb, class I

SWl6e adverb — у е г У ^ Я ! ] ' ,exceedingly

rade adverb rather quickly,soon

abutan adverb / preposition about about

Eastenglum noun proper, dative .East Anglia East Anglia

into preposition into into

Humbra noun proper, genitive Humber Humber

т п б а п noun, dative singular of mouth т ? Н ^ • Iтпба. masculine, n-stem (of the rivet)

SW§ adverb / preposition / SO SOconjunction

306

TEXT ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATIONTEXT ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION

upweard adverb upward upwards

andlang preposition along along

Trenton noun proper Trent Trent

°o preposition / conjunction — until

"e pronoun personal, he he3M person singular,masculine, nominative

3enesburuh noun proper Gainsborough Gainsborough(a town onthe Trent)

sona adverb soon soon

beah verb, 3rd person singular, bow bowedpast tense, indicative (surrendered)mood of bG^an. strongverb, classTl

Uhtred noun proper — Utred

^ noun, nominative earl chief (earl)singular ofeorl.masculine, a-stem

e a ^ e pronoun indefinite, plural all all

Nor5hymbre noun nominative plural Northumbria Northumb-ofNor6-hvmbre. nansmasculine, i-slem

™T1 p ronoun personal, h im him3 r d person singular,masculine, dative of he

^ 4 pronoun indefinite, all allsingular

P^l pronoun demonstrative, that thatnominative singular,neuter of bjet

f o l c noun, nominative folk folk (people)singular of fojc, neuter,a-stem

Lindesi3e noun proper Lindsey Lindsey (inLincolnshire)

307

PART 3. KEYS

si55an , adverb since afterwards

FFfbunum noun proper, dative rel. to Five the fiveplural of Fifburhinxas Boroughs shires or

baes pronoun demonstrative, this thisnominative singular,masculine of bes

here noun, nominative — (the enemy's/singular of here, Danish)masculine,ja-stem army

Ьё-nordan adverb north to the north

Wa&tlin3an noun proper Watling Watling

strSte noun, dative singular of street street (thestreet, feminine, o-stem road built <n

the Romans)man pronoun indefinite man (man) one

sealde verb, 3rd person singular, sell gavepast tense, indicativemood of sellan. weakverb, class I, irregular

3islas noun, nominative / — hostagesaccusative plural of з1§Ы,masculine, a-stem

of preposition of of (from)

ailcere pronoun indefinite, each e a c n

singular, dative of l ie

sclre noun, dative singular of shire provincesclr. feminine, o-stem

under3eat verb, 3 d person singular, rel. to under, get understoodpast tense, indicativemood of UQdeisietajL,weak verb, class III

3ebogen verb, past participle of bow subjugateЬпзап. strong verb,class II

bead verb, 3td person singular, — orderedpast tense, indicativemood of be-beodan,strong verb, class II

308


i M conjunction that that

sceolde verb, singular, past tense, should shouldsubjunctive mood ofsculan. preterite-presentverb

here noun, accusative singular— armyof here, masculine,ja-stem

mettian verb, infinitive of rel. to meat (to) supplymettian. weak verb, With foodclass II

horsian verb, infinitive of rel. to horse (to) supplyhorsian. weak verb, V^Vh horsesclass II

sudweard adverb southwards southwards

ПК* preposition — with

"M№ adjective, dative singular filll fullof ful, strong declension

fyrde noun, dative singular of — armyfyrd_, feminine, i-stem (military

expedition)betashte verb, 3«* person singular, rel. to teach put in trust

past tense, indicativemood of betaecan. weakverb, class I, irregular

i?3 pronoun demonstrative, those thoseaccusative plural of ]эа

SCipu noun, accusative plural ship shipsof scip. neuter, a-stem

3islas noun, accusative plural — hostagesof?isel. masculine,a-stem

Cnute noun proper, dative — Knute

™s pronoun possessive, his ™s

3 r d person singular,masculine

s u n a noun, dative singular of son sonsunu, masculine, u-stem

309

PART 3. KEYS _ _

ofer preposition over over

worhton verb, plural, pasl lense, work (they) ,indicative mood of performedwircan. weak verb, (.did)class I, irregular

fret... {>ав1 conjunction that that... that

mzESte adjective, accusative most mostsingular, superlativedegree qCmyccl. weakdeclension

yfel noun, accusative singular evil evil

of yfeb neuter, i-siem

азтз pronoun indefinite any any

don verb, infinitive of don, do (to) doanomalous verb

mihte verb, singular, past tense, might mightindicative mood ofma^an, preterite-presentverb

Oxenaforde noun proper, dative Oxford Oxford

SCO pronoun demonstrative, rel. to t h e thenominative singular,feminine of sgo

buruhwaru noun (collective), rel. to b o r o u g h citizensnominative singular of ("J " town)buruhwaru. feminine,o-slem

3islude verb, 3rd person singular, — gavepast tense, indicative Hostagesmood of3islian. weakverb, class II •

fcanon adverb thence thence (fromv there)

Winceastre noun proper Winchester Winchester

Hf pronoun personal, — they3"1 person plural,nominative of 111

310

- TEXT ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION

patylce pronoun that ilk (just) the same

dydon verb, past tense, plural, did didindicative mood of don.anomalous verb

eastwerd adverb eastwards eastwards

Lundene noun proper London London

mycel adverb much much (many

folces noun, genitive singular folk folkof folc, neuter, a-stem

adi-апз verb, 3ixi person singular, rel. to drink, drownedpast tense, indicative drenchmood of adrincan.strong verb, class III

Temese noun proper Thames Thames

for 6am p e conjunction; 6am — rel. to that asdative of bjst

nanre =ne+anre, pronoun not one no onenegative, genitive/dative (not a single)singular, strongdeclension

Ьгусзе noun, genitive/dative bridge bridgesingular of hiyS3.feminine, o-stem

Щ negative particle not (did not)cepton verb, plural, past tense, keep keep •

indicative mood of (guarded)S&pjn^weak verb, class I

pa . . . p a conjunction/adverb — w h e n . . . then

Згёге pronoun demonstrative, that thatdative singular, feminine

u • of seoЬУПЗ noun, dative singular of borough town (castle)

hurh, feminine, root-stem

nolde =ne+wolde, verb, — did not wantsingular, past tense, (wish)singular, indicative moodof-Willan, anomalousverb

311

PART 3. KEYS -

Ьизап verb, infinitive of Ьизап, t>OW to surrenderstrong verb, class II


heoldan =heoldon, verb, plural, hold heldpast tense, indicativemood of healdan, strongverb, class VII

mid preposition (+ dative of — (with)the noun)

fullan adjective, dative singular iull filflof Mi weak declension

\vI3e noun, dative singular of — battleWT3. neuter, a-stem

опзеап adverb against against

forjjan = fcan, conjunction rel. to that because

Ьжг adverb there there

inne adverb in in

Ж Ь е Ш noun proper — Ethelred

£>urcyl noun proper — Thurkill(a Danishfreebooterallied withSweyne)

Weallingaforda noun proper, dative Wallingford Wallingford

swa adverb SO SO

ofer adverb/preposition over over

westweard adverb westwards westwards

Bajpan noun proper, dative Bath Bath (a town)

saet verb, 3ri person singulai-, sit satpast tense, indicativemood of sittan. strongverb, class V

Ж^)е1тжг noun proper — Ethelmar

3 ) 2


ealdorman n Oun, nominative alderdman chiefsingular of ealdorman. (alderdman)masculine, root-stem

M e r adverb thither there(to that place)

waesternan adjective, nominative western westernplural of western, weakdeclension

Pe3enas noun, nominative plural — rnen .ofpegen. masculine, (warriors)a-stem

b u 3on verb, plural, past tense, bow surrenderedindicative mood ofЬпчап. strong verb,class II

3islodon yerb, plural, past tense, — gave hostagesindicative mood of^islan. weak verb,class II

^ conjunction — whenS u s adverb thus thus

3efaren hasfde зс/агеп -verb, participle II fare had goneof faraiL-Strong verb,class VI;hffifde — verb, 3lU person hadsingular, past tense,indicative mood ofhabban. wpak verb,class III

scipum noun, dative plural of ship shipsscip, neuter, a-stem

freodscipe noun, nominative — : ,. people (tribe)singular of peod-scype suffix rel. to -ship

m e pronoun personal, — him3rd person singular,masculine, accusative

•fi 1П е adjective, accusative full fuH

singular of M , strongdeclension

ffiter preposition after after313

PART 3. KEYS

6am pronoun demonstrative, those thosedative plural of jba

ОП preposition ОП. tt

ondrsedon verb, plural, past tense, dread )л е Г е ^ Г гПindicative mood of oib (dreaaea;drasdan, strong verb,class VII

fraet conjunction that that

hi pronoun personal, — them•3rd person plural,accusative of hie

fordon verb, infinitive offordon rel. to do (to) destroy

wolde verb, past tense, singular would wouldof willan. anomalous (Wisnecyverb

sume pronoun indefinite, some someaccusative singular

hwfle noun, accusative singular while while• ofhwil, feminine, i-stem

f)am pronoun demonstrative, that (the) that (the)dative singular,masculine of sg

be conjunction — which (that)

laeg verb, 3"1 person singular, lie laypast tense, indicativemood of liejajL.strongverb, class V

hlaefdi3e noun, nominative lady ladysingular of hlafdlge.feminine, n-stem

Sffi noun, accusative singular sea seaof §jg, feminine, i-stem

hire pronoun personal, her her^""person singular,feminine, dative of hgo

Ьгфег noun, dative singular of brother brotherbrajbor, masculine, r-stem

314

.. TEXT ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION

Ricarde noun proper Richard Richard

fraw preposition from from

middanwintre noun, dative singular of - midwinter midwinter-winter, masculine,u-stem

Wihtlande noun proper, dative Whitland Whitland

" a pronoun demonstrative that that

И noun, nominative tide periodsingular of ud, feminine, (of time)o-stem

P® I e pronoun demonstrative, that thatdative/genitive singular,feminine of sgo

^ е noun, dative/genitive tide periodsingular of fid, feminine, (of time)o-stem

0 9 conjunction — till (until)

бопе pronoun demonstrative, that (the) theaccusative singular,masculine of se

b y e noun, accusative — time (period)singular, masculine ofbyife). i-stem or ja-stem

" e a c l adjective, nominative dead deadsingular, strongdeclension

weat-б verb, 3«' person singular, -— became (was)past tense, indicativemood of weordan. strongverb, class III

Key to Seminars 9, 10 & 12From Chaucer's Prologue

to "Canterbury Tales"

1 When in April the sweet showers fallAndpierce the drought of March to the root, and allThe veins are bathed in liquor of such powerAs brings about the engendering of the flower,

5 When also Zephyrus with his sweet breathExhales an air in every grove and heathUpon the tebder shoots, and the young sunHis half-course in the sign of the Ram has run,And the small fowl are making melody

10 That sleep away the night with open eye(So nature pricks them and their heart engages)Then people long to go on pilgrimagesAnd palmers long to seek the stranger strandsOf far-off saints, hallowed in sundry lands,

15 And specially, from every shire's endOf England, down to Canterbury they wendTo seek the holy blissful martyr, quickTo give his help to them when they were sick-It happened in that season that one day

20 In Southwark, at The Tabard, as I layReady to go on pilgrimage nd startFor Canterbury, most devout at heart,At night there came into that hostelrySome nine and twenty in a company

25 Of sundry folk happening then to fallIn fellowship, and they were pilgrims allThat towards Canterbury meant to ride.The rooms and stables of the inn were wide;

316


They made us easy, all was of the best.30 And, briefly, when the sun had gone to rest,

I'd spoken to them all upon the tripAnd was soon one with them in fellowship,Pledged to rise early and to take the wayTo Canterbury, as you heard me say.

35 But none the less, while I have time and space,Before my story takes a further pace,It seems a reasonable thing to sayWhat their condition was, the full arrayOf each of them, as it appeared to me,

40 According to profession and degree,And what apparel they were riding in;And at a Knight I therefore will begin.

1 Когда Апрель обильными дождямиРазрыхлил землю, взрытую ростками,И, мартовскую жажду утоля,От корня до зеленого стебля

5 Набухли жилки той весенней силой,Что в каждой роще почки распустила,А солнце юное в своем путиВесь Овна знак успело обойти,И, ни на миг в ночи не засыпая,

10 Без умолку звенели птичьи стаи,Так сердце им встревожил зов весны,Тогда со всех концов родной страныПаломников бессчетных вереницыМощам заморским снова поклониться

15 Стремились истово; но многих влекФома Бекет, святой, что им помог

317

PART 3. KEYS

В беде иль исцелил недуг старинный,Сам смерть прияв, как мученик безвинный.Случилось мне в ту пору завернуть

20 В харчевню "Табард", в Соуерке, свой путьСвершая в Кентербери по обету;Здесь ненароком повстречал я этуКомпанию. Их двадцать девять было.Цель общая в пути соединила

25 Их дружбою; они — пример всем нам —Шли поклониться праведным мощам.Конюшен, комнат в "Табарде" немало,И никогда в нем тесно не бывало.Едва обильный ужин отошел,

30 Как я уже со многими нашелЗнакомых общих или подружилсяИ путь их разделить уговорился.И вот, покуда скромный мой рассказЕще не утомил ушей и глаз,

35 Мне кажется, что было бы уместноВам рассказать все то, что мне известноО спутниках моих: каков их вид,И звание, и чем кто знаменитИль почему в забвенье пребывает;

40 Мой перечень пусть Рыцарь открывает.

318


Phonetic analysis

whan hwsenne whan when[hw] [hw] > [w][аз] > [a] > [e]hw replaced by w

that baet that thatfae] > fa] > [as][9] > [9] > [6]ге replaced by a ,p replaced by th

with wib with withre] , , , > [Q] > Иp replaced by th

his his his his

[s] [s] > Mshoures scur shour/showr shower(shour) [sk'] >•«] > Ш .

[u:r] > [аиэ]u replaced by ou/owsc replaced by sh

soote swote/swete swote/sweete sweet

[e:] > [«] > [i:]

droghte ёгазоб droght(e)/ drought

[u:] > [u:] > [аи]u replaced by o/ou3 replaced by gh

nerced — percen piercefpercen) [e:]+vocalized [r]> [19]r o o j ; e — rote/roote root

[o:] > [u:] > [u] beforea dental cons.

bathed b a 6 o d e bathed bathed(bathen) [a] (open syl.) > [a:] > [ei]v [ode] > [ede] > [d]

d replaced by th319

Word as used

in the text



320

PART 3. KEYS

swich swilc swich/s(w)uch suchPC] > [Ш > ЕШ

[и] > [л]с replaced by ch

which hwilc which whichIk'] > Ml > Ufl[hw] [hw] > [w]hw replaced by whс replaced by ch

vertu — yertu virtue[i] + vocalized [r> [э:]

flour — flour flower[u:] + vocalized [r]> [аиэ]

eek eac eek eke[ea:] > [к] > [к]с replaced by k

breeth breed breeth breath[x:] > [e:] > [e] before

a dental cons,ш replaced by ee/eaб replaced by th

inspired — inspire(n) inspire(inspiren) [i:] + vocalized [r]> [aia]

heeth hae5 heeth heath[ж:] > [e:] > [i:]as replaced by ee/eaб replaced by th

yonge зеопз/зипз yong young[u:] > fu] > N3 replaced by уи replaced by o/ou

sonne sunne sunne/sonne sun[и:] > [и] > [Л]и replaced by о before n or retained

halfe healf half half[ea] > [a] > [a:]

[1] lost in NE

cours — cours course[u:l + vocalized [r]> [o:]

321


(y)-ronne (зе)-шппеп (y)-ronne run[u] > [u] > [л]u replaced by о before n

smale smael smal small1

[аг] > [a] before U > [o:]ш replaced by a

foweles firsjol fowel/foul fowl(fowel) [uy] > [u:] > [аи]

из replaced by ow

maken macia6 maken make

[a] open syll. > [a:] > [ei]

slepen slaipa6 slepen sleep

x replaced by e

al eal al(le) all

[ea] > [aj before H. > [o:]

nyght neaht/niht nyght/night night

h replaced by ghopen open open open

fo] open syll. > [o:] > [ou]ye еаче езе/уе/еуе eye

[eaTj > [e:] [i:] > [ai]3 replaced by у

nature — nature nature[a:] > [ei][tjur] > [tja]

corages — corage courage6 Iu] 6 > [л]

thanne banne/bsenne thanne thena]/[£e] > [a] > [e]'ej > [в] > [6]i replaced by th

folk folc folk folk[o] > [o] before Ik > [o:] > [ou]

palmeres palm palmere palmer[a] > [a:] before I > [a:]

[1J lost in NE

PART 3. KEYS

seken secan seken/seeken seek[e:] > [e:] > [i:]с replaced by кe replaced by ее

straunge — straunge strange[аи] >[а:] > [ei]

sondry syndri3 sondry sundry[y] > [u] South West [л]

Midland dial.Ш] > И > Mу replaced by o/u3 replaced by у

londes land lond/land land[a] > [a] > [аз]

specially — specially especially[sj] > Ш

shires (shire) scTr shire shire[ski > [П > [fl[i:] > [г.] [ai] + vocalized M> [aia]sc replaced by sh

hooly hali3 hooly ' holy[a:] . > [o:] > [oujfo] > ffl > [I]a replaced by о3 replaced by у

martir martyr martir/martyr martyr[a] > [a] + vocalized [r]> [a:][tir] > [tir] > [19]

final r vocalized in NE

were wa?ron were(n) were[a;:] > [e:] + vocalized [r]> [э:]se replaced by e

seeke seoc seek/sek/sik sick[eo:] > [e:] . > [i:]с replaced by к

bifil be-feallan bifallen befall(bifallen) [ea] > [a] before П > [o:]

ea replaced by a

seson — seson season

e replaced by ea

322


day ёаез day day[ay] > [ai] > [ei]Ж3 replaced by ay

I ic I I[ik1] > [i:] > [ai]

lay 1аез lay lay[ay] > [ai] > [ei]эез replaced by ay

devout — devout devout[u:] > [аи]

come cumen come come[u] > [u] > [л]u replaced by о before m

nyne ni3on nyne nine[i] open syl. > [i:] > [ai]

compaignye — compaignye/ companycompanye[u] > [л]

wolde woldon wolden would(wolden) [o] before Jd > [o:] > [u:] > [u] before

a dental cons.[1] losl in NE

ryde ffdan iyde(n)/ride(n) ride[i:] > [1:] > [ai]

chaumbre(s) — chaumbre chamber/chambre[au:] > [a:] > [ci]

stable(s) — stable stable[a:] > [ei]

wyde wTd wyd(e) wide[i:] > [i:J > [ai]

we we we . we[e:] > te:] > [i:]>[i-l

esed (esen) — ese(n) ease[e:] > [i:]

shortly scort-llce shortly shortly[sk1] > Ш > Ш

lo] + vocalized (i']> [o:]sc replaced by sh

323

PART 3. KEYS

was wffis was wasГге] > Га] after [w] > Ы[s] > [s] > [z]x replaced by a

hadde hasfde hadde had[a] > [a] > [ж][f] losl in MEж replaced by a

spoken sprecen spoken spoken|o:J > [oul

с replaced by кmade macodon mad(en) made

[a] open syl. > [a:] > [ei][codon] > [den] > [d]

forward fore-weard forward forward[o] > [o] + vocalized [r]> [o:]

[ea] > [a] + vocalized [r]> [э]

erly азг-lTce erlich/erly early[ж:] > [e:] + vocalized [r]> [э:]ae replaced by a

for for for for[o] > [o] + vocalized [r]> [oO

ryse(n) ffsan risen rise[i:] > [i:] > [ai]

[э] unstressed lost in NEtake(n) tacan taken take

[a] open syl. > [a:] > [ei]с replaced by к

oure ure our(e) our[u:] > [u:] + vocalized [r]> [аиэ]u replaced by ou

wey we3 wey/way way[e+jT > [ei] > [ei]3 replaced by у '

ther baer ther/there therese:] > [e:] + vocalized [r]> [еэ];e] > У > [ 9 ] J

) replaced by thas replaced by e

424


devyse — devyse devise

И > Nу replaced by 1

but butan but but[u:] > [u:] > [u] before > [л]

a dental cons.

whil hvwl whil/while whilem > M > [ai][hw] > [hw] > [w]hw replaced by wh

have habbe have have[a] > [a] > [as][bb] > [v] > [v]

tyme fima tyme time[i:] > fa > [ai]

у replaced by i

space — space spacem > [ei]

er ser er(e) ere[a?:] > [e:] + vocalized [rl> [еэ]x replaced by e

ferther fyira ferther/further further[y] > [el + vocalized [r]> [a:]

[6] > [6]

this feis this thisГ0] > [6] > [в]p replaced by th

tale talu ' tale tale[a] opensyl. > [a:] > [ei][u] unstressed > [э] lost in NE

pace — pace pacefa:] > fei]

thynketh Ьепсеб thenketh thinks/thynketh

[e] > Ш > [i]p, б replaced by tn

resoun — resoun reasone:] > [i:]

fu] unstressed > faj

325

PART 3. KEYS _ _ _ _ _

condicioun — condicioun condition

^ , нь> P_ cioun replaced by tion

ech aslc ech/eech eachЮ > [tjl > [tj][a::l > [e:] > [i:][1] lost in M EBE replaced by ee/ea

semed semede semed seemed[e:l > [e:] > [i:][e] > [э] loslinNE

they — they they[9] > PI

what hwffit what what[x] > [a] after [w]> [o][hw] > [hw] > [w]hw replaced by wh

degree — degree degree[e:f > И

an-ay — airay array[ai] > [ei]

khyght cniht knyght knight[i] > [i:J due to loss > [ai]

of[h'][kn] > [kn] > [n]с replaced by кh replaced by gh

wol wille will(e)/wull(e) will/wot(e)..

[i] > [i] Lo] > [i]

first fyrst first firstfy] > [i] (East Midland

dial.) + vocalized [r]> [э:]у replaced by i

bigynne be-3inne bigynne begin01 > Igl fel . k _[e] unstressed > [э] lost in Nfa

326


Grammatical and etymological analysis

whan that conjunction OEhwaenne when that(adverb/pronoun) (when)p<£t {pronoun)

Aprille noun proper OFayrill, AprilL aprilis

with preposition Qfiwip with

his pronoun possessive, OE his (pronoun hismasculine, 3"1 person personal)singular

shoures noun, common case, OE scur shower

plural

soote adjective, plural OE swote/swete sweet

the definite article OE se, seo, pset the

droghte noun, common case, OE dni^od drought

singular

of preposition OE of of

March noun proper OF mars, march March(dial.), L martius

hath perced verb, present perfect, OE habban pierce (has3"1 person, singular of OF percier pierced)percen. weak verb,class 2

to preposition OE to to

roote noun, common case, OSk rot root

singular

and conjunction OE and and

bathed verb, present perfect OE badian bathe (Лад-(hath bathed), Ъл person, bathed)singular of bathen. weak ;verb, class 2

327


Analysisnotes

OE or foreignprototype

CorrespondingNE word,translation

PART 3. KEYS _ _ _ _ _

every pronoun indefinite OE sefre every

veyne noun, common case, OE veine vein

singular

h preposition 0£in in

swich pronoun indefinite OEswilc such

licour noun, common case, OF licur, L liquor liquor

singular (moisture)

of preposition OE of of

which pronoun indefinite OE hwilc which/interrogative

vertu noun, common case, OF vertu virtuesingular (force)

engendred is verb, passive voice, OF engendrer, engenderpresent tense, 3"1 person L ingenerane (is engendered)singular of engendren,weak verb, class 2

flour noun, common case, OF four flowersingular (blossoming)

Zephirus noun proper L zephyrus Zephyr

eek adverb OEEac eke (too)

SWete see above SOOte see above SOOte SWeet

breeth noun, common case, OE Ьгазб breathsingular

inspired hath verb, present perfect, OF inspirer inspire (has3rd person, singular of L inspirare inspired)inspiren, weak verb,class 2

holt noun, common case, OE holt holtsingular

heeth noun, common case, OE ha§5 heath

singular

tendre adjective OF tendre tender

croppes noun, common case, OE crop cropplural

328


yonge adjective, definite OE зеопз youngdeclension, singular

sonne noun, common case, OE sunne sunsingular

hath y-ronne verb, present perfect, OE habban ran (has run)3rd person, singular of OE (зе)-пппапrynen. strong verb,class 3

Ram noun proper OE ram n-ansl. from Ram (in theL Aries Ram —first

sign ofthe Zodiac)

halve adjective, definite GEhealf halfdeclension

cours noun, common case, OF cours, course (half

singular L cursus of his course

smale adjective, plural OEsmasl small

foweles noun, common case, OE fu3ol fowl (birds)plural

maken verb, present tense, OE macian makeplural, indicative moodof maken. weak verb,

i i c l a s s 2 i j

melodye noun, common case, OF melodie melodysingular L melodia (phrasal unit -

sing)

that pronoun, relative OE past that

slepen verb, present tense, OE slaipen sleepplural, indicative moodof slepen. strong verb,class 7

al pronoun indefinite' OE eal all

nyght noun, common case, OE nihl nightsingular

open adjective, indefinite OE west opendeclension

329

PART 3.KEYS - — -

ye r .uiar m o n c a s e - ОЕёазе %Visieye open-amediaevalbelief)

SO adjective/conjunction OE swa s 0

priketh verb, present tense, OE prician prick3rd person, singular,indicative mood ofpriken. weak verb,class 2

hem pronoun personal, OE hie, him themobjective case, plural

nature noun, common case, OF nature, naturesingular L naffira

here pronoun possessive, OE hira, heora, theirplural hiera, hyra

corages noun, common case, OFcorage, courageplural reimbior (hearts)

thanne adverb/conjunction OE panne then

longen verb, present tense, OE Ian3ian l°nSplural, indicative moodof longen, weak verb,class 2

folk noun, common case OE folc f ° ^

to goon verb, infinitive of goon. OE зап t 0 »°anomalous verb

ОП preposition OE on o n

pi lgr images noun, common case, OF pelegrinage p i l g r t o a g e

plural ш. derived fromME pilgrym

palmeres noun, common case, OF palmier P$S/S'«p U r a Palestine)

for preposition OE for f° r

toseken verb, infinitive of seken. OE secan to seekweak verb, class 1,irregular

330


straunge adjective OF estrange, strangeL extraneus (foreign)

Strondes noun, common case, OE strand Strand

plural


feme adjective OE fyrn old, far-off

halwes noun, common case, OE Шза hallowplural (saints)

couthe verb, participle 2 of O£cunan, (un)couthconnen, preterite-present OE cu5 (well-known,verb, or adjectivised hallowed)participle

SOndry adjective OE syndri3 sundry

londes noun, common case, OE land landplural

specially adverb '<?'. to OF especial especially

(adj.), L specialis

from preposition QEfram from

shires noun, genitive case, OE scir shiresingular

ende noun, common case, OE ende end

singular

Engelond noun proper OE Engla-land England

Caunterbury noun proper 0£Cantwarabyri3 Canterbury

they pronoun personal, 3M OSc jbeir theyperson, plural

wende verb, present tense, OE wendan wend (go)plural, indicative moodof wendeju weak verb,class 1

hooly adjective QEhali3 holyblisfi.il adjective rel. to OE blis (n) blissful

martir noun, common case, OE martyr, т а Й У г

singular L martyr (StTJiomasa Becket ofCanterbury)

331

PART 3. KEYS

hath holpen verb, present perfect, OE habban, help (has3td person, singular of OE holpen (pan. 2) helpedhelpen, strong verb,class 3

were(n) verb, past tense, plural, OE wSron vvereindicative mood of been.suppletive verb

seeke adjective OE seoc sick

bifil verb, past tense, OE be-feallan befall (it soindicative mood of happened)bifallen. strong verb,class 7

seson noun, common case, OF seson, L satio season= sesoun singular (time, season)

ОП preposition OEon ОП

a article, indefinite OJSan a

day noun, common case, OE dx3 daysingular (one day)

Southwerk noun proper Southward(outskirts ojLondon)

at preposition OE set at

Tabard noun proper OF tabard Tabard(here: the nameof a Londoninn; tabard —a sort of cloak)

as adjective/conjunction 0£eal-swa as

I pronoun personal, OE ic Ilsl person singular,nominative case

lay verb, past tense, singular, OE Нсзап lay (stayed)indicative mood of lyen,strong verb, class 5

redy adjective O^raede ready

my pronoun possessive, QEmTn my1sl person, singular

332


fill adjective/adverb OEM full

(most, very)

devout adjective . OF devot devout

corage noun, common case, see above couragesingular (heart)

were come verb, past perfect of OE wesan were comecomen. strong verb, OE cuman, (there came)class 4 cumen (pan. 2)

into preposition OE in-to into

that pronoun demonstrative, OE se, seo, bast thatsingular

hostelrye noun, common case, OF hostellerie hostelrysingular

wel adverb C£wel well

(almost)

nyne numeral, cardinal OE ni3on nine

twenty numeral, cardinal OE twen-ti3 twenty (nineand twenty =twenty-nine)

compaignye noun, common case, OF companie companysingular

by preposition/adverb ОЕЫ by

aventure noun, common case, OF aventure, adventuresingular L adventfira (happening)

y-falle verb, infinitive of O£feallan fallfailefn). strong verb,class 7

felaweshipe noun, common case, OSc felagi fellowshipsingular

pilgrimes noun, common case, OF pelegrin, pilgrims• plural t peregnnus

were verb, past tense, plural, OE wieron wereindicative mood of been,suppletive verb

alle=al pronoun indefinite OE eal all

333

PART 3. KEYS

toward pronoun relative 0£to-weard toward(s)

wolde(n) verb, past tense, plural of OE willan, wouldwillen. anomalous verb wolden {past plural)

ryde verb, infinitive of riden, OEfidan ridestrong verb, class 1

chaumbres noun, common case, OF chambre chamberplural L camera

Stables noun, common case, OF cstable stable

plural L stabulum

wyde adjective OEvnd wide

wel adverb OE wcl well

we pronoun personal, OEwe we1sl person plural

esed verb, passive voice, past OF eser easetense of esen, weak verb,class 2

atte=at the see above see above at the

beste adjective, superlative OE god; belsl best

degree of good (super!, degree)

shortly adverb OE scort-lTce shortly

to reste verb, infinitive of resten. OE reslan to restweak verb, class 1

hadde spoken verb, past perfect of OE habban; had spokenspcken, strong verb, liaefde (past tense)class 4 OE sprccan;

sprecen (part. 2)

everichon pronoun indefinite OE Sfre aelc every (all)

that conjunction OE t>32t that

anon adverb OE on an anon (at once)

made(n) verb, past tense, plural, OE macian; madeindicative mood of macodon (pastmaken, weak verb, plural)class 2

forward noun, common case, OE forc-weard forwardsingular (made an

agreement)

334


erly adverb OE xr-llce early

fbrtoryse verb, infinitive of risen, OEtlsan to risestrong verb, class 1

to take verb, infinitive of taken. OE tacan to takestrong verb, class 6

oure pronoun possessive, OE Ore our1sl person, plural

wey noun, common case, OE we3 way

singular

ther adverb ОЕрхт there

yow pronoun personal, plural, OE eow youobjective case

devyse verb, present tense, OF deviser devise (say,singular of devvsen, describe)weak verb, class 2

but conjunction OE butan but

natheless adverb OE na-|)y-laes nevertheless

whil conjunction/adverb OEhwil while

have verb, present tense, OE habban havel s l person, singular ofhaven, weak verb,class 3

tyrne noun, common case, OE tlma timesingular

Space noun, common case, OF espace, Space

singular L spatium

er adverb/conjunction OEisr ere (before)

ferther adjective OE feor; fyrra JSltfter,(comp, degree) . ШГшеГ

ibis pronoun demonstrative, OE bis thissingular

tale noun, common case, OE talu talesingular

P a c 6 verb, present tense, OF passer pacesingular of paccn/passen.weak verb, class 2

335

PART 3. KEYS ._

methynketh impersonal construction OE me, тёс thinkof the verb thenken. OE bencan (/ think)weak verb, class 1;3rd person, singular,present tense

it pronoun personal, OE hit itobjective case, singular,neuter

acordaunt adjective OF accordant accordant(according)


resoun noun, common case, OF raison reasonsingular L ratio

totelle verb, infinitive of tellen. OEtellan to tellweak verb, class 1,irregular

condicioun noun, common case, OF condicion conditionsingular

ech pronoun indefinite ОЕяХс each

Semed verb, past tense, singular OE seman seemof semen, weak verb,class 2

whiche pronoun indefinite OE hwilc which/interrogative (what kind of

people)

what pronoun indefinite OE hwael what/interrogative

degree noun, common case, OF degnSt degreesingular L de+gradus

array noun, common case, OF arrai array

singular

inne adverb OE in in

khyght noun, common case, OE cnihl khightsingular

than adverb/conjunction OE fmnne then

336


wol verb, present tense, QEwille willГ1 person, singular ofwillen, anomalous verb

first adverb OE fyrst first

bigynne verb, infinitive of OE be-3innan beginbigynnen/begvnnen.strong verb, class 3

Key to Seminars 11 & 13TVevisa, About the languages of the inhabitants

As it is known how many kinds of people live on this island, thereare also as many diverse languages and tongues; nevertheless,Welshmen and Scots that are not in the least mixed with other nations,hold very near their first language and speech; except that the Scotswho were once confederate and dwelled with the Picts, draw aftertheir speech; but the Flemings who dwelled in the west side of Waleshave left their foreign speech and speak quite like Saxons. AlsoEnglishmen had from the beginning three kinds of speech, Northern,Southern and middle speech in the middle of the land, as they camefrom three kinds of people of Germany; nevertheless, by mixing andmingling first with Danes and afterwards with Normans, in manyrespects the country language is impaired, and some use strangestammering, chattering, snarling, and grating gnashing of teeth. Thisimpairing of the birth of the tongue is because of two things; one isbecause, unlike the situation in all other countries, schoolboys aiecompelled to abandon their own language, and to leam their lessons inFrench, and that has gone on since the Normans first came toEngland. Also children of the gentry are taught to speak French fromthe time that they are rocked in their cradle and can speak and playwith a child's brooch; and country people want to liken themselves tothe gentry and try very hard to speak French to be held as such. Thismethod was much in use before the Great Sickness, but has sincebeen somewhat changed; for John Cornwalle, a master of grammar,changed the learning in grammar school from French into English,Richard Penrich learned the way of teachning from him and from othermen of Penrich; so that now, in the year of our Lord 1385, and in theninth year of the reign of the second king Richard after the conquest, mall grammar schools in England boys abandon French, and conduct

338


their studies in English, which leads to an advantage on the onehand, and a disadvantage on the other. Their advantage is thatthey- learn their grammar in shorter time than boys used to do.The disadvantage is that boys in grammar schools know no moreFrench than their left heel, and that is harmful for them if theyshould cross the sea and travel in foreign, countries, and in manyother places, too.

Phonetic analysis

Wordin the

as usedtext

Old English

Changes of spelling and

Middle English

sounds

New English

i s is is is[s] Is] И

i-knowe зе-cnawen i-knowe(n) known[а:] fie] Мhe] > [I] lost in NE[kn] > [kn] > fn]3 replaced by Jс replaced by к

how hQ how how[u:] > [u:] > [au]u replaced by ow

meny=many тагиз many many[a] > [a] > И

peple — peple people[e:] > И .

t>is fcis pis/this this[9] > [в] > ф!L J f, replaced by th

iloncHland 13-land iland island[i:] > И > Мa > [a] > N

+ s under the influence or isle339

PART 3. KEYS

|эеге fcser fiere therelas:] > [e:] + vocalized [r] > [еэ]

p replaced by thx replaced by e

dyvers — dyvers diverseЮ > [ai][e] +vocalized [r]> [э]у replaced by i

longage(s) — langage language[a] > [x]+ [w] under the influence of lingua (Lat)

tonges Шпзе tonge tongue[u] > [u] > [л]3 replaced by gu replaced by о (a ME spelling device)

Walsche= Wylsc Welsh WelshWelsh [y:] > [e:] (Kentish dial.] > [e]

[sk'l > Ш > Шsc replaced by sh

jiat fcjet fat thatШ > [a] > [x]

[6] > M > Щp replaced by th

ot>er ббег ojber other[°;] > to:]>[u:]>[u] > W

unstressed [el + vocalized [r] > [a]5/p replaced by th

nacioun(s) — nacioun nation[a:] > [ei][sjun] > [?эп]

hold(ef)) heald(an) hold(en) hold[ea] > [a] > [a:] before Jd > [o:] > [ou]

nyh=neer neah neer near[ea:] > [e:] >[i:] + vocalized [r]> [is]

340


firste fyrst first(e) first[i] + vocalized [r]> [э:]

[у] > [i] (East Midland dial.)у replaced by i

speche spraic speche speech[ж] > [e:] > [i:][k'] > [tj] > [tj][r] lost in MEзе replaced by eс replaced by ch

but butan but but[u:] > [u] > [л]

were wajron were were[ae:] > [e:] + vocalized [r] > [э:]se replaced by e

somtyme sume-tyman sometyme sometime[u] > [u] > [л]

[i:] > ПО > [ai]u replaced by о (a ME spelling device)у replaced by i

drawe сказ(аб) drawe draw[a+j] > [аи] > [о:]3 replaced by w

side side side sideИ > И > M

straunge — straunge strange[ao]>[a:] > [ei]

Englische Er Usc Englische English[sk'] > [fl > Ш3 replaced by g

hadde ha3fd(on) hadde had[a] > [a] > [se][v] lost in MEa replaced by a

341

PART 3. KEYS _ _ _ _ _ _

bygynn(ynge) Ье-зтп(ипзе) begynninge beginning0] > [g] (Scand. influence) > [g]3 replaced by g

manere — manere mannerfa] > [ae]

unstressed [e] + vocalized [r]> [э]

sowberne sudeme sowberne southern[u:] > [u] > [л]

unstressed [e] + vocalized [r]> [э]u replaced by ow/ou

6/b replaced by th

Danes Dene Danes Danes[e] > [a] under the influence ofDani (Lat)

[a] > [a:] (open syllable) > [ei][s] > [z|

afterward asfter-weard afterward afterward(s)[ae] > [a] > [a:] before [ft]

unstressed [e] + vocalized [r]> [э][ea] > [a]+vocalized [r]> [a:] after [w]>[o:]

ae replaced by a

Norman(s) — Norman Norman[o] +vocalized [r]> [o:]

contray= — countree countrycountree [u] > [л]

som sum som(e) some[u] > [u] > [л]u replaced by о (a ME spelling device)

burbe=birthe (3e-)byrd burbe/birthe birth[y] > [u:] South West Midland dial.[y] > [i] East Midland dial.+vocalized[r]>[9:]

p replaced by th

bycause — bycause because[аи] > [о:]

oon an oon one[a:n] >[o:n] > [u:n] > [wu:n] > [\улп]

342


child(ren) cild(ru) child(ren) child(ren)[k1] > [tj] > [tj]

scole scol scole school[o:] > [o:] > [u:]

a3enst оп-зёап ayeyiies/a3enst/agayn against[ea:] > fe:] - [ai}> [ei]

[gj (Scand. influence)3 replaced by g

alle eal alte all[eaj > [a] before U > [o:]

leve lgfan leve(n) leave[«:] > le:] > [i:]f replaced by v-

owiie азеп owne own[a:+j] > [ou] > [ou]3 ' replaced by w

havep habb(ad) hav(e5) have[a] > [a] > [в]

i-tau3t (3e-)taht i-tau3t/y-taught taughtГа:1 > [аи] before [hi > [o:][h] lost in M Eh replaced by gh

speke sprecan speke(n) .. speak[ei] > te:] open syllable > [i:][r] lost in ME 'с replaced by к

cradel cradol cradel cradle[a] > [a:] open syllable > [ei]

playe ple3ian playe(n)/pleye(n) play[e+j] > [ei] > [eil

child(es) cild child child[k'] > [tj] > [tj][i] > Li:] before lid] > [ai]с replaced by ch

343

PART 3. KEYS

broche — broche brooch[o:] > [ou]

greet 3reat greet greattea:] > [e:] > [el]3 replaced by g

besy(nesse) bisi3/bysi3 besy/busy busy[y] > [i] East Midland dial> [I][y] > [u:] South West Midland dial,

retained in NE spelling

(i-)tolde tald told told

[a] > [a:] before [ld]>lo:]>[ou]

moche trade moche/muchel much

[u:] > [Л]

d e & deaf) deth deathtea:] > [e:] > [el before

a dental cons.f> replaced by th

i-chaunged _ i-chaunged change(d)[au]>[a:] > N

maister mas ter maister master[a] (loss of [j]) > [a:]

unstressed [e] + vocalized [r] > Nl o r e lar lore lore

ta:] > [o:] + vocalized [r]> [o:]

gramer _ ^ ^ ^ grammar[a] > N M

unstressed [e] + vocalized [r] > lai

construccioun - construccioun construction[u] > Wtsjun] > [M

l e r n (ed) leorn(ode) lera(ed) barn(t)t e°] > [e] + vocalized [r]> [э:]

344


techynge t s c a n (inf) techen teach[ж:] > [e:] > [i:l[k'l > [tfl > [tflae replaced by e/ea

now nu now now[u:] > [u:] > [аи]u replaced by ow

Зеге З еаг Зеге year[ea:] > [e:] + vocalized [r] > [э:]3 replaced by У

oure ure oure our[u:] > [u:] +vocalized [r]> [аиэ]u replaced by ou

Lord(e) hlaford L(h)overd/lord lord[a:] > [o:] +vocalized [r]> [э:]

t>owsand f)Qsand fcowsand/thousand thousand[u:l > [u:] > Шunstressed [a] > [э]

p replaced by tnu replaced by ow/ou

hundred hund-red hundred hundred[u] > [u] >.[л]

score scorn score score[ol > [o:] open syllableL J •• + vocalized[r]> [or]

fyve ff fyve five[i:] > [i:] > №

*УЩ cynin3 kyng .king• [y] > [i] East Midland dial. > [I]

с replaced by к

пУпе ш3оп пупе nineМ > И > fal]

d o ° don doo do[o:] > [o:] > ^ > [ U ' ]

345


PART 3. KEYS

na=no na na/no no[a:] > [o:] > [ou]

more' тага more more[a:] > [o:] + vocalized [r] > [o:]

can can can can[a] > [a] > [ae]

heele hela heele heell«] > [e:] > [i:]

harme hearm harme harm[ea] > [a] + vocalized [r] > [a:]

schulle scul(on) shulle —[skf] > Ш

passe — passe pass[a] > [a:] before [ss]

see sae see sea[ж] , J L > [e:l > Mж replaced by ee/ea

place(s) — place place[a:] > [ei]

as conjunction <?£eal-swa a s

it pronoun personal, OE hit U3rd person singular,neuter, nominative case

is verb, 3rd person singular, OE wesan (inf) Кpresent tense, indicative OE is (Present tense)mood of been, suppletiveverb

346


Analysisnotes

OE or foreignprototype

—CorrespondingNE word,translation

- —


i-knowe adjective/participle 2 of OE cnawan (in0 knownknowen, strong verb, OE (3e-)cnawenclass 7 (part. 2)

how adverb OEM how

meny adjective/pronoun OE mani^ many

manere noun, common case OF mankre manner(sorts, kindsof)

PSple noun, common case OF pueple peopleL populus

beep verb, 3rd person plural, OE Ьёоб arepresent tense, indicativemood of been, suppletiveverb

n preposition OE in in

P I S pronoun demonstrative, <9£bis thissingular, neuter

ilond noun, common case, ОЕц-\Ш island

singular

pere conjunction ОЕЩг therealso adverb 0£eal-swa alsoSO adverb 0£swa so

longages noun, common case, OFlangage- languageplural langue

L linguaand conjunction OEhnd and

tonges noun, common case, OE tun3e tongueplural

nopeles adverb OE na-py-ISs nevertheless

Walsche adjective O^Wylisc Welsh

rosn noun, common case, OE men n^ 0

pluralScottes noun proper, common OE Scot Scot

case, plural347

PART 3. KEYS —

pat conjunction OE pxl that

noint adverb, negative OE na-with not (not inJ the least)

i-medled adjective/participle 2 of OFmedler meddlemedlen, weak verb, (mingled)class 2

wib preposition OE wifi with

сфег pronoun indefinite OE брег Other

naciouns noun, common case, OF nacion nationplural L natio

holdep verb, plural, present OE healdan (inf) holdtense, indicative mood of OE healdajb (pres.holden, strong verb, tense plural)class 7

wel adverb OEwd well (very)

nyh preposition / adverb OE neah near/ adjective

hir pronoun possessive, OE hyra/hira theirplural

firste adjective OE fyrst first

speche noun, common case, OE sprsc speechsingular

but conjunction OE butan but

3if conjunction OEyf if(except)

the definite article OE se, seo, pffit the

pat conjunction OEpaet that (who)

were verb, plural, past tense, OE waeron wereindicative mood of been,suppletive verb

somtyme adverb OEsume-timan sometime

confederat adjective L conibederatus confederate

348


wonede verb, plural, past tense, OE wunian (inf) dwellindicative mood of OE wunodon (pas; (remained)wonen, weak verb, tense plural)class 2

be definite article OE se, seo, past the

Pictes noun proper, common OE Pkt Pictcase, plural

drawe after verb, present tense, OE dra3an (inf) draw afterindicative mood of OE dra3a6 (imitated)drawen, strong verb,class 6

Flemmynges noun proper, common Flemishcase, plural

wonep verb, plural, present OE wunian (inf) dwelltense, indicative mood of OE wunia5wonen, weak verb, (present tense plural)class 2

Я preposition OE in П

weste adjective OE wesi west

side noun, common case, OE side side

singular

Of preposition OEof of

Wales noun proper, common OE Wealas Walescase

havebi-left verb, present perfect OE habba6 have leftplural Of leven, weak (present tense plural)verb, class 1 «B^aJ

(participle 2)

straunge- adjective ^ e s t r a n g e sgange

spekef) verb, plural, present OE sprecan (inf) speaktense, indicative mood of OE spreca6speken, Strong verb, (present tense plural)

class 4

Saxonliche „dverb 2 К Е З Я 5 - l i k e S"°"S

i-now adverb "Язе-» «««h

349

PART 3. KEYS _

Englische adjective OE En^lhc English

men noun, common case, OE men menplural

bey pronoun personal, 3rd OScpeir theyperson plural

hadde verb, past tense, OE habban <inl) hadindicative mood of OE hajfdon (pasihaven, weak verb, class 3 tense plural)

from preposition OEfrom from

bygynnynge verbal noun of bigynnen, OE be-зуппап beginning

strong verb, class 3 (inf)

{>ie numeral, cardinal ОЕ$п three

п о ф е т е adjective OE побегпе northern

ЭОУфегпе adjective OE siifierne southern

middel adjective СШ middel middle

myddel noun, common case OE middel middle

lond noun, common case, OE lond landsingular

come verb, plural, past tense, OE cuman (inf) cameindicative mood of OE comon (pastcomen, strong verb, tense pluralclass 4

Germania noun proper Germany

by preposition ОЕЫ by

comyxtioun noun, common case OF commistion mixture

mellynge verbal noun of medlen, OF medler. minglingmellen, weak verb,class 2

firste adverb OE fyrst first

Danes noun proper, common OE Dane Danecase, plural

afterward adverb OE sefter-weard afterwards

350


Normans noun proper, common OF Norman Normancase, plural OSc погбтаб

roeny adjective/pronoun OEташз many (inmany things,in manyrespects)

contray noun, common case, OF contree countrysingular

apayred adjective/participle 2 of OF empeirer impairedempeiren, weak verb,class 2

s o r n pronoun indefinite OE sum some

u s e f> verb, plural, present OF user usetense, indicative mood ofusen, weak verb, class 2

Wlafferynge gerund of wlaffen, weak OE wlaffian (inf) stammeringverb, class 2

chiterynge gerund of chiteren, weak (imit.) chirpingverb, class 2

harrynge gerund of harren, weak (imit.) with rollingverb [r]

garrynge participle 1 of garren, rcl. to OE зуггап growlingweak verb

grisbayting noun, common case OE 3rist-betun3 gristbiting(gritting ofteeth)

this pronoun demonstrative, OE pis thissingular

apayiynge verbal noun of empeiren, of empeirer (inf.) impairingweak verb, class 2

burpe noun, common case OE зе-byrd birth/Зе-byrdu

bycause= (by) cause by - preposition; ОЕЫ because

cause - noun, common OF cause,case L causa

tweie numeral, cardinal OE twa/Ш two351

PART 3. KEYS

fringes noun, common case, OE bin3 thing

plural

ООП numeral, cardinal OE an one

for conjunction OE for for

children noun, common case, 0£cildru childrenplural

scole noun, common case, OE scol, L scola, school

singular OF escole

a3enst preposition О£оп-зёап against

usage noun, common case OF usage usage (custom)

alle pronoun indefinite ОЕЫ all

opere pronoun indefinite OE oder other

beef) verb, passive voice, OFcompeller are compelledcompelled plural, present tense,

indicative mood ofcompellen, weak verb,class 2

toleve verb, infinitive of leven, ОЕШап to leaveweak verb, class 1

OWne adjective, definite OE азеп owndeclension

to construe verb, infinitive of L construere to construeconstruen, weak verb,class 2

lessouns noun, common case, OF lecon, L lectio lessonplural

frynges noun, common case, OEfyins thingplurai

havef) verb^ plural, present OE ЬаЬЬаб havetense, indicative mood ofhaven, weak verb, class 2

sep conjunction OE si69an since

first adverb OE fyrst first

Engelond noun proper O£Engla-land England

352


gentil (-) men noun, genitive case, ef. F gentilhomme gentlemenplural

i-tau3t verb, passive voice, OE tascan (inf) taughtplural, present tense, ОЕ{^е-)\Шindicative mood of (participle 2)techen, weak verb,class 1

to speke verb, infinitive of speken, OE sprecan to speakstrong verb, class 4

tyme noun, common case QEtima time

beep i-rokked verb, passive voice, OE roccian (inf) are rockedplural, present tense, OE (зе-) roccodindicative mood of (participle 2)rokken, weak verb,class 2

cradel noun, common case, OE cradol cradlesingular

kunnep verb, plural, present tense OE cunnan (inf) canof connen, preterite OE cunnonpresent verb (present tense plural)

playe verb, infinitive of pleyen, 0£ple3ian play

weak verb, class 2

a article, indefinite OE an a

childes noun, genitive case, OEcild childsingular

broche' noun, common case, OE broche broochsingular

uplondisshe adjective OE пр-lendisc uplandish

wil verb, plural, present OE willan (inf) will (would)tense, indicative mood or OE willa6 (presentpresent subjunctive of indicative)willen, anomalous verb OE willen (present

subjunctive)

likne verb, infinitive of rei. to OE зе-lTc likenlikne(n), weak verb, (adjective)class 2

h y m ( - ) s e l f pronoun, reflexive OEhim+self himself(themselves)

353

PART 3. KEYS

fondejj verb, plural, present OE fandian (inf) trytense, indicative mood of OE fandiabfonden, weak verb,class 2

greet adjective OEyeai great

besynesse noun, common case OE bisknes business(very hard)

to be i-tolde of verb, infinitive passive of OE beon <inf) to be told oflellen, weak verb, class 1, OE tellan (inf) (to be heldirregular OE tald/teald / rated highly

(participle 2) as such)

was i-used verb, passive voice, OE waes was usedsingular, past tense of OF userusen, weak verb, class 2 L iisare

moche adverb QEmicle much

to adverb OE to too

for preposition OE for for

firsts noun, genitive case, OE first firstsingular

deth noun, common case, OE dead death (tillsingular the end of the

period untillately)

sumdel adverb OE sumne dael somewhat

isi-chaunged verb, passive voice, OE wesan (inf) is changedsingular, present tense, OE is (present tenseindicative mood of singular)chaungen, weak verb, OF changierclass 2

for conjunction OEfor for

John noun proper John

Cornwaile noun proper Cornwall

maister noun, common case, OE ma^ister, from mastersingular OF maistre,

L magister

354


gramer noun, common case OFgrammaire grammarL grammalieaGr grammatike

chaunged verb, past tense, OFchangier changedindicative mood of"chaungen, weak verb,class 2

lore noun, common case OE lar lore

constmccioun noun, common case F construction construction

(interpretation)

i n ( - ) t o preposition OE \r\-\.o into

Englische noun, common case rei. to OE En3lisc English

(adjcciive) (language)

Richard noun proper Richard

Pencriche noun proper Pencrich

lemed verb, past tense, OE leornian (inf) learnindicative mood of OE leornode (pastlernen, weak verb, class 2 tense singular)

techynge gerund of techen, weak OE tajcan (inf) teachingverb, class 1, irregular

hym pronoun personal, 02? him, hine him3rd person singular,masculine, objective case

now adverb OE nu now

3ere noun, common case, OE зёаг yearsingular

ОШ'е pronoun possessive, ОЕпте OUTl s l person plural

Lorde noun, common case, OE hlaford Lord

singular

fiowsand numeral (subst.) OE pusend thousand

f)re numeral, cardinal QEpri/ргёо three

hundred noun, common case, OE hund-rcd hundredsingular

355

PART 3. KEYS .

foure numeral, cardinal OEfeower four

score noun, common case, OE scoru score (twosingular ' lens)

fyve numeral, cardinal <?£fif five (theyearofl385)

secounde numeral, ordinal OF second secondL secundus

kyng noun, common case, OE cynins king

singular

Richard noun proper Richard

conquest noun, common case, OF conqueste conquestsingular

nyne numeral, cardinal О Е т з о п nine (theninth year ofthe reign ofthe secondking Richardafter theConquest)

levef) verb, plural, present OE laifan (inf) leavetense, indicative mood of OE laefad (presentleven, weak verb, class 1 tense plural)

construef) verb, plural, present L construere construetense, indicative mood ofconstruen, weak verb,class 2

lernejb verb, plural, present OE leornian (inf) learntense, indicative mood of OE leorniaOlernen, weak verb, class 2 (present tense plural)

an preposition OE an=on on (in)

|эегЬу adverb ОЕЩт-Ы thereby

avauntage noun, common case, OF avantage advantagesingular

side noun, common case, OE side sidesingular

disavauntage noun, common case, OF disavantage disadvantagesingular

356


anoper pronoun indefinite OE ап+обег another

lasse adjective, comparative OE lalssa lessdegree of litel

pan conjunction OE panne than

i-woned participle 2 of wonen, wontweak verb, class 2 (accustomed)

to doo verb, infinitive of doon, OE don to doanomalous verb

connep verb, plural, present tense OE cunnan (inf) knowindicative mood of OE cunnonconnen, preterite-present (present tense plural)verb

na negative particle OE па ПО

more adjective, comparative OE тага moredegree of michel

can verb, singular, present OE cunnan (inf) knowstense, indicative mood of OE can (presentconnen, preterite-present tense singular)verb

lift adjective OElyft/left left

heele noun, common case, OE hela heelsingular

fiat pronoun demonstrative OE pat that

harme noun, common case OE hearm harm

for preposition OE for for

hem pronoun personal, OZJhim/heom them3rd person plural,objective case

schulle verb, plural, present OE sculan (inf) have totense, preterite-present OE sculon (presentverb tense plural)

passe verb, infinitive of OF passer pass/pacepasse(n), weak verb,class 2

357

PART 3. KEYS

see noun, common case, OE sae seasingular

travaille verb, infinitive of OF travail lier traveltravaill(en), weak verb,class 2

landes noun, common case. OE land landplural

places noun, common case, OF place, placeplural L platea

Key to Seminars 15,16 & 18Shakespeare, Hamlet

Hautboys play. The dumb-show enters.Enter a King and a Queen very lovingly; the Queen

embracing him, and he her. She kneels, and makes show ofprotestation unto him. He takes her up, and declines his headupon her neck: lays him down upon a bank of flowers: she, seeinghim asleep, leaves him. Anon comes in a fellow, takes off hiscrown, kisses it, and pours poison in the King's ears, and exit. TheQueen returns; finds the King dead, and makes passionate action.The Poisoner, with some two or three Mutes, comes in again,seeming to lament with her. The dead body is carried away. ThePoisoner wooes the Queen with gifts: she seems loath andunwilling awhile, but in the end accepts his love.Exeunt

Ophelia What means this, my lord?

Hamlet Marry, this is miching mallecho; it meansmischief.

Oph Belike this show imports the argument of the play.

Enter Prologue

Ham We shall know by this fellow: the players cannotkeep counsel; they'll tell all.

Oph Will he tell us what this show meant?

Ham Ay, or any show that you'll show him: be not youashamed to show, he'll not shame to tell you what itmeans.

Oph You are naught, you are naught: I'll mark the play.

359

PART 3. KEYS

Prologue For us, and for our tragedy,Here stooping to your clemency,We beg your hearing patiently.

Exit

Ham Is this a prologue, or the posy of a ring?

Oph Tis brief, my lord.

Ham As woman's love.

Enter two Players, King and Queen

Player King Full thirty times hath Phoebus' cart gone roundNeptune's salt wash and Tellus' orbed ground,And thirty dozen moons with borrow'd sheenAbout the world have times twelve thirties been,Since love our hearts and Hymen did our handsUnite commutual in most sacred bands.

Player Queen So many journeys may the sun and moonMake us again count o'er ere love be done!But, woe is me, you are so sick of late,So far from cheer and from your former state,That I distrust you. Yet, though I distrust,Discomfort you, my lord, it nothing must:For women's fear and love holds quantity;In neither aught, or in extremity.Now, what my love is, proof hath made you know;And as my love is sized, my fear is so:Where love is great, the littlest doubts are fear;Where little fears grow great, great love grows there.

Player King 'Faith, I must leave thee, love, and shortly too;My operant powers their functions leave to do:And thou shalt live in this fair world behind,Honour'd, beloved; and haply one as kindFor husband shalt thou—

360


Player Queen 0 , confound the rest!Such love must needs be treason in my breast:In second husband let me be accurst!None wed the second but who kill'd the first.

Ham [Aside] Wormwood, wormwood.

Player Queen The instances that second marriage moveAre base respects of thrift, but none of love:A second time I kill my husband dead,When second husband kisses me in bed.

Player King I do believe you tliink what now you speak;But what we do determine oft we break.Purpose is but the slave to memory,Of violent birth, but poor validity;Which now, like fruit unripe, sticks on the tree;But fall, unshaken, when they mellow be.Most necessary 'tis that we forgetTo pay ourselves what to ourselves is debt:What to ourselves in passion we propose,The passion ending, doth the purpose lose.The violence of either grief or joyTheir own enactures with themselves destroy:Where joy most revels, grief doth most lament;Grief joys, joy grieves, on slender accident.This world is not for aye, nor 'tis not strangeThat even our loves should with our fortunes change;For 'tis a question left us yet to prove,Whether love lead fortune, or else fortune love.The great man down, you mark his favourite flies;The poor advanced makes friends of enemies.And hitherto doth love on fortune tend;For who not needs shall never lack a friend,And who in want a hollow friend doth try,

361

PART 3. KEYS

Directly seasons him his enemy.But, orderly to end where 1 begun,Our wills and fates do so contrary runThat our devices still are overthrown;Our thoughts are ours, their ends none of our own:So think thou wilt no second husband wed;But die thy thoughts when thy first lord is dead.

Играют гобои. Начинается пантомима.Входят актеры — король и королева; весьма нежно

королева обнимает его, а он ее. Она становится на колени иделает ему знаки уверения. Он поднимает ее и склоняетголову к ней на плечо; ложится на цветущий дерн; она, видя,что он уснул, покидает его. Вдруг входит человек, снимает снего корону, целует ее, вливает яд в уши королю и уходит.Возвращается королева, застает короля мертвым иразыгрывает страстное действие. Отравитель, с двумяили тремя безмолвными, входит снова, делая вид, чтоскорбит вместе с нею. Мертвое тело уносят прочь.Отрааитель улещивает королеву дарами; вначале она какбудто недовольна и несогласна, но наконец принимает еголюбовь.

Все уходят.

Офелия Что это значит, мой принц?

Гамлет Это крадущееся малечо, что значит "злодейство".

Офелия Может быть, эта сцена показывает содержание

пьесы?

Входит Пролог.

Гамлет Мы это узнаем от этого молодца; актеры не умеют

хранить тайн; они всегда все скажут.

Офелия Он нам скажет, что значило то, что они сейчаспоказывали?

362

TEXT ANALYSIS AND TRANSITION

Гамлет Да, как и все то, что вы ему покажете; вы нестыдитесь ему показать, а он не постыдится сказатьвам, что это значит.

Офелия Вы нехороший, вы нехороший! Я буду следить запредставлением.

Пролог Пред нашим представлениемМы просим со смирениемНас подарить терпением.

(Уходит.)Гамлет Что это: пролог или стихи для перстня?

Офелия Это коротко, мой принц.

Гамлет Как женская любовь.

Входят актеры — король и королева.

Актер-король Се тридцать раз круг моря и землиКолеса Феба в беге обтекли,И тридцатью двенадцать лун на насСияло тридцатью двенадцать раз,С тех пор как нам связал во цвете днейЛюбовь, сердца и руки Гименей.

Актер-королева Пусть столько ж лун и солнц сочтем мывновьСкорей, чем в сердце кончится Любовь!Но только, ах, ты с некоторых порТак озабочен, утомлен и хвор,Что я полна волненья. Но оноТебя ничуть печалить не должно;Ведь в женщине любовь и страх равны:Их вовсе нет или они сильны.Мою любовь ты знаешь с юных дней;Так вот и страх мой соразмерен с ней.Растет любовь, растет и страх в крови;Где много страха, много и любви.

363

PART 3. KEYS

Актер-король Да, нежный друг, разлуки близок час;Могучих сил огонь во мне погас;А ты на милом свете будешь житьВ почете и любви; и, может быть,С другим супругом ты...

Актер-королева О, пощади!Предательству не жить в моей груди,Второй супруг — проклятие и стыд!Второй — для тех, кем первый был убит.

Гамлет (в сторону) Полынь, полынь!

Актер-королева Тех, кто в замужество вступает вновь,Влечет одна корысть, а не любовь;И мертвого я умерщвлю опять,Когда другому дам себя обнять,

Актер-король Я верю, да, так мыслишь ты сейчас,Но замыслы недолговечны в нас.Подвластны нашей памяти они:Могуче их рожденье, хрупки дни;Так плод неспелый к древу прикреплен,Но падает, когда созреет он.Вполне естественно, из нас любойЗабудет долг перед самим собой;Тому, что в страсти было решено,Чуть минет страсть, забвенье суждено.И радость и печаль, бушуя в нас,Свои решенья губят в тот же час;Где смех, там плач, — они дружнее всех;Легко смеется плач и плачет смех.Не вечен мир, и все мы видим вновь,Как счастью вслед меняется любовь;Кому кто служит — мудрый, назови:Любовь ли счастью, счастье ли любви?

364


Вельможа пал, — он не найдет слуги;Бедняк в удаче, — с ним дружат враги;

• И здесь любовь за счастьем вслед идет;Кому не нужно, тот друзей найдет,А кто в нужде спешит к былым друзьям,Тот в недругов их превращает сам.Но чтобы речь к началу привести:Дум и судеб столь разнствуют пути,Что нашу волю рушит всякий час;Желанья — наши, их конец вне нас;Ты новый брак отвергла наперед,Но я умру — и эта мысль умрет.

translated by M.Lozinsky

Phonetic analysis

trumpet — trompet trumpetУ [u] > [л]

о — a ME spelling device

sound — soun sound[u:] > [аи]

dumbe dumb domb dumb[u] [u] > [л]

[b] lost in NEu replaced by о — a ME spelling device

show /•<?/. to v. sceaw(ian) n. shewe show[sk1] > Ш > Шsc replaced by sn

enter — /Vi/entre(n) enterunstressed [e] + vocalised [r] > (э]

365

Wordin the

as usedtext

Old English



PART 3. KEYS

king сушпч kyng king[y] > [i] (Easl Midland

dialect)с replaced by к

queene cwen queene queene[c:j > [e] > [i:]cw replaced by qu

embracing — »,/ embrace embracela:l > [ei]

he he he helc:J > [e:] > [i:l>[i-l

her hire her/e her[i] [e] + vocalised [r] > |э:]

take(s) inf. takan taken take[a] [a:] open syllable > [ei]с replaced by к

decline(s) — inf. declynen decline[i:l > [ai]

his his his his[si [s] > [z]

head head head head .[ea:] > [e:] > [e] before a dental

consonant

lye(s) inf. Исзеп liggen/lyen He

[i:] > [aO

down of-dflne a-doune down[u:] > [u:] > Гаи]u replaced by ou/ow

bancke — banke bank[a] > [ж]

flower(s) — flour flower[u:] + vocalised [r] > [аиэ]ou replaced byow

see(ing) inf. seon seen see[c:l > [e:] > [>:]

asleep on-slsep asleep asleep[аг] > [e:l > 11=1x replaced by ec

366


leaues inf. lasfan leven leave[ж:] > [e:] > fi:]ж replaced by eaf replaced by v

what hwast what what[ю] > [a] after | w] > [o][hw] > [hw] > [w]hw replaced by wha? replaced by a

meanes rnaJnarHinf) menen mean[SB:] > [e:] > [i:]зг replaced by e/ca

this bis this this01 > [01 > [Щs]' > is] > Mj replaced by th

my mm myn(e)/my my{i:] > [i:J > [ai]

lord hlaford l(h)overd/lord lord[a:] > [o:] + vocalized fr]> [o:]

that bset that that[аз] > [a] > [ae]x replaced by ap replaced by th

mischiefe — mischiefe mischief[e:] > ПО

belike rel. /оче-Ис y-Iich/lik (be)likeЩ , . > И > M3 replaced by ус replaced by к

impoit(s) rel. to port port[o] + vocalized [r] > [o:]

play р!еза pley/play playfe+j] > [a] > tei]3 replaced by у

we we we we[e:] > [e:] > [i:]>|i-]

shall sceal shal shall[ea] > [a] > fa][sk1] > Ш > Шse replaced by sn

367

PART 3. KEYS

know cnavvan (inf) knowen know[a:] > [o:] > [ou][kn] > [kn] > [n]с replaced by к

can(not) can can can[a] > [al > [x]

keepe cepan (inf) keepen keepИ > [e:] > [i:]с replaced by кe • replaced by ее

all eal aValle all[ea] > [al before 11 > [o:]

any гёшз eni/any any[ar.] > [e:] > [a] > Иae replaced by a

be beo be be[eo:] > [e:] > fi:]>[i-]

(a)sham('d) rel. to scamean (inf) shamen shame[a] > [a] > [a:] open syll. > [ei]w , A > щ > шsc replaced by sh

mark mearc(ian) (inf) mark(en) mark[ea] > [a] + vocalized [r] > [a:]с replaced by к

our Ore our our[u:] > [u:] > [аи] + vocalized [г] >[аиэ]u replaced by ou

heere her heer here[e:] > [e:] > (i:] + vocalized [r] > [is]

hearing пуппз heringfe) hearing[y:] > [e:] (Kent) > [i:]+ vocalized [r]> [is]у replaced by e/ea3 replaced by g

patiently rel. to patient (adj) patient(ly)fa:] > Ы

, . Ltjentl > IJnt]breefe — breer brief

[e:] > [>:]

thirtie prlti3 thritty/bnty thirtyYu] > [i] + vocalized [r] > [e:]p replaced by th3 replaced by у

368


time(s) tlma tyme time[i:] > И > [ai]

gone 3Ш1 gon(e) goneГа:] > for] > Го:]3 replaced by g

round — round round[u:] > [аи]

salt sealt salt salt[ea] > [a] before И > [о]

wash wassc wassh wash[se] > [a] after w > [o][sk1] > Ш > ШEC replaced by asc replaced by sh

ground 3rund ground ground[u] > [u:] before nd > [аи]3 replaced by gu replaced by ou

moon(es) mona mone moon[o:] > [o:] > [u:]>[u]

sheene scyne shene sheen

№ i i S 1 ( M > Ёabout abutan about(en) about

[u:] > [u:] > [аи]

world woruld world(e) world[o] > [o] + vocalized [r] > [s:] after w

harts heorte herte heart[eo] > [e]

[er] > lar] > [a] + vocalized [r] > [a:]

hand(s) hand hand hand[a] > [a] > [аз]

sacred •— ret. to sacren (inf) sacredM • > [ei]

band(s) — band band[a] > [as]

many mante many many[a] ° > [a] > [as]3 replaced by у

369

PART 3. KEYS -

may тжз may may[ae+jj > [ai] > [el]se replaced by a3 replaced by у

sunne sunne sonne sun[u] > [u] > [л]u replaced by о (a ME spelling device)

count — counten count[u:] > [аи]

ore aer er/or ere[ж:] > [e:] + vocalized [r] > [еэ]ae replaced by e

doone don doon done[o:] > [o:]>[u:]>[u] > [л]

sicke seoc seek sick[eo:] > [e:] > [i:] > [i] before кс replaced by к

farre feor fer far[eo] > [e]

[er] > [ar] > [aj + vocalized [r] > la:]

cheere — cheer cheer[e:] > [i:] + vocalized [r] > [is]

former forma former former[o] > [o] +vocalized [r]> [o:]

unstressed [e] + vocalized [r] > [э]

distrust — dis+trust distrust[u] > W

must most moste/muste must[o:] > [o:]> [u:] > [u] > [л]

feare fseran (inf) feren fear[аг:] > [e:] > [i:] + vocalized [r] > [ia]x replaced by e/ea

hold healdan (inf) hoolden hold[ea] > [a]>[a:]beforeld>[o:]>loul

aught awiht, aht aughte aught[a:+h] > [au+h] > [o:]a replaced by auh replaced by gh

370


now nu now nowfu:J > fu:] > [аи]u replaced by ow

made macode made made[a] > [a:] open syll. > [el]

where hwiir where where[a] > [e:] + vocalized [r] > [еэ][hw] > [hw] > fw]hw replaced by wh

doubts — doute doubt[u] > [аи]

b. in NE under theinfluence of Lat.dubitare

grow 3rowan growen growto:] > [o:] > [ou]3 replaced by g

there peer ther(e) therese:l > [e:] + vocalized [r] > [еэ]'6] > [9] > [6]i replaced by tha replaced by e

I 1С I I

[i] + vocalized [tj> [i:]>[M]

thee Ы thee фееe:] > [e:] > [i:]'9] > [9] > [6]j replaced by th

shortly scort-llce short+lich(e)/shortly shortly[sk1] > Ш > Ш[o] > [o] +vocalized [r]> [o:]sc replaced by sh

to to to too[o:] > [o:J > [u:]

power(s) — power power[u:] > [аи] + vocalized [r] > [аиэ|

do don doon do[o:] > [o:J > [u: l> |u]

371

372

PART 3. KEYS

thou bu thou thouu:] > hi:] > [аи]6] > [9] > (fll) replaced by th

faire fse3er fair fair[ге+j] > [ai] > [ei] + vocalized [r] > [еэ]ж replaced by a3 replaced by i

behind be-hindan behynden behind[i] > [i:] before nd > [ai]

honour('d) — honouren honourunstressed fu] + vocalized [r] > [э]

[h]lostinNE

one an oon one[a:] > [o:] > [u:] > [wu:] > [wu] > [WA|

kind cynde kynde kind[i] > [i:] before nd > [ai]

husband hus-bond husbonde husbandM j r > [u] > [л]

unstressed [о] > [э]

confound — confound(en) confound[u] > [аи]

need(es) nyde nede need[y:l , > [e:] (Kent) > [i:]у replaced by e/ee

treason — tresoun treason[e:] > И r ,

unstressed [u] > [э]

accurst rel. w cursian (inf) cursen curse[u] > [u] + vocalized [r] > [e:]

who hwa who who[a:] > [or] > [u:]>fu][hw] > [hw] > [w]hw replaced by wh

first fyrst first first ,[y] > [i] (East Midland) + vocalized [r] > [W

wormwood wermwod wormwud wormwood/wermode[o]/[e]+vocalized [r]>|e:]

[o:] > [u:]

_ TEXT ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION

belieue be-lyfan bileven believe[v:] > [e:](Kent) > [i:]f replaced by u/v

speake sprecan speken speak[e] > [e:] open syllable > [i!]e replaced by e/eaс replaced by к

determine — determynen determinefe] + vocalized [r] > [e:]

slaue — slaue/slave slave[a:] > [ei]

birth (3e)-byrd birthe birth[fj > [i] + vocalized [r] > [e:]у replaced by i

poore — poore/poure poor

[o:} > [u:] + vocalized [г] > [из]

which hwilc which which

[hw] > [hw] > fw]hw replaced by wh

vnripe/umipe un-rlpe unripe uraipe^ [i:] F > [i:] ^ > [ai] ^

tree treo tree tree[eo:] > [e:J > И

fall feallan fallen fall[ea] > [a] before U > [o]

vnshaken rel. to scacan shaken shake№ ] > Ш > Ш[a] > [a:] open syllable > [ei]sc replaced by shс replaced by к

forget for-xitan forgeten forget[i] > [ej > [e]|j] replaced by [g] irom Sc.

pay — payen payfai] > [ei]

debt — dette debt[e] > [ej

h in NE under theinfluence of Lai.debeta

373

374

PART 3. KEYS _____

purpose — purpos purposefu] + vocalized [r)> (e:]

lose losian losen lose|o] > [o:] open syllable> [u:]

griefe — greef grieffe:l > fi:]

their — faeir theirc:] +vocalized |r)> [еэ]0] > [fll) replaced by ih

owne азеп owen own[a:+y] > [ou] > fou]3 replaced by w

slender — s(c)lendre slenderunstressed [e] + vocalized [r] > [э]

strange — straunge strange[au]>la:] > [ci]

euen efne evne/evene even[e] > [c:] open syllable > ПОГ replaced by v

should scolde sholde should[sk1] > [fl > (jilo] > U>:1 before !d>[u:]>fu:]>[ul before

a dental cons.UlloslinNE

fortunes — fortune fortune[o] + vocalized [r]> [0:1

[tjun] > Itfnl

change — chaungen change[aul>[a:] > [el]

question — questioun question[tju:n] > |tjn]

proue profian proven prove[o] > fo:] open syllable > [u:]f replaced by v

lead laidan leden lead[as:l > [e:J > |i:]ж replaced by c/ca


aduaunc('d) — avauncen advance[au] > [a:]

[d] in NE under theinfluence of Latin

friend(s) freond fiend friend[eo:] > [к] > [е]

hetherto — hider-to hithertofd] > [6] in the vicinity of [r]

neuer naifre never(e) never[se:] > [e:] > [e]

unstressed [e] + vocalized fr] > [э]x replaced by ef replaced by v

lacke — lakken lack[a] > [a]

want — want(e) want[a] after [w] > [o]

season(s) — sesounen (inf) season[e:] > [i:]

unstressed [u] > fa]

order(ly) — ordre order[o] +vocalized [r]> [0:1

unstressed [e] + vocalized fr] > [э]

begunne be-чиппеп begun(ne) begun[ul > M > [л][y] replaced by [g] under Scand. influence3 replaced by g

mnne rannfen) ronn(en) run[u] > [u] > [л]u replaced by о (a ME spelling device)

deuise(s) — devys device№ > [ai]

ouerthrowne ofer-ferawan over-throwen . overthrow[o] > [o:] open syllable > [po]

unstressed [e] + vocalized fr] > [э][a:] > to:] > ]oul

f replaced by vp replaced by th

thought(s) boht tliought thoughtfo+h'] > louhf > [o:Jp replaced by lhh replaced by gh

375

PART 3. KEYS •

thy bin thyn(e)/thy thyi] > [i:J open syllable > [ai];в] > [в] > [б]) replaced by th


Words Analysis Ethymology, Correspondingas used notes prototype NEword,in the text translation

the article, definite OE se, seo, paet; theME pat / that

trumpets noun, genitive case, ME trompette, trumpet(S)plural OF trompette

sounds noun, common case, ME soun; OF soun sound(s)plural (oboes play)

dumbe adjective OE dumb; ME domb dumb

show noun, common case, ME sheue, rel. to showsingular OE sceawian (v);

ME shaven (v)

followes verb, present tense, OE fokian, weak, 2; follow(s)3rd person, singular ME followen (The dumbof follow show enters}

enter verb, present tense, ME entren weak, 2; enter

plural of enter OFentrer

a article, indefinite OE an; ME a/an a

king noun, common case, OE суш'пз; ME kyng king

singular


queene noun, common case, OE cwen; ME queen queensingular (actors playtnS

the roles of tlUKing and theQueen)

376

Wordsas usedin the text

Analysisnotes

Ethyvnology,prototype

CorrespondingNEword,translation


the queene absolute participial ME embracen, weak, 2; the queenembracing construction OFembracer embracing

(nominative withparticiple I) of embrace

him pronoun personal, OE him, hire; ME him himobjective case,У* person, singular,masculine

he pronoun personal, OE he; ME he henominative case,3rd person, singular,masculine

her pronoun personal, OE hire; ME her(e) herobjective case,3™ person, singular,feminine

takes verb, present tense, OE takan, str. 6; take3rd person, singular ME takenof take

vp adverb OE up, upp; ME up up (raises herfrom the knees)

declines verb, present tense, ME declynen, decline3rd person, singular OF decliner;of decline L declmare

his .pronoun possessive, OE his; ME his his3rd person, singular,masculine

head noun, common case, OE heafod; ME heed head

singular

Vpon preposition OE uppon; ME upon upon

песке noun, common case OE hnecca; ME nekke neck (on hercase, singular shoulder)

lyes verb, present tense, OE Нсзап, str. 5; lie3rd person, singular ME lyenof he

downe adverb OE of-dune; downME a-doune

bancke noun, common case, ME banke, OSc banke bank (bed)singular

of preposition OE of; ME of of377

PART 3. KEYS - —

flowers noun, common case, ME flour; OF flour; flower(s)plural L florem, ace. o/flos

she pronoun personal, OE heo; ME he/she shenominative case,3rd person, singular,feminine

seeing verb, participle 1 OE seon, sir. 5; seeingof see ME seen

asleepe adjective OE on-slEep; asleepME on sleep, asleep

leaues verb, present tense, OE liefan, weak, ) ; leave(s)3"1 person, singular ME levenof leave

what pronoun interrogative OE hwast, ME what what

meanes verb, present tense, OE тгёпап, weak, I; rnean(s)3"1 person, singular ME menenof mean

this pronoun demonstrative OE fcis; ME this this

my pronoun possessive, OE mTn; ME myn(e)/my mylsl person, singular

lord noun, common case, OE hlaford; ME lord lord С" 7 ^singular does it mean,

my lordO

marry interjection ME marie ME%(ano$

by St.Mary)

munching verb, participle 1 ME mychen, weak; munchingofmiche OFmuchier (now dial.-

skulking, |stealing up to)

mallico noun proper, common OF malice; L malicia malicecase

it = that conjunction OEpset that

mischiefe noun, common case, ME meschief; mischiefsingular OF meschief

belike modal word rel. to OE зе-lic, adj.; belikeME y-lich (probably,

evidently)378

_ TEXT ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION

show noun, common case. rel. to OE sceawian, showsingular weak, 2; ME shewen

/vShowen

imports verb, present tense, rel. to OF porter,- import(s)3rd person, singular L portareof import

argument noun, common case, ME argument; argumentsingular OF argument (plot)

play noun, common case, OE р!еза,- ME pley playsingular /play

we pronoun personal, OE we; ME we weIs1 person plural,nominative case

Shall verb, future tense, OE sculan (inf), sceal shall knowIs1 person, indicative (pres. sing.), pret.-pres.,mood of know ME shal;

OE cnawan, strong, 7;ME knowen

by preposition OE bl; ME by by (from)

fellow noun, common case, ME fellawe; rel. to fellowsingular Sc felagi

players noun, common case, rel. to OE pje3ian, player(s)plural weak,2; ME playen (actors)

cannot verb, modal + negative OE cunnan (inf), can can+not(pres. sing.), pret.-pres.,;ME can

keepe verb, infinitive OE cepan, weak, 2; keepof keep MJSkepen (secrets)

they pronoun personal, OB hie; ME they they3rd person plural,nominative case

'11 tell verb, future tense, OE willan, anom. verb; (they)'ll tell

(=will tell) 3rd person, indicative ME will;mood of tejl OE tellan, weak, 1 irreg.;

ME tellen

al l pronoun indefinite OE eal; M E al/alle al l

VS pronoun personal, OE us; ME us US2nti person plural,objective case

379

PART 3. KEYS

meant verb, past tense, OE msnan, weak, I; meantindicative mood ME menenof mean

I (yea) particle 0 £ зёа; M£ ye уел (yes)

any pronoun indefinite OE аётз; ME any any

you pronoun personal, OE eow; ME you you2nd person,nominative case

will show verb, future tense, OE willan, anom. verb; will show2nJ person, ME willindicative mood OE sceawian, weak, 2;of show ME showen

be verb, infinitive OE beon, beo (imper.); be

ME been, be (imper.)

not negative particle OE na-wiht; ME not not

asham'd adjective rel. to OE scamian, ashamedweak, 2; ME shamen (don't be

ashamed)

heel© = pronoun personal, OE he; ME he he'llhee( 1)= (he 3rd person singular,will) masculine, nominative

case

shame verb, infinitive OE scamian, weak, 2; shameME shamen (be ashamed)

are verb, present tense, OE wesan (inf), earon areplural of be /ar (pres. tense),

suppletive; ME am

naught adjective rel to OE na-wiht; naughtME naught (naughty)

Tie t pronoun personal, OE ic; ME icIiA 1('Щ= I( 11) 1sl person singular,

nominative case

(shall) verb, future tense, OE mearcian, weak, 2; markmark ls l person, indicative MEmarken (see, watcti)

mood of markfor preposition OE for; ME for tor

our pronoun possessive, OE fire; ME our ourls l person plural

380


tragedie noun, common case OE tragedie; tragedy

ME tragedie

heere adverb OE her; ME heer here

Stooping verb, participle I OE stupian, weak, 1; Stooping

of stoop ME stoupen

to preposition OE to; ME to to

your pronoun possessive, OE eower; ME your(e) your2nd person

clemencie noun, common case, L dementia clemencysingular

begge verb, present tense, ME beggen, weak, 2; begplural, indicative OF begger, nounmood of beg

heaiing verb, gerund/verbal rel. to OE hyran, hearingnoun of hear weak 1, or OE hyrin3,

noun; ME hering(e),noun

patiently adverb rel. to ME patient, patiently (weadjective, OF patient, beg that youL patens, noun hear patiently)

is verb, present tense, OE wesan, infinitive; is3lJ person singular OE is; ME isof be

posie noun, common case, ME poesie=poete; poesy (motto,singular OF poesie=poete; short

L poeta inscription)

ring noun, common case, OE hnny, ME ryng ringsingular

tis = it is it is

breefe adjective ME breef; OF brief; brief

L brevis

as conjunction OE eal-swa; ME as as

WOmans noun, genitive case, OEwTf-ma'n; WOman('s)singular ME womman

loue noun, common case, OE Iufu lovesingular

381

PART 3. KEYS _ _ _ _ _ — —

full adjeclive OEM; MEM full

thirtie numeral cardinal OE bri-Пз; ME thritty thirty/pirty

times noun, common case, OE tTma; ME tyme time(s)plural

hath gone verb, present perfect OE habban, weak, 3; has goneperfect of go ME haven; OE 3§n (inf);

ME goon (inf)

Phebus noun proper, genitive L Phoebus Phoebus( s)= Phoebus case, singular"

cart noun, common case, OE crat; rel. to cartsingular OSc kartr

round adverb/preposition rel. to ME round, adj., roundOF roont

Neptunes noun proper, genitive L Neptunus Neptune( S)

case, singular

salt adjective OE sealt; ME salt salt

wash noun, common case, OE wsesc; ME wassh washsingular (waters)

Tellus noun proper, common L Tellus Telluscase, singular

orb'd adjective OF orbe; L orbis orbed

ground noun, common case, OE srund; ME ground ground ,singular (Tellus - barm

in Romanmythology)

dosen noun, common case, ME dosayn dozensingular

moones noun, common case, OE mona; ME mone moon(s)plural

boiTOwed adjective / participle 2 rel. to OE borgian, borrow(ed)of borrow weak, 2; ME borwen

sheene noun, common case, rel. to OE scyne, adj.; Sheensingular ME shene, adj.

about preposition OE abutan; aboutME abouten

382


world noun, common case, OE woruld; ME worlde worldsingular

haue beene verb, present perfect OE habban (inf); have been

of be OEbeon(inf)

twelue numeral, cardinal OE twelf; ME twelve twelve

since conjunction OE si65an; ME sith(e) since

halts noun, common case, OE heorte; ME herte heart(s)plural

Hymen noun, proper, common L Hymen Hymencase, singular

did unite verb, past tense, L Qmt (did) uniteindicative moodof unite

hands noun, common case, OE hand; ME hond hand(s)plural

comutuall adjective F com-; OF -mutuel; mutual (sinceL mutuus love united our

hearts andHymen - ourhands)

most adjective / pronoun, OE maest; ME moost mostsuperlative degreeof much

sacred adjective rel to ME sacren, sacredweak, 2; OF sacrer

bands noun, common case, ME band, Sc band band(s)

plural

so adverb OE swa; ME so SO

many adjective QE т а т з ; ME many many

ioumeyes noun, common case, ME journee; journey(s)plural OF journee

may verb, present tense, OE ma^an (inf), та?з mayof may (pres. sing.), pret-pres.,

ME may

sunne noun, common case, OE sunne; ME sonne sunsingular

383

PART 3. KEYS •

make verb, infinitive OE macian, weak, 2; makeME maken

count verb, infinitive ME counten, weak, 2 countOF corner; (max the SunLcomputare and the Moon

make us countagain as manyjourneys)

ore conjunction OE sr; ME er/or ere (before)

ere=our our

be verb, present tense, OE bion (inf); OE beo besubjunctive, singular (pres. subj. sing.)of be

doone verb, participle 2 of do OE don (inf), anom. done= done verb; OE зе-don

(part. 2); ME doon (inf);ME y-doon (part. 2)

woe noun, common case, OE wa, ME wo woesingular

(woe) is interjection (phrasal unit) woe is me!

me

sicke adjective OE seoc; ME seek sick

late adjective OE last; ME lat late

farre adjective OE feor; ME fer far

from preposition OE Mm; ME from from

cheere noun, common case, ME cheer; OF chere cheer

singular

our=your our

former adjective OE forma; ME former formerState noun, common case, OF estat, L statum State

singulardistrust verb, present tense ME dis- + trust, помп, distrust

of distrust re/ to OSc traust, «сия (/a/» vwmed

about you)

yet adverb 0£3lt; ME yet yet

384


though conjunction OE beah; ME though though

discomfort verb, infinitive ME disconforten, weak, discomfortof discomfort 2; OF desconforter

nothing pronoun indefinite OE nan-Ьтз; nothingME no-thing

must verb, present tense OE mot, most (past), must (it mustof must pret.-pres.,; ME moot, not discomfort

most(e), must (past) you, milord)

women noun, common case, OE wTf-men; womenplural ME wommen

feare verb, present tense, OE fSran, weak, I; fear

indicative mood of fear ME feren (inf)

too adverb OE to; ME to too

much adverb OE micle; ME much(el) much

euen adverb OE efne; ME even(e) even

loue verb, present tense, OE lufian; ME loven love (womenindicative mood of love fear as much as

they love)womens noun, genitive case, OE wff-manna; women('s)

plural ME wommen(e)s

feare noun, common case, OE iaer; ME feer fearsingular

hold verb, present tense, OE healdan, strong, 7; holdindicative mood of hold ME heold(en)

quantitie noun, common case, ME quantitee; quantitysingular OF quantite {correspond to

° each other)

eyther conjunction OE a»3-hwa26er; eitherJ ME either

none pronoun, negative OE nan; ME noon none

neither conjunction QE пе+гБз-hwaeaer; neitherME neither

aught pronoun OE a-wiht; aht; aughtь ME aht, aght, aught (anything)

385

/'ЛДГ J. KEYS

extremitie noun, common case, ME cxtremyiee; extremitysingular OF extremite (both fear

and love areextreme)

now adverb OE nu; ME now now

proofe noun, common case, ME prove; OF preuve proofsingular

hath made verb, present perfect OE macod. pan.2; has madeoi make ME made

know verb, infinitive OE cnawan; knowME knowen (you А/юн'

the proof of it)

ciz'd = siz'd verb, participle 2 ME (a)ssis(en), vrraA',2; size(d)of size /r/. /« OF assisen (my fear is me

size of my love)

where adverb OE hwSr; M£ wher(e) where

great adjective OE згёа1; ME greet great

litlest adjective, superlative 0Z? lytel, ISscst (snperl. leastdegree of UteJ. degree); ME litel, lestc (smallest)

doubts noun, common case, ME doute; OF doute doubt(s)plural

grow verb, present tense, OE 3rowan, strong, 7; growplural, indicative mood ME growenof grow

gl'OWes verb, present tense, see above grow(s)3'd person, singularof grow

there adverb OE \жг\ ME ther, thar there

faith noun, common case, ME fcith; OF fcid; faith (excl.: byL (Ides my faith!)

thee pronoun personal, OE f)e, pec; ME thee thee2"d person singular,objective case

Shortly adverb О£ scort-lice; shortlyME shortly

to adverb OE 16; ME to too

operant adjective L operant operant(effective)

386


powers noun, common case, ME power; OF poeir power(s)plural /pouer

functions noun, common case, F foriclion; L functio fimction(s)plural (my body will

stop doing itsfunctions)

thou pronoun personal, OE pii; ME thou thou2"d person singular,nominative case

Shalt verb, modal OE sculan (inf), sceait shall(pres. tense, 2"d person),pret.-pres.

liue verb, infinitive OE libban, weak, 3; live

ME liven

faire adjective OE fa^er; ME f air fail-

behind adverb OE be-hindan; behind (afterME be-hynden I'm gone)'

honour'd verb, participle 2 ME honour(en), honour(ecftof honour weak, 2; OF honorer

belou'd verb, participle 2 rel. to OE lufian, belovedof love weak, 2; ME loven

haplv adjective rel. to ME hap, noun; (probably)

^J OSchapp

one numeral, cardinal OE an; ME oon one

kind adjective OE cynde; ME kynde kind

for preposition 0jEfor;MEfor forhusband noun, common case, OE hus-bond; husband

singular ME husbonde; (honoured,OSc htisb.6ndi beloved and

probablysomeone askind as I amfor a husband'you'll...)

confound verb, imperative mood ME confounden, confoundof confound F confondrc,

L confundcre

387

weak, 2; ME cursen (let me oecursed if Imarry a secondhusband)

wed verb, subjunctive OE weddian, weak, 1; wedmood of wed ME wedden

who pronoun, interrogative OE hwa; ME who who/ indefinite / relative

kild verb, past tense, OE cyllan, weak, 1; kill(ed)indicative mood of кШ ME killen

first numeral, ordinal OE fyrst, adjective; first (let noME first one wed the

secondhusband butshe who killedthe first one)

w o r m w o o d noun, common case, OE wermwod; w o r m w o o dsingular ME wermode (corrupted

form), wormwud

instances noun, common case, ME instaunce; instance(s)plural OF instance (motives,

reasons)

marriage noun, common case, ME manage; marriagesingular OF mariage

388


moue verb, present tense, ME mov(en), weak, 2; moveindicative mood OF movoirof move

base adjective ME bas; OF bas base

respects noun, common case, ME respect; respect(s)plural • OF respect

thrift noun, common case, ME thrift; OSC priu thrift ('ton-singular considerations

when adverb OE hwanne/hwaenne; whenME whan(ne)

kisses verb, present tense, OE cyssan, weak, 1; kiss(es)3rd person, singular, ME kissenindicative mood of kiss

bed noun, common case, OE bed; ME bed bedsingular /bedde

doe=do see above do

belieue verb, present tense, OE be-Iyfan, weak, I; believeindicative mood ME bilevenof believe

thinke verb, present tense, OE jbencan, weak, 1, thinkindicative mood irregular; ME thynkenof think

Speake verb, present tense, OE sprecan, strong, 5; speakindicative mood ME spekenof speak

determine verb, present tense, ME determynen, determineindicative mood weak, 2; OF determiner,of determine Ldeterminare

oft adverb OE oft; ME oft/often oft/often

breake verb, present tense, OE brecan, strong, 4; breakindicative mood ME brekenof break

purpose noun, common case, ME purpos; purposesingular OF pourpos;

L propositum

slaue noun, common case, ME sclaue; OF esclave; slavesingular 5c sclyaff; L sclavus

389

PART 3. KEYS

memorie noun, common case, ME mcnioric; memory,

singular OF memorie; L memoria

violent adjective ME violent'; OF violent violent

birth noun, common case, OE зе-byrd; ME birlhe birth (which Ьsingular bornmorm

full of life)pOOre adjective ME povre/poure; poor

OF povrevaliditie noun, common case, F validite; L validitas validity (hWis

singular " short-lived)

which pronoun, relative OE hvvile; ME which which

like adjective OE зе-llc; ME y-lich, lik like

fruite noun, common case, ME fruit; OF fruit; ftuitsingular L fructus

vnripe adjective OE un-ripe; ME unripe unripe

sticks verb, present tense, OE stician, weak, 2; stick(s)3"1 person, singular, ME stikenindicative mood of stick

tree noun, common case, OE trco; ME tree treesingular

fall verb, present tense, OE feallan, strong, 7; fallindicative mood of fail .ME fallen

vnshaken adjective / participle 2 OE ип+зе-scacen; unshakenof shake OE sc'acan, strong, 6;

ME shaken

mellow adjective ME mclwe, rel. to mellowOE melu, noun (ripe)

bee verb, present tense, OE beon (inf/prps. besubjunctive mood, subj. plural); ME beenplural of be

necessary adjective ME ncccssarie; necessaryOF neccssaire

forget verb, present tense, OE Гог-зу1ап, strong, 5; forgetindicative mood OSc gefen; (we most«f JoEggt ME (brgeten necessarily

390


forge))Ю pay verb, infinitive ME payen, weak l/2\ to pay

Ofpaier ' J

ourselues pronoun, reflexive OE Ore+self(ves); ourselvesME ourselves

debt noun, common case, ME deile; OF dette; debtsingular С dt'bita

passion noun, common case, ME passioun; passionsingular OF passion; L passio

propose verb, present tense, F proposer; proposeindicative mood £ pro+poser (promise,of propose. propose to do)

ending verb, participle I of e_nd_( OE endian, weak, 2; ending' ME enden

(the passion absolute predicativeending) construction (nominative

with the participle)

doth verb, present tense, OE don, anomal. verb; do(es)3"1 person, singular, ME doonindicative mood of do

lose verb, present tense, OE losian, weak, 1; loseindicative mood of Josg ME losen

violence noun, common case, ME violence; violencesingular OF violence; (the extremes)

t. violcntia

griefe noun, common case, ME greef; OF gref, griefsingular (taj.; L gravis

юу noun, common case, Af£joyc;0Fjoie; joysingular l> gauqia

their pronoun possessive, OE hira/heara; their3rd person plural ME beir(e); OSc pejra

owne adjective OE азеп; ME ovven own

ennactures noun, common case, rel, to ME enacten, enactmentsplural verb

themselues pronoun, reflexive ME beim/them+sclves; themselvesOSc peim

PART 3. KEYS

destroy verb, present tense, ME destroyen; destroyindicative mood OF deslruire (prevent mem

destroy then')

reuels verb, present tense, ME revelen, weak, 2 revel(S)3rJ person, singular, OF revelerindicative mood of revel

lament noun, common case, rel. to F lamenter, verb lamentsingular

ioyes verb, present tense, ME joyen, weak, 2; joy(s)3rf person, singular, OF jourindicative mood of joy

griefes verb, present tense, ME greven, weak, 2; grieve(s)3rd person, singular, OF grever; L gravareindicative mood of grieve

slender adjective ME s(c)lendre; slenderOF esclendre

accedent noun, common case, ME accident; aFcid&^ohtestsingular OF accident (by a *Wm

chance)

aye adverb ME ay; OSC ei/ey .tyffijg*'

nor conjunction OE na-hw—per; ПОГ (and)ME nor

strange adjective ME straunge; Strange fjjjOF estrange; no wonder)L extraneus

euen adverb OE efne; ME evne even/evene

loues noun, common case, OE lufu; ME love love(s)plural

fortunes noun, common case, ME fortune; fortune(s)plural OF fortune; L fortiina

should verb, subjunctive mood OE scolde (past subj.)\ shouldchange of change MEsholde change

ME chaungen, weak, 2;OF changier

392


question noun, common case,. ME questioun; questionsingular OF question

left verb, participle 2 OE lsefan, weak, 1; leftof leave OE laft (part. 2); ME left

to proue verb, infinitive OE profian, weak, 2; to proveME proven

lead verb, present tense, OE ljedan, weak, !; leadindicative mood of lead ME leden

els=else adverb OE elles; ME elles/els else

downe adverb OE of-dune; down (whenME a-doune a great man

gets down,becomesa nobody)

fauourite noun, common case, jF/avorit favouritesingular

flyes verb, present tense, OE йёозап, strong, 2; fly (leave him)3"1 person, singular, MEflyenindicative mood of fly

poore noun (substantivised ME povre/poure, adj.; pooradjective) OF povre

aduaunc'd. verb, subjunctive mood ME avauncen, weak, 2; advance(d)of advance OF avancer (if the poor

advanced, hadluck)

makes verb, present tense, OE macian, weak, 2; make(s)3"1 person, singular, ME makenindicative mood of make

friends noun, common case, OE freond; ME trend friend(s)plural

enemies noun, common case, ME enemy; OF enemi enemy(-ies)plural

hetherto adverb ME hider-to hitherto=hitherto.

tend verb, present tense, ME tendcn, weak, 2; tend (loveindicative mood of tend OF lendre depends on

fortune)

393

I'AIif J. KEYS

needes verb, present tense, OE nydan, weak, I; need(s){u7w3rd person, singular, ME neden is not in need)indicative mood of need

neuer adverb OE nsfre; ME never(e) never

lacke verb, infinitive ME lakken, weak, 2 lack

want noun, common case, ME want(e); OSc vant wantsingular

hollow adjective ret. to OE holh, noun: hollowME \\o\ow, adj. (false)

try verb, infinitive ME tryen, weak, 2; tryOF traer

directly adverb rei. to ME direct, adj.; directlyOF direct

seasons verb, present tense, ME sesounen; season(s)3rd person, singular, OF satsonner (finds)indicative moodof season

orderly adjective ret. to ME brdre, noun; orderlyOF ordre

to end verb, infinitive OE cndian, weak, 2; to endME cnden

bcgunne verb, participle 2 (used 0 £ be-3innan; begunas past tense)of begin ME bcgynnen; (began)

OE be-3unnen;ME bcgunne

wills nouri; common case, #!£wi!la;MEwillc will(s)plural

fates noun, common case, ME fate; OF fat; fate(s)plural L falum, '

contrary adjective ME contrarie; contraryOF contrarie

runne=run verb, infinitive OE rinnan, strong, 3; runME rinnen; ME ronncn,part. 2

dcuiscs noun, common case, Ate devys; OF devis device(s)plural (plans)


Still adverb .<>£stille;M£sliIIe Still(constantly)

are ouer- verb, passive vpice, OE ofcr+branan, are overtnrowne present tense; plural" strong, 7; ME overthrown

of overthrow ihrowen

thoughts noun, comrnpn ease, ()£t>ohl/3e-poht:plural ME thought thought(s)

ours pronoun possessive, OE fire; ME ours oursIs'person plural

ends noun, common case, QE ende; ME ende end(s) (theirplural '" ends are not

ours)

wilt wed verb, future tense, QE willan, anonu verb; will wed2"a person, singular OE wilt ipres. sine.);of wed ЩЕ willen, ME wilt

^°a person, pres. sing.)

die verb, present tense, ME deyen/dicn, went; dieindicative mood of die OSc deyja

% pronoun possessive, , (?£ bin; /WE thyn(e) thy2"" person singular /thy

Key to Seminar 20

Shakespeare, Sonnet

Свой факел уронив, красавец КупидонЗаснул. Одна из дев Дианы подхватилаОгонь любви и вмиг светильник опустилаВ холодный ключ воды, но не погас там он.Из пламени любви священный ключ мгновенноВпитал бессмертный жар на вечные года,И стала для людей целительна водаОт злобных болестей, жестоких, как измена.Зажегши факел вновь от глаз, любимых мною,Для пробы мальчик им меня коснулся вдруг.Я исцеленья ждал душой моей больноюОт теплых вод, куда тянул меня недуг,Но исцеленья нет. Ключ животворный льетсяВ очах возлюбленной, где пламя вновь смеется.

Translated by /L Fyodtirov

Phonetic analysis

Word as used Changes of spelling and soundsin the text • 1 1 • " "

Old English Middle English New Englishlaid 1езёе leide laid

[e] + vocalized [y]> [el] > [el]ез replaced by ei/ai

by be by by[i:] > [i:l > [ai]i replaced by у

Wordin the

as usedtext

Old English

Changes of spelling and

Middle English

sounds

New English

• TEXT ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION

his his his hisIs] > [s] > И

brand brand brand brand[a] > [a] > M

and und and and[a] > [a] > [в]

fell feoll fell fell[eo] > [e:] shortened before Д>[е]

asleep onslSpe asieep/aslepe asleep[o] > И > M[as] > [e:] > DOэг replaced by ее

maid mae3den mayde(n) maid[x] + vocalized fy]> [ai] > [el]щ replaced by ay

this bis this (his[8] > [9] > [6]

advantage — avauntage advantage[au] > fa:]d on analogy with Lat. ad; (prefix)

found fund(on) found found[u] > [u:] before nd > [аи]u replaced by ou

love lufti love love[u] > [u] > W

[u] > [e] lost in NEu replaced by оf replaced by v

fire fyr fir fi^3

[y:] > [i:] + vocalized [r]> [аю]у replaced by i

steep — stepe steep[«]> m

quicidy cwic+Ece quykly quickly- lice > . - ly

cw replaced by quс replaced by k/ck

397

PART 3. KEYS _____——

cold cald (Merc),ceald (WS) cold cold[eaj>[a]>[a:]beforeld>l°:] > l°ul

that past that that[as] > [a] > [tc][0] > [9] > [fl]p replaced by thsc replaced by a

ground 31-und ground ground[u] > [u:J before nd > [аи]3 replaced by gu replaced by ou

which hwile which which[hw] > [hw] > [w]fk'l > ftf] • > Uflhw replaced by whс replaced by ch

holy ШИз holy holyM > [o:] > lou]i3 replaced by у

dateless — date+less dateless[a:] > [ei]

heat hsltu hete heat[«:] > [e:] > [i:lш replaced by e/ea

seething seo5an • sethen seething|eo:J > [e:] > [i:]9 replaced by th

bath Ьж5 bath bath№ > [a] > [a:]ш replaced by a5 replaced by th

prove profean proven prove[o:] > [o:] > [u:]f replaced by v

strange — Straunge strange[au]> [a:] > [el]au replaced by a

398

394


my mm myn(e)/my my[i:J > [':] > fai]

eye ёазе eye/ye eyelca:l > [c:]>[i:] > [ai]3 replaced by у

for for/fore for for[o] > |o] +vocalized [r]> [o:]

needs nyd/ned need need(s)|y:]>|e:](A'cw;> fe:] > M

would wolde wolde would[o] > [o:] before Id > [u:] > [u] before a

dental consonant[I] lost in N13

о replaced by ou

toudh — touchen touch[ul > [л]

breast breost bresl breast

[eo:l > fc:] > IeJ

Г ic I 1

[i] + vocalized (Ш> I'M > №desired desiren desire(d)

[i:] +vocalized [r]> laio]

thither bider thider thilherfei > [0] > [c^

[d] in the vicinity of lr] > [o]p replaced by th

hied hi3ede hyede hie(d)[i] + vocalized [y]>[i:] > Ш3 replaced by y/i

sad saed sad(e) sad[ю] > Ы > №x replaced by a


Wordsas usedin the text

Analysisnotes

OE or foreign prototype CorrespondingNE word,translation

PART 3. KEYS .

where hwser wher(e) where[se:] > [e:] +vocalized | i i> [еэ][hw] > [hw] > fw]hw replaced by wh •аг replaced by e

got 333t gat got[se] > [a]>[a:]>[o:] > [o] before a

dental consonant[3I > [gl from OSc.3 replaced by g

Cupid noun proper Lat Cupldo, CupidonTs Cupidv (Veiws's son)

laid verb, past tense OE 1есзап (inf.) weak, I; laidOE legae (past tense, sing.);ME leide (past tense)

by adverb OE be; ME be/by by

his pronoun OE his (pronoun personal, hispossessive, 3"'person, sing., masculine,3 r d person, genitive case); ME hissingular (pronoun possessive)

brand noun, common OE brand; ME brand brandcase, singular (torch, flare)


fell verb, past tense OE feallan (inf.) strong, 7; fellOE feoll (past tense, sing.);MEM]

asleep adjective OE onslffipe; ME asleep asleep

/aslepe

a art. indefinite OE an; ME a/an a

400

TEXT ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION ,

maid noun, common OE madden; ME mayde(n) maid

case, singular • (priestess)

Of prep. 0£of .Of

Dian's noun proper, L Diana Diane'sgenitive case (Jupiter's

daughter)this pronoun OE pis (pronoun demonst, this

demonstrative sing., neuter); ME thisadvantage noun, common ME avauntage; OF a vantage advantage

case, singular

found verb, past tense OE findan (inf.) strong, 3; foundOE fond; Affifand

love- adjective OE lufu; MElove love-kmdling (composite) ME kindel (inf.) rel. to kindling

OSc kynd-a

fire noun, common OEfyrjMEfir firecase

did steep verb, past tense OE don (inf.) anom. verb; did steepOE dyde; ME dideME stepe rel. to OE stiepan

quickly adverb rel. to OE cwic (adverb) quickly(+lfce);AEBqUyk(+ly>

h preposition OE in il

cold adjective OE chid (Merc), сеа\д(Щ);' coldAfficold

valley- noun, composite, ME valeie; OF valee Valley.fountain common case, ME fontayne; OF fontaine; fountain

singular L fontana

that pronoun OE bset (se, seo); ME that thatdemonstrative

ground noun, common OE 3iund; ME ground groundcase

which pronoun relative QShwilc; ME which which

borrow'd verb, past tense OE bor3ian (inf.) weak, 2; borrow(ed)OE bor3ode (past tense);ME borwian (inf.)

401

PART 3. KEYS ^ _ _ _ _ _

from preposition OE fram from

holy adjective OE Ш\у, ME holy holy

dateless adjective rel. to ME date+less (OE leas); datelessOF date/daltc; L data

Ijvely = adjective rel. to OE Whhan (inf.) weak, 3 (lively) living!living /participle I /Hfian; AfiElyven

heat noun, common OE hietu; MEhclc heatcase

Still adverb OE stille; Л/Я stille Still

to endure verb, infinitive Л4Е cndure(n), weak 2; to endureOF endurer: rel. to L durare

grew verb, past tense OE 3rowari (inf.) strong, 7; grewOE 3reow (past tense sing.);ME, growen. (inf.); ME grew(e)

seething adjective OE seocten (inf.) strong, 2; seething/participle I ME selhenof seethe

bath noun, common OE bazd'; ME bath bath

case, singular

yet adverb ОЁ $yv, ME yel yet

men noun, common OE man (root-stem, masculine, mencase, plural i'»?pj; OE men (plural);

ME menprove verb, present OE profean weak, 2; prove (test,,

tense, plural ME proven use)

against preposition OE on-jean; ME agayn against

Strange adjective ME- slraunge; OF estrange; StrangeL eselraneus (difficult,

severe)maladies noun, common F"maladie;MEmaIadie malady(-ies)

case, pluralsovereign adjective ME sovercyng; OF soverian sovereigncure noun, common ME cure, OF cure, L ciira cure

case, singular

but conjunction OFbutan, Mfibul- but

402

— •• : TEXT ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION

a l preposition OE xl, ME at atт У pronoun OE mm (pen. pronoun, my

possessive, I" person, genitive case,1"' person, sing.), ME myn(e)/mysingular

mistress' noun, genitive ME maystresse, mistress('s)case, singular OF maistrcsse

е У е noun, common OE ёазе, ME eye/ye eyecase, singular

love's noun, genitive OE lufu, ME love Jove('s)case

new-fired (composite) OE newe (adj.), ME newe newfire(d)participle 2 of rel. to OE fyr (noun),(new) fire ME fire (noun), ME firen (verb)

toe article definite OE se, seo, pan theME pe, peo, past / the

boy noun, common ME boy (origin obscure), boy

case, singular re/. Л? OFris. boi/boy

for preposition <?£ for/fore, ME for tor

trial noun, common rel. to ME tryen, verA, trial ('/«z;case weak, 2; OF trier

needs noun, common OE nyd, ME need need(s)case, plural

Would verb, past tense OE wttan(ittf.)pret.-pres. wouldof will verb, OE wolde, ЛЛ? wolde

touch verb, infinitive ME touchen, weak, 2; touchOF techier

breast noun, common OE breost, ME brest breastcase, singular

I pronoun OE'K,MEI Ipersonal,Is1 person,singular

sick adjective OE seoc, ME seek sick

Withal adverb Ш? wi6+eal, iWE withal withal

help noun, common OE help, ME help helpcase

403

PART 3. KEYS

desired verb, past tense ME desiren, weak, 2;_ desire(d)

OF desirer, L desTderare

thither adverb G l i d e r , ME thider thither

hied verb, past tense OE hi3ian (inf), OE hi3ede, hie(d) (hurriedME hyede poet, arch.)

sad adjective OE seed, ME sad(e) Sad

distemper'd adjective ME distempere(d) rel. to distemperedOF distempre (noun)

guest noun, common OE 3iest rel to OSc gestr; guestcase, singular ME guest

ПО p r o n o u n OE no, ME no ПОindefinite

lies verb, present OE Нсзап strong, 5, lie(s)tense, 3"1 person, ME liggan/lyensingular

Where adverb 0J5hwser,M£wher(e) where

got verb, past tense ME geten (inf.), ME gat got (get - inf)strong, 5; OSc geta,OE 3ytan/3etan, OE 3aet(past stem, singular)

eyes noun, common OE ёазе, OE eagan, eye(s)case, plural ME eye(s)

Key to Seminar 21

Dickens, David Copperfield

Забуду ли я когда-нибудь эти уроки? Считалось, что ихдает мне мать, но в действительности моими наставникамибыли мистер Мердстоун с сестрой, которые всегдаприсутствовали на этих занятиях и не упускали случая, чтобыне преподать матери урок этой пресловутой твердости —проклятия нашей жизни. Мне кажется, именно для этогоменя и оставили дома. Я был понятлив и учился с охотой,когда мы жили с матерью вдвоем. Теперь мне смутновспоминается, как я учился у нее на коленях азбуке. Когда ягляжу на жирные черные' буквы букваря, их очертаниякажутся мне и теперь такими же загадочно незнакомыми, аокруглые линии О, С, 3 — такими же благодушными, кактогда. Они не вызывают у меня ни вражды, ни отвращения.Напротив, мне кажется, я иду по тропинке, усеяннойцветами, в моей книге о крокодилах, и всю дорогу меняподбадривают ласки матери и. ее мягкий голос. Но этиторжественные уроки, последовавшие за теми, прежними, явспоминаю как смертельный удар, нанесенный моему покою,как горестную и тяжкую работу, как напасть. Они тянулисьдолго, их было много и были они трудны, а некоторые ивовее непонятны, и наводили на меня страх — такой жестрах, какой, думается мне, наводили они и на мою мать. Мнехочется припомнить, как все это происходило, и описатьодно такое утро.

translated by A, Krivtsova

PART 3. KEYS •

shall sceal sha! shall[ea] > [a] > (ж]

[sk-j > m > msc replaced by sh

I ic I I[k'l ttfl[i] + vocalized [tj> [i:] > [ai)

ever aefre ever(e) ever[ж:] > [e:] > [e]

unstressed [e] + vocalized [r] > [э]ж replaced by ef replaced by' v

forget for-3itan forgeten forget[for] > [for] > [Го:] > [fa]

Ш > [e] > [e]fj] replaced by [g] from Sc.3 replaced by g

those fra tho, thos those[a:] > [o:] > [ou:][6] > [0] > [6]

[s] > M

were wieron weren were[ж:] > [с:] + vocalized [r] > [e:]

by bl by byM > [i:] > [ai]

mother modor • moder mother[o:] > [o:] > [u:] > [и] > [л][d] > [d] > [6]

[or] > [er] > [э!d replaced by th

sister sweostor swuster/suster/sister sister[i] from Sc.

[or] > [eri > Is]

406

Wordin the

as usedtext

Phonetic analysisChanges of spelling and


sounds

New English


who hwa who who[a:] > to:] > fu:]>[u|fhw] > fhw] > [wjhw replaced by. wh

always ealvewe3 alwey/alwayes always[ea] > [a] before! > [o:]

[wej] > [wei] > [wez]ea replaced by a

found fundon ftinden found[u] > fu:] > [ao]u replaced by ou

occcasion — occasioun occasionШ > [3]

for for for for[o] > [o] + vocalized fr] > [0:]

giv(ing) 3yfan yivert/given give[g] from Sc.

that fat that that[аз] > M > fa;][0] > [9] > [fl]ш replaced by ap replaced by th

which hvwlc which whichft1] > 1Ш > 1Ш[hw] > [hw] > [w]livy. replaced by wh

bane bana bane bane[a]>[aj > [a:] opensyll. > [el]

our Ore °ur our[u:] > [u:] > [аи] + vocalized [г] >[аоэ]u replaced by 6u

lives (pi), life ff !if lifeM > [i:] > [al]

was wa?s was was[»] > [a] after w > [0:]

ls | > [s] > fz|ш replaced by a

407

PART 3. KEYS

home ham hoom home[a:] > [o:J > [ou]

learn leomian lemen leamfeo] > [e] + vocalized [r] > [e:]

when hwaenne whan whenИ > [a] > [e][hw] > [hw] > [w]hw replaced by whx replaced by a replaced by e

alone eal-ana alone alonetea] > (a] > [э]fa:] > [o:] > [ou]

knee cneo /knee knee[eo:] > [e:] > [i:][kn] . > {kn] > [n]с replaced by к

day гЗжз day day[а>ну] >'Дм] > [el]ae replaced by a3 replaced by у

fat faet fat fatM > [a] > M

black blaec black blackN >,[a] > Nс replaced by ck

shape зе-sceap i-shap(e) shapetea] > [a]>(a:] > [el][sk'l ••'»,>• Ш > Шsc replaced by ,sh

easy — eSy easy[с:] > И

good xod good goodTo:] >'fo:] >.[u:]3 replaced by g

408


nature — nature nature[tj] > Ml

seem seman ..semen seem[e:] > fe:] > [i:]

(re)call ceallian callen call[ea] > [a] before Л >. (o:]

feel(ing) felan felen feel[e:] > [e:] > [i:]

walked wealcan , walken walk[eal > [a] before Ik > [Э:]с replaced by к

path paed „path path[ж] > [a] > [a:] before [8]x replaced by /, a .'5 replaced by th

far feor ..,. fer far[eo] - > Де]

[er] > [ar] > fa] + vocalfeed [r] > fa:]

book boc book book[o:] > fo:] > [u:]>[u] before кс replaced by - к

cheered — cheeren cheer[e:] >[i:] + vocalized [r] > [is]

all eal al/alle all[ea] >' [a] before!! > {o:]

death dead deeth death[ea:] >••[«] > [e] before [0]б replaced by th

hard heard „ hard hai-d[ea] > [a] f vocalized [r] > [a:]

some sum ' som some[u] > [u]" . > [л]u replaced by о

409


PART 3. KEYS

much mice I michel/muchel muchlk'1 > [ф > Ml

[u] > [л]

believe be-lyfan bileven believe[y:] > [c:] > [i:]у replaced by ief replaced by v

poor — povre/poure/poor poor[o:] >[u:l +vocalized (r]> [us]

herself here-self hineself herselfp:] > [i:] + vocalized {r] > [e:]

back bsec back backЫ > [a] > [ac]ac replaced by aс replaced by ck

понтlessons, - as (n-stem declension, -es / - (e)s (common case,letters, masculine gender, plural)shapes, nominative/accusativeflowers plural)

mother's - es (n-stem declension, -es / - (e) 's (possessivemasculine gender, case, singular)genitive singular)

pronounsI ic (pronoun personal, (ich) i /1 (pronoun

I" person singular, personal, Iя personnominative) singular, nominative)

410


Old English forms Middle English/Early NewEnglish forms


me me, mec {pronoun me / me (pronounpersonal, V person personal, /" personsingular, accusative/dative) singular, objective)

my mm (pronoun personal, myn(e), my / mine/myI"person singular, genitive) (pronoun possessive,

]" person singular)

her hire, hie (pronoun here, her / her (pronounpersonal, 3"' person personal, 3"' personsingular, feminine, singular, feminine,accusative/dative) objective)

they hie (pronoun personal, 3rd. hie, they/theyperson plural'nominative) (pronoun personal, 3"' •

person plural, nominative)

them him, heom (phmoun hem, them / thempersonal, 3"1 person plural, (pronoun personal, 3"'accusative/dative) person plural, objective)

this bis (pronoun this / this (pronoundemonstrative, demonstrative, singular)nominative/accusativesingular, neuter)

these fjas (pronoun thes(e) / these (pronoundanou.stijiiiiic', demonstrative, plural)nominative/accusativeplural)

•that bajf (pronoun that / that (pronoundemonstrative, demonstrative, singular)nominative/accusativesingular, neuter)

those $& (pronoun tho, thos(e) / thesedemonstrative, (pronoun demonstrative,nominative/accusative plural)plural)

articlesa an (numeral, indefinite an, a (indefinite article)

pronoun)

the se, seo, baet the (definite article)(demonstrative pronoun)

411

PART 3. KEYS

verbsshall forget sceal (present singular of shal forgeten / shall

sculan. preterite-present forgetverb) + forsietanfstmng (analytical future tenseverb, 5 class) farm)(free word-combimation)

were presided beon/wesan (weorjjan) been (was, waren) +was kept + participle 2 of participle 2 / be (was,was bewildered intransitive verbs were) + participle 2

(free ward-combinations) (analytical passive voicefarms)

had been habban (hasfde, haven (hadde) +had lived hsefdon) + direct object + participle 2 / have (had)

participle 2 + participle 2

beon/wesan + participle 2 been + participle 2 ofof intransitive verbs intransitive verbs / be +(free word-combinations) participle 2 of verbs of

movement(analytical perfect forms)

giving verbal noun / participle 1 verbal morpheme + inglearning (overlapping of syntactic (gerund)

functions)

to present -an -en / — (zero ending)to nave walked to -enne to -en/ to —{zero ending)

(preposition + infinitive, (particle + infinitive)to have been declined, used in variouscheered syntactic functions)

(to) beon + participle 2 (td) ben / (to) be +(passive infinitive) participle 2 (passive

infinitive)(t6)han/(to)have +participle 2 (perfectinfinitive)(to) han been/(to) havebeen 4 participle 2 (perfectpassive infinitive)


Regular and irregular verbs used in the text

Words usedin the text Old English Middle English

regular verbs

preside — presiden (F)believe belyfan (weak, 1) biliven

leam leornian (weak, 2) lernen

live libban (weak, 3) lyfen

look locian (weak, 2) lokenseem seman (weak, l) semen

meaning influenced by Sc.

use — usen (F)

walk wealcan (strong, 7) walken

bewilder bewildrian (weak, 2) bewildren(re)call -ceallian (weak, 2) (re)callencheer — cheerenfFJsucceed — succeeden (F)puzzle — apposailen

(etym. doubtful)irregular verbsshall sceal, o/sculan shal

(preterite-present)forget for-3ietan (strong, 5) foryeten / forgeten

f-geten under the influenceo/ScJ

were wseron, past plural of werenwesan (strong, 5/suppletive)

find findan (strong, 3) finden

give 3ifan (strong, 5) yuven / gyvenfgy ven under the influenceofSc.)

keep cepan (weak, 1) keepen413

Principal forms of the verbs used in the text

PART 3. KEYS .

can can, present singular of canClinnan (preterite-present)

have (had) habban (weak, 3), ha?fde, haven, haddepast singular

bring Ьппзап (anomalous) bryngen

OE wesan/beon waes waeron werenME been was weren been№ be was were been

OE findan fand ftindon ftmdenME finden fond founden foundenNE find — found found

OE 3jefan 3eaf 3eafan 3JfenME given gav(e) geven givenNE give gave — given

OE cepan cepte — ceptME kepen kept(e) — keptNE keep kept — kept

OE habban haefde — ha?fdME haven hadd(e) — haddNE have had — had

OE Ьппзап brohte. — brohtME bringen brought(e) — broughtNE bring brought — brought

OE cunnan cude — cunnen/cud(can- pres. sing.) .

ME connen couthe — couth /i-couaNE can (pres. sing.) could — —OE belyfan belyfode — belyfodME behven behved(e) — behvedNE believe believed — believed

OE learnian learnode — learnodME lemen lerned(e) — lemedNE learn learned/learnt — learned/ learro

414


Bofwwedwprdsjised in the text

Scandinavian French Miscellaneous

they < jDeir lesson < OF lcssoun - apt < L opiusL lectionem

tnem<.beim alphabet <favourable < F, XIV с L alpabetum -

both < babe Gk сЛсра pVaoccasion < OF occasioun

(mis)called, -Loecasionem reluctance < L reluct-(re)called < ceallian '•" " + F -ance (see word-(see word-hybrids) purpose < OF pourpos hybrids)

- L propositumpuzzle < ME

mister ,< OFmaistre apposailen(etyni. doubtful)

nominal < F nominal -L nominalis

present < OF present- L prasscnt-

faintly < OF fcindre- L fingcre

primer < OF primer- L primus

novelty < OF novelte

- L nouellitatem

easy < OF ese

nature < OF nature- L naturanumerous < F miniewux,L numerosus + F ous(see word-hybrids)

415

OE Iibban lifde ~ lifdME liven lived(e) — - livedNE live lived — lived.

OE locian locode -— locodME looken looked(e) — lookedNE look looked — looked

PART 3. KEYS

crocodile < F crocodile- L crocodTlus- Gk кроко8еЛо0

contrary < OF contrarie

- L contrarius

flower< OF flour - L florem

preside < F presider (XV c.)- L prjesidercmanner < OF maniere- L maneriadisgust < F desgouster (XVI c.)- L ais+gustarevoice < Anglo-French voice,cf. OF vois

grievous < OF grever (v) -

- L grauare

very < OF verai - L uerus

misery < OF miserie - L miserari

gentleness < OF gentil

- L gentilis (see word-hybrids)

use < OF user - L usare

cheer < OF chere - L cara

succeed < OF succeder- L succedereremember < OF remembrer- L rememorarf

Word-hybrids

really real (F) + ly (native, OE lie;

nominally nominal (t) + ly (native, OE He)

firmness firm (L) + ness (native, OE nis;

416


faintly faint (F) + ly (native, OE hcj

good-nature(d) good (native) + nature (F)

recall re (L) + call (Sc)

drudgery drudge (native) + ry (F)

gentleness gentle (F) + ness (native, OE nis)

themselves them (Sc) + selves (native)

generally general (F) + ly (native, OE lie;

reluctance reluct (L) + ance (F)

miscall(ed) mis (native) + call (Sc)

perfectly perfect (F) + ly (native, OE llcj

unintelligible un (native, OE unj + intelligible (F)

Tart 4.Glossary

A University ScholarSource: The New University Lilmity. 197$

KEY TO THE DICTIONARY

The words in the Dictionary are given in the usual alphabetical order;the letters a, ae and a are treated as the same letter a; the letters g and3 - as g; the letter b (d) follows t. For ease of reference thealphabetical order is shown on the top of each odd page.

Principal abbreviations and symbolsadj.-adjectiveadv. — adverbanom. - anomalousart. - articlecf. - confer, compareсотр. - comparativeconj. - conjunctionENE - Early New EnglishF — Frenchfem. — feminineOFris - Old Frisiangen. - genitiveGk- Greekimit. -imitativeindef.-indefiniteL - Latinmasc. — masculineME-Middle English

n. - nounN E - New Englishneut. - neuternum.-numeralОЕ-Old EnglishOF-Old FrenchOSc -Old Scandinavianpart.-participleprep. - prepositionpron. - pronounsuperl. - superlativev. str. - strong verbv. weak - weak verb> - developed into< - developed from0 - phrases and word-combinationswith the vocabulary entry as the headword

a(a,ge)-b-c-d-e-f-g(3)-h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-^>(6)-u-v-w-x-y-z

A•chemist in his laboratory

PART 4. GLOSSARY

азеп, own, adj.; OE annotacioun, annotation (note), «.;

a?enst. against, prep.; ME; < M£; < L annotatioOE оп-зёап anon, anon (at once), adv.; ME; <

agevn. again, adv.; ME; < 0 E O n S n

OE оп-зёап anofcer, another, pron. indef.; ME; <ЖЗ^ег Зё ^ 3£, either (either ... OEan+oser

or), conjJpron.;OE antique, adj.; NE; < F antique;

al=ail, all, pron. indef. ; ME; < L mt~^uus

ОЕЫ Щ , pron. indef.; NE; < OE aeni3;

alas, interjection, NE; < ME/OF ME a n y

alas 0 a! las = wretched that I am! apayred, impaired, adjJpart. 2, see

selc. each, pron. indef, sing.; OE empeiren

all, pron. indef; NE; < OE eal; aPayrynge, impairing, verb, п., see~M£al/alle e m P e i r e n

al low, v.; NE; < ME alowen; ^ § l e , (excellent),adj.;OEOF alouer agt, adj.; NE; < L aptus

alone, adv.; NE< ME al one, aloon jgr, ere (till then), adv.; OE

along, prep.; NE; < OE andlang; arcebiscop, archbishop, п., masc,ME along a-stem; OE

alphabet, п.; NE; < L alpabetum; arcestob (archiepiscopal seat), п.,Gk c&cpa рлта masc, a-stem; OE

also, also, adv.; ME; < OE eal-swa archbishop, archbishop, п.; ME; <

always, adv.; NE; < OE ealne-we3; 0 E ^ r c - b i s C 0 P

ME alwey are, see be; NE

am, see be; NE argument, п.; NE; < ME argument;

an, on (in), prep.; ME; < OE an=on 0 F a f g u m e n t

an, one, numJadj.;OE M i a n , arise, v.,str. 1;OEanalysis. /,; NE; < L analysis ^ Е Ш , array, n,ME; < OF arrai

Ш,Ш,со,«.;ОЕ ^SSr^and, соф, MEJNE; < OE and a r t j c l e . п.; NE; < L articulus

andjang, along, prep.; OE ar-pam-pe. (before), conj.; OEandswarian, answer, v., weak 2; ^ a S j adjJconJA ME. < 0 E e a i . S W a

Ob_ , . , . „„ as, conj.; NE;<OE eal-swa; ME asEenig, any, pron. Dirfe/!; OE — ' J

422

a(a,£e)-b-c-d-e-f-g(3)-h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-^)(5)-u-v-w-x-y-z

asham'd. adj.; NE; < rel. to OE avauntage. advantage, п.; ME, <scamian, v., weak 2; ME shamen OF avantage

asleep. adj.;NE; < OE on-slaJp; ME aventure. adventure (happening), п.;

on sleep, asleep ME; < OF aventure; L adventura

asleepe. see asleep, ENE away, away, adv.; ME; < OE on-we3

at, at, prep.; ME, NE; < OE xt awyrgan, (curse, damn), v., weak 2;OE

set, at, prep.; OE,, _ ' , . , ave, ever, adv.; NE; < ME ay; OSc

aethnnan. (touch, move), v., str. 1; Л/еу

OE J

aught, (anything), pron.; NE; < OEa-wiht; aht; ME aht, aght, aught

PART 4. GLOSSARY

Вread baking

baeobord . back board (barboard,port side), п., neut., a-stem; OE

back, adv.; NE; < OE base; ME bak

bad, adj.; NE; < ME badde; OEbzeddel

ban, bone, п., neut., a-stem; OE

bancke. bank (bed), п.; NE; < MEbanke

band, п.; NE; < ME band; 5c band

bane, п.; NE; < OE bana; ME bane

bank, bank, п.; ME; < F banque

base, adj.; NE; < ME bas; OF bas

base, v.; NE; < F baser

bath. п.; NE; < OE ЬжЗ; ME bath

bathen, bathe, v., weak 2; ME; <OE badian

be. by (along), prep.; OE

be. v. anom.; NE; < OE beon;ME been

bead, see be-beodan; OE

beah, see Ьпзап; OE

be-beodan. bid (order, command),v.,str.2;OE

bebude. see be-beodan; OE

bed, п.; NE; < OE bed; ME bed/bedde

bee, see be, v. ENE

been, be, suppl. v.; ME; < OE beon

beef), (are), see been

befealdan. fold (cover), v., str. 7;OE

beforan. before, adv./prep.; OE

before, adv./prep.; NE; <OE beforan; ME biforen, biforn

begge, beg, v., ENE; < ME beggen,v., weak 2; OF begger, noun

begin, v.; NE; <; < OE be-3innan, v.,str. 3; ME begynnen

begitan, beget (get, obtain, find), v.,str. 5; OE

begunne. part. 2 (may be used aspast tense), see begin, ENE

behind, adv.; NE; < OE be-hindan;ME be-hynden

424

a(a,£e)-b-c-d-e-f-g(3)-h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-Jb(d)-u-v-w-x-y-z

beHeue, see believe, ENE birth, п.; NE; < OE зе-byrd;

believe, v.; NE; < OE be-lyfan, v., >

Ш b i r t h e

weak 1; MZ? bileven bJSCOp, bishop, п., masc, a-stem; OE

belike, (probably, evidently), modal bishop, bishop, п.; ME; < OE biscopword, ENE; < rel. to OE зе-llc, , , , ,. ..„ _„ , . ,,adjective; ME y-lich И Щ , « 4 ; NE; < OE blac, bl<ec;

J J MEblakbelou'd. beloved, part. 2, see love, м - + • „ . , , _ л г ,

EHE bletsian. bless, v., weak 2; OEЬё-ПОГбап. north (northwards), ЪШШЩ, blessing, n.fem., o-stem;

advJprep.; OE Ot/

beon. be, v., anom. (pres. t. sing. ^ Ш М blissful, adj.; ME; < rel. tobeo, bist, bis; pi. beon; past t. o t b h s ' "•wass, etc. - see wesanj; OE blow, п.; NE; < ME blowe (origin

beren. bear, v., str. 4; ME; < obscure)OE beran boga, bow, n. masc, n-stem; OE

beseech, v.; NE; < OE besecan, v., book, п.; ME, NE; < OE boc; MEweak 1; ME besechen book

beste. best, adj., superl. degr., see bore, see beren ; MEgood

, borrow, v.; NE; < OE bor3ian, v.,beswican. (deceive, betray), v., weak 2; ME borwen

str.l;OE, , ,_ borrow'd, adj. I part. 2 of borrow,besynesse. business , п.; Mb; < NE;seehorrow

OE bisi nes, _ , . both, pron.; NE; < ME babe;beteecan. (put in trust), v., weak 1, S c щ е щ{г

irreg. ; OE > rel. to NE teach, . _ , , , - boy, п.; NE; < ME boy (originbeteehte, v., past t.; see betscan; obscure), rel. to OFris. boi/boy, , , brand, (torch, flare); п.; NE; <betst. best, adj. /adv., superl. degr., Q E b r a n d ; ш b r a n d

see 3od; OE, ., j , „„, -,J • breake, break, v., ENE; <bewilder v.; NE; < OE bewildnan, ОЕЪтеат, v., str. 4; ME breken

v., weak 2; ME bewildren. . , , . . , . , , Л Е , breast, п.; NE; < OE breost,bldan, bide (wait), v., str. 1; 0£ iiffibrestbifallen, befall (0 bifil - i t so breefe, brief, «,/;., ЯЛТЕ; <

happened , v., str. 7; M^; < M£ breef; OF brief; L brevisOE be-feallan

bjgyjmen,begyj2nen,begm,v.,,m breeth, b reath'п.;МБ-,<ОЕЪйб3; ME; < OE be-3innan

425

PART 4. GLOSSARY

breken, break, v>., str. 4; ME; < burh, borough (town, castle), п., fem.,OE brecan root-stem; OE

brest, see breast, п., ENE buruhwaru, (citizens of a town), п.,. -i , _ t л г , fem., 5-stem; OE > rel. tobr^er , «., see brobor; OE ^ b ' o r o u g h

b r i l ^ v.;NE; <O£brin3an,onom. v.; Ь ш ф е b i r t h д M E < 0 E 3 e . b y r d /M£ bryngen —sTbyrdu

Ь ш з а п , bring, v., яг.-н-евА; OE ^ conj. m m . < QE Ш ш

b r ^ F

d K a S t . '4- NElft °E< b r 5 d ' bQtan, bflton, but,conj.;OEME brood, adj. + ME casten, v.; 'OSc kasta buy, v.; NE; < OE Ьусзап, v., weak

broche. brooch, „.; ME; < /; M£ buggen, biggen0£broche bjl, prep./adv.; NE; < OE bl, be;

brochure. „.; NE; < rel. to ME also bzF brocher, v. bycause = (by) cause, because,

ЫШШ1, brough, ,, m , Pl, m %£&c,S- * * *Ьппзап; Oh

br&orMoth^rmscr-stennOE Щ®Ь (bjd, incline, subject), v..brjC3,bridge,п.,fem.,o-stem;OE bygynnynge. beginning, verbalbflan, (stay, inhabit), v.,anom.\OE noun, see bigynnenbude. v., past t. sing. Ind. or sub]. byr(e), (time, period), /;., i-stem orju-

mood; see buan; OE stem; OEbugan, bow (curve, subjugate, by rig, /?., dat. sing.; see burh; OE

surrender), v., str. 2; OE

bugon, v.,pl.,pastt.;seeЬпзап;OE

a(a,£e)-b-c-d-e-f-g(3)-h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-J3(6)-u-v-w-x-y-z

Сarpenter with his tools

of trade

can, can (know), see connen; ME cheere, cheer, п., ENE; <, „ n лг. ME cheer; OF chere

can, v. modal, NE; < OE cunnan(inf), can (pres. sing.), pret.-pres.; chekyr, (exchequer, п.; ME; <ME can OF eschequier

cart, п.; NE; < OE erst; rel. to cherch, church, п.; ME; <OSc kartr OE cirice; Gk кирихкои

case, п.; NE; < ME cas, caas; child, child,п.;ME; < OEcildOF cas; L casus children, children, п., pi.; ME; <

casket, п.; NE; < Span casco, OEcMvuconfused with F cassette (small c h i t e r e n c h i r p ? v-> w m k 2. ME. <b o x ) (imit.)

cepan, keep (guard), v., weak 1; OE c h i t e r v n g e c h i r p i n g f gemnd> s e e

certain, adj.; NE; < OF certein, chiterencertain; L certus + stiff, -anus citation, п.; NE; < ME citacion;

change, v.; NE; < ME chaungen, i'., L citationweak 2; OF changier dz'd = MA, part. 2; see size, ENE

СЩШ, «.; NE; < ME chapitte c l e m e n c j e > c l e m e n c y > „ ENE <chapitre; OF chapitre, L c l e m e n t i a

L capitulum, cf. L caputi . . . Т.ЖГ7. ^ clepen. (call, summon), v., weak 2;

c h a " m

u

b r t ' c ^ m b e r ' "" ; ME' < ~Ш < OE clipian > re/, roOF chambre;L camera • ЛЖ yclept, arf/

с Ь { * и " | е п ' cI?anSe- v., weaft 2; ME; d e ; c l e r g v , clergy, /г.; ME; << OF changwsr OFclergie;Z,clericus

cheer, y.; /V£; < c/. ME cheere,f?F chiere, n.

427

PART 4. GLOSSARY

clypian, (call), v., weak 2;0E> rel.to NE yclept, adj.

c n a w a n , know (recognise), v.,strong 7; OE

COCUr. (case for arrows), n. masc, a-stem; OE

coffer, п.; NE; < ME/OF cofre;L cophinum; Gk kdqnvocr

cold, adj.; NE; < OE cald (Merc),c^d(WS); ME cold

col laborate, v.; NE; < rel. toF collaborer; L collaborare

collect, v.; NE; < OF collecter;L collectare

come, v.; NE; < OE cuman, v., str. 4;ME comen

comen, come, v., str. 4; ME; <OE cuman

command, v.-.NE: <Fcommander,L commendare

compaignye. company, п.; ME; <OFcompanie

comparable, adj.; NE; < rel. toF comparer, v.; L comparare +OF -able; L -abilis

comparative, adj.; NE; <L comparatlvus

COmpellen, compel, v., weak 2;ME;<OF compeller

compile, v.; NE; < F compiler;Lcompflare

COmutuall, mutual, adj., ENE; <Fcom-;OF-mutuel;Imutuus

comyng, coming, verb, noun /gerund, see comen; ME

comyxtioun, mixture, п.; ME; < OFcommistion

concern, v.; NE; < F concerner;L concernere

conceven, conceive, v., weak 2;ME; < OF concevir; L concipere

COndicioun, condition, п.; ME; <OF condicion

confederate confederate, adj.; ME;< L confoederatus

confident, adj.; NE; < L confident

confound. v.,; NE; <ME confounden; F confondre;L confundere

COMien, can (know), v., pret.-pres.;ME; < OE cunnan

conquer, v.; NE; < ME conqueren;OF conquerre; L conquirere

conquest, conquest, п.; ME; <OF conqueste

considerable, adj.; NE; <L considerabilis

construccioun, construction(interpretation), п.; ME; <F c o n s t r u c t i o n

construct. v.;NE; <L construct

construen. construe, v., weak 2;ME; <L construere

c o n t a m , v . ; NE; < ME conteinen;OFcontenir

contrary, adj.; NE; < ME contrarie;OF contrarie

contray, country, п.; Mb, <OF contree

c n n v e r S a t i o n . п.; NE; <ME conuersacion; OFconversation; L conversation

corage, courage (heart), п.; ME; <OF corage; rel. to L cor

428

a(a,£e)-b-c-d-e-f-g(5)-h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-j[3(6)--u-v-w-x-y-z

corpora, п. plur.; see corpus; NE

corpus, п.; NE; < L corpus

cost, cost, п.; ME; < rel. toOF coster, v.; L constare

count, v.; NE; < ME counten, v.,weak 2; OF conter; L computare

cours. course, п.; ME; < OF cours;L cursus

COuthe. (un)couth (well-known,hallowed), part. 2, see connen;ME; < OE cunan; OE сиб

cradel. cradle, п.; ME; < OE cradol

crocodile, п.; NE; < F crocodile;L crocodilus; Gk крокобеЛоа

croppe, crop, п., pi.; ME; < OE crop

cuman, come, v., str. 4; OE

CUntre, country, п.; ME; <OF countree

cure, п.; NE; < ME cure, OF cure,L cura

CWae5, quoth (obs., said), v., past t.sing.; see cw£e6an; OE

cwaedan. (say), v., str. 5; OE

CVnin5, king, п., masc, a-stem; OE

СУГ. cir, char, chore (odd job), п.,masc, i-stem; OE > rel. toNE charin charwoman

cyrran, char (do a turn of work,perform), v., weak 1;OE> rel. toNE char in charwoman

cyssan, kiss, v., weak 1; OE

PART 4. GLOSSARY

Doctor visiting his patients

d a g , day, п., masc, astern; OE depend, v.; NE; < OF dependre;

daily, adj.; NE; < OE ds3-lic; L d e P e n d e r e

MEdayly description, п.; NE; < rel. todata, „.; NE; < ME/OF date; L data f* ^ ^ * ; 0 F ^ П ^ ' '

L descrTberedateless, adj.; NE; < rel. to Н р ч ! г р „ . NV. . ME d e s i f e n v.,

testoE'Z date/datt£; L d3ta + й^1ЪрВЬ*£1А*Ш day, „ , ME, NE; < OE d , 3 ; ^ ^ ^ < < Ш ^ ^

ME also dffii w destrutredead, dead, adj.; OE destruccioun destruction, п.; ME;

' J <OF destructiondeath, n.;NE;<OEde*s;MEdeth d e t e r m i n e > v . ; NE; <

deaw., dew, n. masc/neut, wa-stem; ME determynen, v., weak 2,OE OF determiner

debt, п.; NE; < ME dette; OF dette; deth, death, п.; ME; < OE dea6L d e b i t a deuise. device (plan), п., ENE; <

decline, (bend aside), v.; NE; < ME devys; OF devis

f f - H S y n e " ' °F d e C U n e r ; devout, devout, adj.; ME; <L declmare QF d e y o t

d £ ? i l f V wnS5f«,« ; M E ; *" dewsen. devise (say, describe), v.,OF defense; L defensa ~ ^ 2 ; M£; < OF deviser

degree, degree, n.;ME;< OF d&gr6t; d e v e n d i e v weaJfe ; M£?; <Lde+gradus —fejeyia

deorwurde, dearworth (precious), dictionary, п.; NE; < L dictionariusadj; OE

430

a(a,£e)-b-c-d-e-f-g(3)-h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-{3(6)-u-v-w-x-y-z

die, v.; NE; < ME deyen/dien, v., dorston. dare, v., past t. pi., (seeweak; OSc deyja durranj; OE

different, adj.: NE: < F different: dosen, dozen, п.; NE; <L different(em) ME dosayn; OF dosaine

direct ly, adv.; NE; < rel. to doth, does, see do, ENEME direct, of/; OF direct d o u b t . „.; NE; < ME doute;

disavauntage. disadvantage. /;.: OF douteME; < OF disavantage downe. down, adv., ENE; < OE of-

discomfort . п.; NE; < dune; ME a-douneME disconforten, v., weak 2; d r a w e n d r a w , v „ л б ш <OF desconforter 0£dra3an; 0 draw after - imitate

disgust «•; ЛГЯ; < /• desgouster; d r i h t e n { Ш d ) „. ,„ fl.Ldis+gustare Sl^OE

Ш-Stemper'd, « g ; ЛГС; • < drmcan, drink, v.,^-.J;OFMF distempere(d) re/, to 'OFdistempre,и. droghte, drought, /г.; ME; <

distroyen. destroy, v., weak 2; u 3°MF; < OF distruire drudgery, п.; NE; < rel. to OE

distrust, v.; NE; < ME dis- + trust, *%&*• v - ^ 2 ; M £ ё г е У е п +

/г., rel. to OSc traust, /г.A »,„ лт- j - j duke, duke, /;.; MF; < OF due;do, v.; NF; < OE don, anomal. v.; — ^ U x

MF doonJ * „ ,,^/лг. J * dumbe, dumb, adj., ENE; <doctor, п.; NE; < ME/OF doctour; 0Fdurnb; ME domb

L doctor, „ х т „ , durran. dare, v.. pret.-pres.: OE

doe, do, v., FiVF; see do ^. . . . . . dweller, dweller, п.; ME; < rel. to

dommacioune, domination, п.; OEdwelkn vME; < OF dominacion;L dominatio dydon, did, v., past t., pi. (see d5n;;

don, do, v., anom.; OE

л , I / r n > , j . n dyme, dime (one-tenth). /;.: ME; <doon, do, anom. v.; ME; < OE don " ^ F d i s m e ; L d e c i m a

doone, done, part. 2; see do, ENE

PART 4. GLOSSARY

Emily - a personificationof spring

ёа, (river), n.Jem., root-stem (anom.); easy, adj.; NE; < ME esy; OF ese0 E ech. each, pron. indef.; ME; < OE %\c

вас, eke (also, as well), adv.; OE , , , , , -~ „ л р 5Ярeek. eke (too), adv.; ME; < OE eaceadmedan. (show submission), v.. «.. . . . , , . , . np >—âTVOE eft, (again, afterwards), ««?v.; CiJ >

rel. to NE aftereaê,eye,n.neut.,n-stem;OE , , , ..„ ni? »UPS-

— * - ' J ejs = else, adv.; NE; < OE ell»,eald, old, flflf/. (сотр. yldra; sup. M£ elles/els

y W e S t ; ; °E embrace, v.; iV£; < M£ embracen,ealdian, (grow) old, v., weak 2; OE v., weak 2; OF embracerealdorman. alderdman, (chief), п., empeiren, impair, v., weak 2; ME; <

masc, root-stem; OE OF empeirer

eall. all,pron. indef. sing.; OE employ. v.\ NE; < F employer

ealle. pron. indef., pi. (see eallj; OE enable, v.; NE; < ME enablen, en- +

ealne W J , always, adv.; OE 0 F a b l e ; L h a b i l i s

egril, adjJadv, NE; < OE a>rllce; ^ "^ Ш ' < 0 E й ^ Ш ^ ,

ME erly end, v.; NE; < OE endian, v., weak I,

ear t ,^wesan;OE ME e n d e n

east, east, adv.; OE ^ > e n d ' " ' ; ME' < 0 E ^

eastryhte, east right (to the east), " ^ Й ^ в ^ и Й Г ' Я âdv-0E Ldurare

eastwerd, eastward, (eastwards), e n e m v n • NE- < ME enemy;«dv.;OE —Wtmrni'

432

a(a,a3)-b-c-d-e-f-g(3)-h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-^(6)-u-v-w-x-y-z

engendren, engender,.v., weak 2; esterne. Easter, п.; ME; <ME; < OF engendrer; L ingenerane OE Eastru

ennacture. (enactment),' п., ENE; < etan, eat, v., str. 5; OErel. to ME enacten, v.; NE enact ^ ^ ^ ^ < Q E ^

enough, adv.; NE; < OE 3enoh, ME evne/even(e)Зепбз; ME inoh, enogh ^ ^ ady. m < QE _ f r e . ш ^

^ f - O F ^ Ш e n t r e " "" Wmk e v e r i c h o n - ^У « Pron. indef,2, Ot entrer ш . < QE - f r e - J c

enterprise, «.; NE; < OF enterprise ц ^ ^ p w n Ш ф . ш . <

eode. (went), v. anom., past t., see OE asfre

3*n'>0E evyr. ever, adv.: ME: < OE eefre

eojn, « e wesan; O£ experiens. experience, п.; ME; <eorl, earl, (chief), п., masc, a-stem; OE OF experience

eorde, earth,n. fern.,n-stem; OE expressen, express, v., weak 2;, , . ,.„ ME;<OFexpresser;Lexpressare

er, ere (before), adv/conj.; ME; <OExr extremme. extremity, п., ENE; <

ME extremytee; OF extremiteere, see our, OE „_ л п

i , „v /и? • 1 SS& п.; NE; < OE ea^, ME eye/yoerles. earl, п.; ME; < OE eorl ^ ~ _~— „ ___ ,. eyther. either, cow..ENE: < OEЩ-erlj:, early, adv.; ME; < OE aer-lice hw£e5er; ME eitheresen. ease, v., weak 2; ME; < OF eser

PART 4. GLOSSARY

Friar- a pillar of his Order

faeder, father, п. masc, r-stem; OE fauourite, favourite, п., ENE; <

faintly, adv.; NE; < ME feint; MF f a v o r i t ; Lfau6fem

OF feint + ly (OE licj favourable, adj. ;NE;<OF favour;

fltojjj. ad,, ENE; < OE f*3er; L0™£&L«* ** ^

Mth, я7лЖ;< ME feith; OF feid; £ а ^ ^ о и г ^ а " о г "^ ^ ' <

L fides; 0 «ri.; by my faith! OI t a v o u r ' Ь t a v o r

M l , v.; NE; < OE feallan, v., 5Гг. 7 ^ ' f a i n ' й * ; М ^ ! < °E f ^ n

ME fallen fe, fee, п.; ME; < OE feoh; OF fefal le(n). fall, v., str. 7; ME; < feare. fear, п., ENE; < OE fSr;

0 £ feallan ME feetfandian. (explore, try, prove), v., weak feare, fear, v., ENE; < OE Шгап, V:-.

2; OE weak 1; ME feren

£ar,adj./adv.;NE;<OEfeor;MEkr f ea ture , п.; NE; < ME feture,

faran. fare (go, travel), v., str. 6; OE featUre; OF Шк'>L Ш Ш

fare, v.; NE; < OE faran, v., str. 6; Шш> f™>adJ-'0E

ME faren feeling, п.; NE; < rel. to OE felatt,Щщ, see fa, ENE v., weak 1; ME Menfat nAi • MF- *• nv ten- M P <v fel, (skin, hide), n. neut., a-stem; OEtat, adj.,Nb,< Ub rastt; Mb tat — у r ^ (Q NE f eej^Шт^' < Ш f a t e ' ' ° F Ы ; fe13' (^my),adjyadv.;OEjy-. . r „ . л „ felaweshipe, fellowship,».; ME; <tffitniS, fatness,n.fem.,jo-stem; OE O~ScWaS~

434

a(a,s)-b-c-d-e-f-g(3)-h-i-.j-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-jj(5)-u-v-w-x-y-z

fellow. n.\ NE; < ME fellawe; rel. to follow, v.; NE; < OE foîan, v., weakSc felagi 2; ME followen

feor, far,adv.;OE fonden, (try), v., weak 2; ME; <

"miMer, four, num.; OE <W flndianf e m e , (old, far-off), adj, ME; < MJor (because of), co,ijSPrep,;OE,

OE fyrn 'iWfi,™ * ^.u * M. J- **r? forbeden, forbid, v., str. 2; ME; <« £ £ , farther, further, adj.; ME; < OEfor-kodm

OE feor; fyrra (comp. degree)fest , feast, „.; ME; < OF feste; ferdon, (destroy), v.; J e edo; ^

L festa forget v.; NE; < OE for-3ytan, v.,trt r- ,-,„ str. 5; OSc geten; ME forgetenIII, five, num.; OEfjf- ntx _.t , ~.t „,. former, a<//.; ME; < (?£• forma;tlttene. fifteen (one-fifteenth), /ZHHI.; M/? former

ME; < OE fif-tyne " °«. , .._, __, ,. , fortune, ».; A^g; < ME fortune;hM, v. NE; < OE findan; 6»F fortune; £ fortuna

ME fyndenfindan, find, ,,st,3;OE todb, toth. o*.;OTfire, «,^;<^ryr;M£fir ^MmU, ^),conj,OEfirmness. „, iV^; < ME, OF ferme; ferfean, (because), c . n ; , ^

L firmus + 0 # -nisj forward, forward, n.; ME; < OE fore-~ . , , , weardIirrest. farthest, adv., superl. d.; see

fio7; OE foul, foul (ugly), adj.; ME; < OE fulfirst, num. / adj. /adv.; ME, NE; < fountain, n.; NE; < ME fontayne;

OE fyrst; ME also firste OF fontaine; L fontana

fiscad. fiscod, (fishing),«., /nflJC, a- foure, four, ;iwn.; Af£; < OE feower

•rt'«w; ^ fowel. fowl (bird),«.; M£; <OE firjoljSote, float (fleet),«., majc., «^«»; f^^^ {tomtprep_. 0E

OEflour, flower, n,ME;<OF flour f r e q u e n C V ' "-; < L f r e c lu e n t i a

flower. „.; NE; < ME flour; k f f J T ' ""; ME' < °F "ÔF flour; L florem, ace. of flos

flê, fly, v., O f t < Otf fleo3an, , , ^ ^ "* < °E f r 5 o n d ;

str. 2; ME flyenfitlfi, folk (people), „., M«t . a ^ « . ; to, torn,prep, ME; <0E Mm

OE from, advJprep.; OE, ME, NE; <folk. n.;ME,m<OB folc OE also fAm

435

PART 4. GLOSSARY

fruite. fruit, п., ENE; < ME fruit; function, п.; NE; < F fonction;OF fruit; L fructus L functio

frum-cenneda, (first-born), adj.; fyllan. fill (completely satisfy), v.,OE weak h OE

fill, full (most, very), adj/adv.; ME; < fyrd. (army, military expedition), п.,

OEM fem.,i-stem;OE

Ы, full, adj.; OE fjjvg, five, num.; ME; < OE fif

full, adj.; NE; < OE, ME ful

Gunfire diagram

gan. go, v. anom. (past t. - eodej; gemartyrod, part. 2; seeOE 3emartyriart; OE

garren. (growl), v., weak; ME;< rel. general adj.; NE; < OF general;to ОЕзуггап Lgeneralis

gather, v.; NE; < OE 3aderian, v., generally, adv.; NE; < OF general;weak 2; ME gaderen L generalise OE lie

3 | a , yea (yes), particle; OE gentilMman. gentleman, п.; ME; <л _ с/. F gentilhomme

Зёаг, year, и., neut., a-stem; OE , • • . ; •. , gentle, adj.; NE; < OF gentil;

gearwian. (make ready, make, ^ gentilisclothe), v., weak 2; OE A1

gentleman, «e gentle, manêblêd. see bvân; OE *—~ .,„ n r ..,** , J ' л i лп gentleness. «.; ЛЖ; < OF gentil;

êbogen. part. 2; see Ьпзап; OE XgentTlis + (?£ nis

gebfln. part. 2; see bQan; OE gere. year, /г.; Affi1; < OE зёаг

gecneow. see cnawan; OF, gerly. yearly, flrfv.; ME; < OE 3Sai- +gedruncen. see drincan; OE l i c e

qeeadmedun, see eadmedan; OE seseah saw, v., past t., sing.; see° seon; OESeferen, part. 2; see faran; 0 * g e s g o n . s e e s 6 o n ; 0 £

З е Щ Ы , see fyllan; O£ ? e s e t t a n . set, v., weak V; №SeSEipian, see 3rapian; O£ g e . s i ? I a n , s a i I , , , , шак 1; OESehlrde, see hyran ; № з § § Ш й > ^ ^ ^gemartyrian. martyr, v, weak 2;

OE > rel. to NE martvr437

PART 4. GLOSSARY

get, v.;iVE;<0£3ytan/3etan, v.,str. grateful, adj.; NE; < OF grat-;5; OSc geta; ME geten L gratus + - ful (E)

5efoeode. (language), п., neut., ja- graunten, grant, v., weak 2; ME', <stem; OE OF graanter, creanter; L creantare,

3if, if (except), conj.', ME; < OE 3if K ; c r e d e n t i a > " •

W* ёШу,ш1,Ж;<0Е5уЩ ^ V e e f ' • ' ^ < ^ ' ^3 i s ^ (hostage), п., masc, astern; ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ . ME. < 0 E ъхШ

31ШШ1, (givehostages),., , ^ 2 ; ^tSStJ^^^

2ive vNE-< OE ifan v йг 5- g r i e f e > 8 r i e f ' "- Ж Я ; < М ^ g r e e f ;

glad, «*•; m < OE 5Ш; ME glad « ^ g ^ ' -• ^ f ; ^go. v.; Л^£; < OE зап, suppl.; OF grever; Lgravare

MB goon f&i grievous. «^.; MJ; < r«Z. »3Od, god, masc, a-steml OE OF grever, v.; L grauare -.

5od. good, arf/. {decrees of сотр.: grisbayting. grist biting (gritting ofbetera, betst); OE teeth), п.; ME; < OE 3rist-betun3

good, good, adj./п.; ME, NE; < ground, п.; NE; < OE 3™ n d ;

OE 3od; betst (superl. degree) ME groundgoodly, goodly, adj.; ME; < grow, v.:NE; < OE?rowan, v., str. 7;

OE 3od-Hc ME growengoon, go, verb, anom. v.; ME; < guest п.; NE; < OE 3iest; rel. to

OE^an OSc gestr; ME guestgramer, grammar, п.; ME; < OF guide, v.; NE; < ME gyden;

graniraaire; L grammatica; OF guier; F guiderGk урариатисг)

5r5pian. grope (touch, feel by.touch), v., weak 2; OE

_a(a,ge)-b-c-d-e-f-g(,^)-h-i-i-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-b(5)-u-v-w-x-y-z

harrynge. (with rolling "r"),gerund, see harren

hart heart, п., ENE; < OE theorte;ME herte

habban. have, v., weak3; OE

had, see han, haven ; ME..

hadde. had, see haven •

haefde, had; see habban; OE hasten, hasten, v., weak 2; ME; <halve, half,aclj.;ME;,<OEhmlf "' - OF haster •

halwe. hallow, (saint), п.; ME; < hath, see have, ENEOEhal^a . . , ' haue, see have, ENE.

ham, home, n.,ntosc, a-stem; OE have, v.; ЛЖ; < OE habban; v., wea/chan. haven, have, v., weak 3;>ME; 3; ME haven., <O£habb.an .. haven, have, v.. weak 3: ME: <hand, hand, n.fenu u-stern; OE • O£ habban

hand, п.:NE\ < ОЕ:ЪШ\MEhond haven, n.\NR\ < OE haifan,' hasfene; ME havene

handjign, handle, v., weaA; 2; OE . , .,he, he, /?ran. pera. (ЙСС. hme, «a/.

haply, (probably), «&"., ЯЛЖ; < rel. , him, *ei*. hisj; OE .to ДЖ hap, noun; OSc happ .

he, he, pron. pars.; ME, NE; <happy, adj.; NE; < rel. to ME hap, QE he

" " S c h a p P head, п.; NE; < OE hSafod;hard, adj.; NE; < OE heard; i № heed

ME h a r d healdan. heoldon. hold, v., str. 7;• harme. harm, п.; ME; < OE hearm QEharren. (speak with rolling "r"), v., healf, half, n.Jem., o-stem; OE

. weak; ME; < (imit.)439

PART 4. GLOSSARY

health, п.; NE; < OF ЬГБШ, hS15u; here, adv.; NE; < OE her; ME heerME h d t h e here, their, pron. pass., pi; ME; <

hearing, gerund/verbal п.; NE; < 02?hira,heora,hiera,hyrarel. to OE hyran, v., weak 1; or . „ _ л „ u л ц . Ш7- <

OEhyrin3)n,MEhering(e),„. **%&£?• V" " ^ ' 'Ь ^ 1 ЙЬ5: ; мр S h^2f h e° r C n i a n ' heretik. heretic, п.; ME; <

v.,weak2,MEbatea " ^ " h e r e t i q u e ; L haereticus;heat, п.; NE; < OE hstu; ME hete GA: aipenKo?h e a v e n , п.; NE; < OE heofon, herself, pron. reflex.; NE; see her, +

hefon; ME heuen OE, ME, NE self

hed. head, п.; ME; < OE heafod hetherto. hitherto, adv., ENE; <heeje = he4L£;V2? OE, ME hider-to

heele. heel,«.; M£; < ШШ1а М, Me ( t h e y ) , / ; ^ . ^ ^ ; ^

hgere, here, adv., ЯЛЖ; < OE her; Ь ^ ' h i t h e r ' a d v - 0 E

vr.p.ME heer hie, (hurried - poet, arch.), v., » •

heeth. heath,«.; ME; <ОЕЬГЯ < 0 E h i 3 i a n (»'& ME hye6&

heir, п.; NEj < ME/OF heir; b t a , (their),pron.per*.,seebM*,L herem, heredem

held, held, see holden,; M£ Ь М , p/wi. pen.; ME, ЛВ;.< OB him,hire

hebrt.;^;<O£help,MEhelp hme,(him),prOn.pm.;^h5;^hfifeelphan1P' " ' "Г- ^' М £ ; < Ьшт, (their)^^./,^,,^^,!^

h S?b*hT£m' 'O T- * • '•'Ш МП, «heir, P™, Pos,, pi, ME; <OE hyra/hira

mda^^^&CC-% hke^Pro,per*,seeMo;OE

heofon, heaven, n. masc, astern; Ш> h i s ' p r o n ' p e r s A s e e Ы'> °Е _, .OE his, his, pron. poss., masc; ME, NE;

her, (their), pron. pers.; ME; < < 0 E h i s (prO7h perS'}

OE hie hit, it, pron. pers. (dot. him, gen-her, pron. pers.; NE; < OE hire; h i s ' ) ; O i ? • . _,

ME her(e). hlaf, loaf (bread), n. masc, a-stem; Oh

herd, heard, see heren,; ME hlaefdfoe, lady, n.,fem., n-stem; OE

here, (army), п., masc.Ja-stem; OE hlaford, lord,п., masc, astern; OE

440

_a(a,^)-b-c-d-e-f-g(^)-h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-|3C5)-u-v-w.-x-v-z

hlvstan. listen, v., weak 1; OE

hold, v.; NE; < OE healdan, v., str. 7;ME heold(en)

holden. hold, v., str. 7; ME; <OE healdan

hollow, adj.; NE; < rel. to OE holh,п.; ME holow, adj.

holt, holt, п.; ME; < OE holt

holy, adj.; NE; < OE ЬаНз; ME holy

hom, hoom. home, п.; ME; <OEhmn

home, п.; NE; < OE ham; ME hoom

honour, v.; NE; <ME honour(en), v.,weak 2; OF honorer

hooly. holy, adj.; ME; < OE hali3

booth, see ooth ; ME

hojje, п.; NE; < OE hopa; ME hope

hors-hwael. whale (walrus), п., masc,a-stem; OE

horsian. (supply with horses), v.,weak 2; OE > rel. to NE horse

koste lrye. hostelry, п.; ME; <OF hostellerie

how, adv.; ME, NE; < OE Ш

hraedlice. (quickly, soon), adj.; OE

Ы, how, adv.; OE

hundred, hundred, п.; ME; <OE hund-red

huntod, (hunting), п., masc, a-stem;OE

husband, п.; NE; < OE hus-bond;ME husbonde; OSc hiisb6ndi

hwaelhunta, whale hunt(er),(whaleman), п., masc, n-stem; OE

hwaenne, when, adverb; OE

hwaet, what, pron. intenog. /indef.;OE

hwaite, wheat, n. masc, ja-stem; OE

hwaeder, whether, conj.; OE

hwll while,n.,fem., i-stem;OE

hwon, (a little), adv/adj.; OE

hy. hi» Ый, (they), pron. pers. (dat.him, gen. hyra, hiera, heoraj; OE

hyd. hide (skin), п., fern., i-stem; OE

hym. him, pron. pers.; ME; <OE him, hine

hymMself. himself (themselves),pron. reflexive; ME; <OE him+self

hyne. hind (member of a household,farm worker, etc.), «• masc,n-stem; OE

hypothesis; п.; NE; <L hypothesis; Gk wcoQeaiq

iiyran, hear, v., weak 1; OE

hys, his (its), pron. pers.; see he andhit; OE

PART 4. GLOSSARY

I.nnkeeper serving a meal

I , pron. pen.; ME, NE; < OE ic; infecten. infect, v., weak 2; ME; <ME also: ich rel. to OF infect, past part.)

L see yen L infectus

& see 3ea; OE im^'in' adv'>ME> < 0E i n

1c, I, pron. pers. (ace. mec, me, dot. '^^in'adv/'0E

me, gen. minj; OE i-now. enough, adv.; ME; < OE 3e"1-chaunged. changed, part. 2; see

chaungen inscribe, v.; NE; < L inscrlbereidel. idle (vain, empty), adj.; ME; < inspiren. inspire, v., weak 2; ME; <

OE Idel OF inspirer; L inspirare

if, conj.; ME, NE; < OE $.f; ME also instance, n.; NE; < ME instaunce;3if OF instance

i -knowe. known, adjJpart. 2; see instructour, instructor, n.; ME; <knowen L instructor

3L!ie = r i l ; ENE into, into, prep.; OE, ME, NE

i-leffc Mt,part. 2;seeleven introspection. «.; NE; < rel. tollond. island, „.; ME; < 0Z?I3-land L i^spicere, v.

MHedJed, meddled (mingled), adj./ inventory , w.; NE; < rel. topart. 2; see medlen B * J F mventer; L muent+are

import ,;NE;<rel. to OF porter; iny^gator, ^ J ^L portare ^ investrgator; cf. F investigated

in, in, prep.; OE, ME, NE iourneve. see journey, ENEinclude, v.; NE; < L includere

442

a(a,a&)-b-c-d-e-f-g(^)-h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-i3(9)-u-v-w-x-y-z

iflX> joy, «., ENE; < ME joye; l-tau^t taught, pdrt.2,,see techen;ftFjoie;Z,gaudia MB

i2X§> joy, v., ENE) < ME joyen, v., i-tolde, told, part. 2; see tellen; MB

. W e ^ 2 ; 0 F J"our Wised, used, port. 2; J e e usen; M£1§, see be; iV£; been; M^ j.woned. wont (accustomed), part.iir it, pron. pers., neut:, ME, NE; < 2; see wonien; ME

OEhit

PART 4. GLOSSARY

Iesters amusing the king

jest. «.; NE; < ME/OF geste; joye. joy, «.; ME; < OF joie;L gesta; 0 ME tell a "geste" - tell L gaudiatales like a professional storyteller, . . . , n. MF-<"gestour" JOVen, rejoice, v.; weak 2; Mil, <

OF jour; L gaiudere^ W i ^ S a " MB '0We ' ; J W judge, „, ME; < OF juge;

Ljudexjourney, «.; A E; < ME journee;

OFjournee

.a(a,^)-b-c-d-e-f-g(^)-h-i-i-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-b(9)-u-v-w-x-y-z

Kight in fall armour

li§§E, V.; NE; < OE cepan, v., weak kiss, v.; NE; < OE cyssan* v., weak2; ME kepen 1\ ME kissen

feggge, see keep, v., ENE knee, «.; A^; < OE cneo; M£ cneo,

k e g e r , keeper, n.; MJE; < cf. k n e

OScepan know, v.: NE; < OE cnawaru v.. str.«„-„, . T _ _ _ • , _ , _ , 7 ; M E k n o w e nKgy, /?.; A JS; < OE CBB3; M£ keyem i »rr» ^.r. n / » Ioiowen, kno^y) v., •j/r. 7; ME; <gm,v.;NE';<OEcyllan,v.,weakl] 0E cngwan

ME1 killenMM, a*'.; ^ ; < OS cynde; tattStt Wght.n.;MB;<OTcnihr

M£ kynde kunnep. can, see connen; MEkindling, adj.; NE; < ME kindel kyng, king,«.; ME; < OE cynin3

finf.) rel. to OSc kynd-aking. n.;ME, NE; < OE cynin3

PART 4. GLOSSARY

Lawyer- servant of Justice

labouren. labour, v., weak 2; ME; < Iawe, law, n.; ME; < OE Ia3u; e/jOF labourer; L laborare OSc log

lacke, lack, v., ENE; < ME lakken, lay., lay, adj.; ME; < OF lai; L laicusjV" Weak 2 lav, v,: A^JB; < 0E Iec3an, v., we^

lady, lady, n.; ME; < OE hla;fdl3e; 1; past t. Xz^de, ; ME leggen;ME also ladye leyen; past t. leide

l a m e n t n.; NE; < rel. to F lamenter, lead, v.; NE; < OE lffidan, v., weak 1\verb iWEleden ,r

land, land, n., «eM?., a-stem; OE learn, v.; NE', < OE leornian, v., weakland, land, n.;ME;<OEland 2;M£:iernen

lar, lore (teaching), n. fern., o-stem; I e g a c i o n < legacJOUS. legation, n.\ME; < OF legation; L legatio

^Wia rg f i ' l a r lS < ^ ^ iMf, Hef (dear, beloved), ; , ^ -flasse. less, adj., comp. degree of 1123311, lie (tell lies), v.,str.2;OE >

litel; ME; < OE laessa le rnen , learn, v., weak 2; ME; <

last, v.; NE; < OE testan, v., weak 1; 0E l e o r n i a n ''ME lasten, lesten lesen. lose, v., sfr. 2; ME; >f

iltan,let,v.,^.7;O^ O£leosani * i- ATT- /«ji t , „ , lesing. losing (loss, perdition),late, adj.; NE; < OE 1st; ME lat —J^nd, see lesen; ME

446

ifiSSfin, n.\ NE; < ME lessoun; location, n.;NE: <LlocationOFle9on;Z,lectionem Joj±, v.; M?; < OE lucan, v., ,m 2;

ifiSSOun, lesson, n.; ME; < ME lokkenOFkgo^L lectio ]ond, land, „ , ME; <OE fond

let, v. A®; < 0E Uetan; Affi leten M g ^ . m . < m ^ m , o n g

Mm, Hv.,str. 7i-m<0El**m l o n g a g e . i a n g u a g e , „.. M E; <ifiiler, «.; NE; < ME lettre; OF langage, langue; L lingua

OFlettre;Llittera . . . longe. long.^v. :^

mm, leave, v., weak 1; ME; < [ongen, long (belong), v., weak 2;uziaztan ME; < OE lanyan

llcsan, lie (rest), v., str. 5; OE j f iOj£; v . g . < 0 £ : 1Scian> v-> wgaj t

fician, like (please), v-.H'^/t ;;£>£" 2;Affiloken

Ikpur, liquor (moisture),«.; M^; < lord, «.; A?£; < O£ hlaford;OF licur,L liquor MSIorde

Ue, (rest) v.; MJ; < OE lic^n v., j/r. Ifirde, lord, «.; MB; < O£" hlaford• 5, ME liggan/lyen lore, lore, n.; ME; < <?^ lar

Mt, left, «#.; ME1; < OE lyff left j 0 J g ) v>. NE; < 0E ] o s i an ) v>> weak j .iikg, fl^-.; NE; < OE 3e-lTc; ME y- ME losen

lich. Hk .. toue, jee love,«., EiVElikely, arfv.; MB; < OE 3e-lic; ME y- j o u e see h E m

" lich, lik + OE -lie, ME -ly "... , „ 1 / p , , love, /;.; WE; < OE lufu; ME lovellkne. liken, v.. weak 2; ME; < rel. to

•• OE 3e-llc, adj. love, v.; NE; <; < OE lufian, v., weaklinguistic, ail; NE; < F linguiste 2; ME loven

(L lingua + ist) + OE-Tc love-Kindlmg. arfy. (composite),litlest, (least, smallest), ^ ; . ^ H . ^ « • l o ^ k ind l i"§

ofe . <7/litel, EiVE; < OE lytel; test lustllce. lustily (willingly, gladly),(superldegr.); ME litel, leste adv.; OE

Hue, see live, v., EiVE l^e, lie, v., ENE; < OE Iic3an, v., str.live, v.;NE;<OElibban,v.,weak3; 5;ME\yen

ME liven lyen. lie (stay), v., j^r. 5; ME; <lively j«e living, ENE OE I i c 3 a n

livingl adj./part. 1, NE; < rel. to#Elibban v., weak 3 I; lifian;ME lyven

447

a(a,^)-b-c-d-ft-f-g(^)-h-i-j-k-I-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-l3(5)-u-v-w-x-y-z

PART 4. GLOSSARY

M.agician consulting the stars

macian, make, v., weak 2; OE man, man (one),pron. indef.; OE

mad(e). see maken,; ME man, man, п., masc, root-stem; OE

made(n).madcpastt...yeemaken man, man, и.; OE, ME* NE; <

made, part. 2 see make. NE OE also man

mXm,™y,V.,Pre,-PreS,OE « ^ S S ^ ^ ^magazine, п.; NE; < F magasin m a n n e r . „.. NE; < OF maniere;masgd. (kin, clan, tribe), n. fem., Lmanena

o-stem; OE many, adj. I adv. /pron,) MB, NE; <maid, maid (priestess), п.; NE; < ОЕтЫз

OE m^en; ME mayde(n) ш ^ „,„,,„. M £ . < 0 E m a r c

ШШЬ mas,er, „, ME; < ^ < m e a r o i a n , v.,

-3 weafc 2; MJS marken

^МЁ тайп °* ™С™'"" " * * marriage, п.; NE; < ME manage;:' <?F manage

m a t e make, v . wefl/c 2 ; . № < m a r r y . • i n t e r j e c t i o i i , NE; <•Ub macian . M£ marie 0 used in ME as an

m a l a d y , п.; NE; < F maladie; oath by St.MaryM £ m a l a d i e martir,martyr,«.;№;<O£:,martyr;

mal ice , malice, п.; ME; < LmartyrOF malice; L malitia, malicia m g e s t e , most, adj., superl. degr.; seet

mal l ico, malice, п., ENE; < mycel;OEOF malice; L malicia m a t e r ( e ) , matter, п.; ME; <

malvs, see malice ; ME OF matiere; L materia448

a{a,a)-b-c-d-e-f-g(^)-h-i-i-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-K5)'U-v-w-x-y-z

^^Snal, n.,NE; < ME materyal; micel, much (big), adj.; OE£ materialis . , ,

micelnvs, (greatness, size;fflay, v.; NE; < OE m&ym (in/), mae3 multitude), n. fern., jo-stem; OE

(pres. sing.),Pret.-pres-ME may m M ^ 0$. ME; < OEmiek ,m,mQ,Pron.pers,seeic;OE Âî^prep-OEm£°n' ^^ UE'm < °E mS> "iM^nwinter.midwinter, n.,masc,

u-stem; OEffl^flte, might,v.,p^f.;Jeema3an; m i d d e l m i d d l e > adu ME; <

. OE middel

^^ME'menen °E m*mU' ^ "** mMe' m i g h t ' V" past"' Se° m^m'ffiîns, n.; NE; < ret. to mM%, mi&ty,adj.; OE

vb masnan, v., weak 1; •*'MBmenen- mln, mine (my), prpn. posses., sing.;

fflgdiai, meilen. (mingle), v., weak 0E

2; ME; < OF medler mine, mine (my), pron. posses.,mpii., , , . . . ,. A?J?. . plural,seemin; OEIHEUOW, (ripe), adj.; NE; < ^ _

ME melwe, rel. to OE melu,«. mine, pron. poss.; NE; < OE min;mellxnge, mingling, verbal noun; ME™a

see medlen miscall, v.; NE; < OE mis +m , , , , „ OSc kalla; OEceallian,v., weak2;m e l o d i e , melody, n.; ME; < j^caiien

OF melodie; L melodia; 0 maken . . . . , . . .,..„melodye - sing (phrasal unit) mischiefe, mischief, n., tNt; <

_ . _,.,-, ^ M£'meschief;£?i;'meschiefn iemor ie , memory, «., ENE; < , .

MiB memorie; OF memorie; misery, /«.; A^ ; < OF misene;Lmemoria LmiserM

meny. many, adj./pron.; ME; < mister, n.;NE; < OF maistreO£ m5ni3 mistress,«.; NE; < ME maystresse,

metan. meet, v., weak 1;OE OF maistressemete, meat (food), n. masc, i-stem; moche, much, adv.; ME; < OE micle

OE modor, mother, n.fem., r-stem; OEmettian, (supply with food), v., weak ( m^n) QE

2;OE> ret. to NE meat ' \, , . . .,. > monas- month, n., masc, t-stem; OEmeyntenen. maintain (aid), v., weak * »2; ME; < OF maintenir; L manu money, n.; NE; < ME moneye;tenere ("hold in the hand") OF moneie; L moneta

449

PART 4. GLOSSARY

monies, see money

month, month, n.; ME; < OE monaf)

moon, n.; NE; < OE mona;ME mone

more, adj. /adv.; ME, NE; < OE mar

morning. «.; NE\ <OE mor3en, morwen + OE uny,ME morwen, morn(e) + ing

most, adj. I pron.; NE; < OE maest;ME moost

mother , n.; NE; < OE modor;ME moder

oue. move, v., ENE; <ME mov(en), v., weak 2;OF movoir

much, adv.; NE; < OE micle;ME much(el)

munching, {now dial - s k ^ m g 'stealing up to), n.; Nh; <ME mychen, weak; OF muchier

munificent, adj.; NE; <rd-J°F munificence, n.; L mumdicenQa

must , v.; NE; < OE mot, most (pafi,pret.-pres.; ME moot, mostW,must (past)

mu5a. mouth (of the river), n.,mashn-stem; OE

my. pron. poss.; ME, NE; < OE nun;ME also myn(e)

mycel. much (many of), advJadj:, OE

myddel. middle,«.; ME; <OE*M&

a(a,a5)-b-c-d-ft-f-g(^)-h-i-i-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-f3(5)-u-v-w-x-y-z

US, no," adv. /neg. part; OE neah, nigh, near (nearly), adj. /adv. /" • prep.; OE; see also near

HaU no, negat. particle; ME; <OE na nealaecan, (approach), v., we«/t /;

nacjjoun, nation, «.; MJE; < _ . •„,Of nacion; £ natio nealeante, see nealascan; OE

aacod, naked off.; 6>J? DME, «^- / a<iv-; Arj?= < 0 £ : n6arJMJE1 nerre

fian = ne+an, not one, (no one, not _a siniie),^7™. /**•; nea£, mgh, near (nearly) adj. /adv. /

Mnre = ne+anre, not one, (no one,^ ^ o T a s h T g l e l ^ n . n ^ . j ^ n a n ; necessary, arfy.; iV5; <

Qg & r ME necessane; OF necessairenan sins, nothing, n. neut., a-stem; n e £ ^ , neck, n., ENE; < OE hnecca;

-Qjg—•*' M& nekkerises. = ne wais, see wesan; 6>J? need, n.; NE; < OE nyd, AflS neednat = ne+wat see wltan; OE neede, need, v., ENE; < OE nydan,

, , ,.„ v., weak I; ME nedennatheless, nevertheless, adv.; ME;

<OEni-bv-lSs needes, needs, adv., ENE; <<c/inapy O£: nyde; ME nede(s)

nativite, nativity, n.; ME; < ...OF nativite; L natlvitas neitner, con].; NE; < OE ne+a33-

„ „ «„ . hwa}3er; ME neithernature, «.; ME, NE; < OF nature;—XTnltura neuer,_ never, adv., ENE; <

,. n.in i <?£ naefre; ME never(e)naught, naughty, arf;., £W£; < rel.to OE na-wiht; ME naught nevyr. never, adv.; ME; < OE naefre

ne not, neg. part.; OE new, adj.; NE; < OE newe, ME newe' 451

N«.

PART 4. GLOSSARY

new-fired, part. 2 (composite) of(new) fire (v), NE; see new, fire

news, (tidings), n.,NE translation(caique) ofF nouvelles

newspaper, п., see news, paper;NE

niman, (take), v., str. 4; OE

ПО. pron. indef.; NE; < OE no,ME no

nolde = ne+WOlde. v.; see willan;OE

nominally, adv.; NE; < F nominal;L nominalis + OE He

none, pron. neg.; NE; < OE nan;ME noon

nor, conj.; NE; < OE na-hwas5er;ME nor

norf), north, adv.; OE

norban. north (from the north), adv.;OE

погфегпе. northern, adj.; ME\ <Ш?погдегпе

norfjmest. riorthmost, adv.; OE

norforyhte. north right (straight to thenorth), adv.; OE

norf)Ward. northward, adj., usedadverbially; OE

not, negat. particle, NE; < OE na-wiht; ME not

note, п.; NE; < F note; L nota

noten. note, v.; ME; < OF nqter;L notare

nojteles, nevertheless, q'dv.; ME. <OE na-fiy-ljes

nothing, pron. indef.; NE; <OE папфтз; ME no-thing

nomt. not (not in the least), adv.;ME; <0Ena-with

novel, п.; NE; < It novella;F nouvelle

novelty, п.; NE' < OF noveliteit;L nouellitatem

now. adv.;ME,NE;<OEm

nfl, now, adv.; OE

numerous. adj.;NE;< F numereiw,L numerosus + F ous

nyght. night, п.; ME; < OE nib

nyh, near,prep./adv. /adj.; ME;<OE neah

nyne. nine, num.; ME; < OE шЗ<эп

nysse = ne wisse. v,; see witan; OE

nyste = ne wiste. v.; see witan; OjE

_a(a,ffi)-b-c-ci-e-f-g(3)-h-i-i-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-|j(a)-u-v-w-x-y-2

bservance of Sunday fl

obiective,arf/.;A^;<tobjectTvus onl i , adj.; NE; < OE an-lic;k • MI? Meoonlicn

ft~ff<£2vsSe!ianj S'ME observed onto, onto, pre/;.; ME; < OE untov.; F observer; I observare g g ^ one> numAME; < OE an

gbgervg, v.; NE; <OF observer; QQ^ oa th ) fl . M £ ; < 0 £ a S

iobseruare open, open, adj.; ME; < OE openflccas oh. n.; NE; < OF occas.oun; "*—' ; y ^

it occasionem fififrant, (effective), arfj.; NE; <_ iT_, I. operant; f re/, to operate, v)

^rffr-ftWOWflWW n p i n L n . opinion, „, ME; <LQierj, over, advJprep.; OE OF opinion; L opTnioOffice, n.; NE; < ME office; o p p r e s s e n o p p r e s s e ) v-i w e a ^ 2;

£, officium ME; < OF oppresser; L opressareoft, see often, adv., ENE Oj^ conj-. # # . < £ a-hw^er,often< adv) tffc < oft; ME oft/ awjier; ME other, outher, auther

often gvtf&,adj.;NE;<OFoTbQ;Lorbison, on (in, by), prep, /adv.; OE, ME, o r d e r l y adj . NE. < rd w M£

NE ordre, n.; OF ordregngrgdall,dread,v,str.7;OE S£& e r e ( b e f o r e ) j conj^ ENE. <

one, ««;«•; A*; < OE Sn>ME o o n 0E S r ; M £ l e r / o r

o»3Mtt» a2 a i n ' against, «rfv. /prep.; Oterauns. outeraunce. utterance— jjfi (extremity), «.; ME; < rel. to^ y ^ (grasp, perceive, OEKadv,MEo^co,nP.de8.fiaSfestend>feel),«'.,^r.5;O£ +t ance

453

PART 4. GLOSSARY

od, (till, until), prep, /conj.; OE

брег, other, pron. indef.; OE

Oper, Opere. other, pron. indef.;ME; < OE ббег

Oppe, (or), conj.; OE

ouerthrowe. v., ENE; <OE ofer+jpriman, v., str. 7;ME over-throwen

ought see owe, ENE

ought, v. modal, NE; < OE a^an(inf), ahte (past), pret.-pres.;ME aughte, oughte

our, pron. poss.; NE; < OE ure;ME our

pure, our, pron. poss.; ME; < OE ure

Ours, pron. poss.; NE; < OE ure;ME ours

OUrselues. ourselves, pron. reflex.,ENE; < OE Ore+self(ves);ME ourselves

Out, adv.; NE; < OE ut; ME out

over, adv. /prep.; NE; <OE.ofer,ME ouer

ovyr, over (too), adv.; ME; <OE ofer

Owe, (possess), v.; NE; < OE азап;ME азеп, awen, owen

OWne. own, adj.; ME; ENE; <OE азеп; ME also owen

a(a,^)-b-c-d-e-f-g(^)-h-i-i-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-bCQ)-u-v-w-x-y-z

P.rioress on a pilgrimage

Дасеп, расе, v., weak 2; ME; < peace, п.; NE; < ME, OF pais;OF passer ' ipacem

mimer, paImer,/i.;Af£;<0Fpalmier peple, people, п.;ME; < OFpueple;»,« L populus

fiap_er, п.; OE, ME, NE; < .£ papyrus; G* ramupog frwZ>. of percen, pierce, v., и><^ 2; ME; <WrL «W OFpercier

Barlement. parliament, п.; ME; < perfectly adv.; NE; < ME perfit;OFparlement 0 F P a r f i t ; L Perfectus+ OE he

particular arfy.; Л^; < permit, v.; NE; < OF permettre;ME particuler; OF particulier L permittere

passen pass/pace, v., weak 2; ME; peyne, pain, я.; ME; < OF peine;^OF'passer L P o e n a

Passion, /г.; ME; < MiS passioun; piece, п.; NE; < ME/OF pieceOF passion; L passio p i lgrim, pilgrim, л.; МЯ; <

path, п.; NE; < OE ршб; ME path OF pelegrin; L peregrmusPatiently, adv.; NE; < rel. to pilgrimage, pilgrimage, п.; ME; <

ME patient, adj., OF patient, OF pelegrinage or derived fromL patens, n. MEpilgrym

patron, п.; NE; < F patron; place, place, п.; ME; < OF place;L patronum L platea

pay. V.;NE;<ME payen, weak 1 or plate, п.; NE; < ME/OF plate;2; OF paier L platta

пауей, pay. "•» weak J o r 2'< M E > < play, п.; NE; < OE р1еза; ME pley/(5Fpaier play

455

PART 4. GLOSSARY -

playen. pleyen. play, v., weak 2; p resen t , v.; NE; < OF presenter;ME; < OE ple3ian L prassentare

player, player (actor), «.; NE; < rel. preserve, v.; NE; < OF preserver;to OE ple3ian, v., weak 2; L pra-seruareME playen p re s ide , v.; NE; < OF presider;

poor, adj.; NE; < ME povre/poure; L prassidareOFP°vre p r iken . prick, v., weak 2; ME; <

poore. poor, n. (substantivised OEpricianadj.), ENE; < ME povre/poure, p r j m e r „ . N£; < OF primer;adjective; OF povre L p ] f lmus

pjort, n.; NE; < F porte; L porta p r inc ipa l , principal, adj.; ME; <posie. poesy (motto, short OF principal; L principalis

inscription), n., ENE; < principle, n.: NE; < ME pryncipal;ME poesie = poete; OF principal; L principalisOF poesie = poete; L poeta , , _ »*ir/p

. ^ p r o b l e m . «.; NE; < ME/Fp o s s e s s i o u n . possesssion, «.; probleme;Lproblema

ME; < OF possession, , . . t, ?.L possessio proc lamen, proclaim, v., weak 2,

ME; < OF proclamer,possible, adj.; NE; < ME possyble, L proclamare

TpoiiMfc, °F P°S S i M e ; W ^ g t , ..; NE: < jr p.ojec,Lprojectum

POUM.pound, n.; ME; < OB pwdi {e f> ,uENE<<L p O n d O ME preve; OF preuve

power , „.; ME, NE; < OF poeir/ p r o p o s e . v i V £ . < ^ prOpOSer;p o u e r Lpro+poser

prac l ice , n.; NE; < ME practise, p r o u e . p r o v e , v , . ENE;' <rel. to practise, v.; OF practiser; * o F profian, v., weak 2;Lpractizere ME proven

pray., v.; NE; < ME preyen, v., weak proven, prove, v., weak 2; ME; <2;OFprener;Lprecan OE pr5fian; rel. to OF proven;

prayen, preyen. pray, v., weak 2; L P r o b 3 r e

ME; < OF preiier; L precari provide, v.; NE; < L providere

p r e s e n s , presence, «.; ME; < puple, see pgple ; MEOF presence; L praesentia, XTr, %jrr,praesens pu rpose , n.; NE; < ME purposs;

OF pourpos; Z- propositumpresen t , aJy.; iVE; < OF present; p u z z I e NE < M j B a p p o s a i l e n

456

a(a,as)-b-c-d-e-f-g(^)-h-i-.i-k-l-m-n-0rp-q-r-s-t-}3(6)-u-v-w-x-y-z

uarrel at a tournament

ШШх, п., ME; < F qualite; queene, queen, п., ENE; <L qualitas, qualitatem (ace.) OE cwen; ME queen

l, п., NE; < ME/OF querele; question, п.; NE; < ME questioun;Z-querela Of question

fluantitie. quantity, п., ENE; < quickly, adv.; NE; rel. to OE cwicME quantitee; OF quantite (adv.) (+hce); ME quyk (+ly)

PART 4. GLOSSARY

ive- a steward supervisingthe estates and tenantsfor the landowner

ra5e, rather, adv.; OE

range, v.; NE; < F ranger, rel. toOF reng, п., OHG hrinc; cf.OE Ъпщ (NE ring)

reaf. (garment, clothing, armour), n.neut., a-stem; OE

really, adv.; NE; < OF reel; L realis+ ly (native, OE \xc)

reasonably. adv.; NE; <ME resoun, п.; OF raison; L ratio+ OF -able; L -abilis + OE -lie;ME -lich, -ly

recall, v.; NE; < L re + OSc kalla;OE ceallian, v., weak 2; ME callen

rece iven. receive, v., weak 2;ME; < OF receivre; L recipere

redy. ready, adj.; ME; < OE rede

reluctance, п.; NE; < L reluct +F -ance

r e m e m b e r . v.; NE; <OF remembrer; L rememoran

representative, adj.; NE; <OF/F representatif;L reprasentatlv(us)

researcher, п.; NE; < OF/L re- +ME serche; OF cerchier +OE/ME -er

resoun. reason, п.; ME; < OF raison;L ratio

r e s p e c t п.; NE; < ME respect;OF respect

rest, п.; NE; < OF reste; L restare, v.

resten. rest, v., weak 1; ME; <OE restan

result, п.; NE; < rel. to F resulter, v.,L resultare

reuel. revel, v., ENE; < ME revelen,v., weak 2; OF reveler

riden. ride, v., str. 1;ME; < OE ndan

ring, п.; NE; < OE hrin3; ME ryng

rise, v.; NE; < OE rlsan, v., str. 1;ME risen

rokken, rock, v. weak 2; ME; <OE roccian

roote, root, п.; ME; < OSc rot

round, adv. /prep.; NE; < rel. toME round, adj., OF roont

458

a(a,ae)-b-c-d-e-f-g(3)-h-i-i-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-{3(d)-u-v-w-x-y-2

ruh, rough, adj.; OE ryht-norfoan-wind, right north windM.IO xrr. ,,J-- r . , / , p (direct north wind), n., masc, a-rule, n., NE; < ME reule, nwle; OF K

s(em. QE

riule, reule; L regula 'run 5 v . > ^ ; <O^r innan , , , ^5 ; rM2 !run, , J^i;M^;<^rinnan

ME rinnen rysen, rise, v., str. 1; ME; < OE ffsanJTUWan. see ruh fw ^e/(?re vovvefaj;

0 £

PART 4. GLOSSARY

squire dressed in all his finery

Sjg, sea, n.Jem., i-stem; OE schal. see schulle ; ME

sacrament , sacrament, n.: ME: < schuld. see schulle; MEL sacramentum s c h u l l e . shall (have to), pret.-pres.

s a c r e d , adj.; NE; < rel. to verb; ME; < OE sculanMBsacren, v., weak 2; OF sacrer „„.„ . . . ^ , M . / I F

scip. ship,«., neut., a-stem; UPsad, adj.; NE; < OE ssed, ME sad(e) _ . . . . , f , ? vtem-

~ SCiJC, shire (province), n.Jem., a-stem,

safe, adj.; NE; < ME sauf; L saluum OE

saide. see seven ; ME scote. school, >».; M^; < OE scol;

sajl, v.; NE; < OE si3lan, v., weak 1 L s c o l a ; 0 F CSCole

andse$ian, v., weak2; MEseiten score, score (two tens), ».', Wo; <saint , n. / a # ; NE; < ME seint, O^scoru

saint; OF seint; L sanctum scrowe. (scroll, roll of parchment,cnlt n,v, • MI?- nj? coni*. TUIV ann written document), n.; ME; <salt, adj., NE; < OE sealt; ME salt QF e s c r Q u e > rd w m e s c r o WS m ^ ^ m ^ w / / 7 W ' ! ' ; M ^ < scrvddan. shroud (cover and

Sc sami, O^ same conceal), v., weaJt 7; OE ••S ^ a m p i S s l m S S a m P l e ; C/ S UfelH, shall,v.,^.-p.,;OF'»^<«W^* ^ J B f e J ! ? ^ * • • t h a t ' p m "

Mil seggensceawun^. (survey.exploration), „., flfl»«ld,v..p«r*.:«<.«llan;flS

fem.,o-stem;OE season, v.; ME1; < M£ sesounen;sceolde. should, v., past t. sing, (see OF s a i s o n n e ! t

sculanj; OE §£M» see sgoflan; O£460

a(a,£e)-b-c-d-e-f-g(?;)-h-i-i-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-br5)-u-v-w-x-v-z

secganT say, v., weak 3; OE sermon, n.; NE; < ME sermun,, ,,„ , sermoun; OF sermon;

Second, num.; NE; < ME secounde; L Serm5nemOF second

j »,,-, segon = Sgsoun, season (time),«.;secounde, second, num.; ME; < ME; < 0F s e s o n ; L s a t i o

OF second; L secundus.. . , . setten, set, v., weak 1; ME; <

section, n.; NE; < L sechon(em) tfzTsettansee n.; NE; < OE seon, v., str. 5; ^ s inC6) •. ME. < 0E s i a 5 a n

ME seenseveral, adj.; NE; < F several;

see, sea, n.; ME; < OE see ZTseparal

seeke, sick, adj.; ME; < OE seoc seyjen, say, v., weak 3; ME; <seem, v.; NE; < OE seman, v., weak OE sec3an

1 (meaning influenced by Sc); s} i a ; ] v . NE; < 0E s c u l a n (in^MB semen sceal (pres. sing.), pret.-pres.;

seethe, v.; NE; < OE seosan, v.; str. ME shal2; ME sethen shalt. see shall, ENE

seething, adjJpart. 1, see seethe, shame, v.; NE; < OE scamian, v.,NE weak 2; ME shamen

seken, seek, v., weak 1, img.\ME;< s h a p e n . NE. < 0E 3 e . s c e a p ;

OE secan ME i-shapeselectioji,«.; NE; <I sciecti6n(em) §M pwn pgr^ NE; < QE h e o .self,self(hims<zlf),pwji.;OE ME he/she

sellan sell (give, hand over), u., sheene, sheen, n., ENE; < rel. toweak 1, irrcgA OE OE scyne, adj; ME shene, adj.

semen seem, i'., weak 2; ME; < shine.' v.; NE; < OE sclnan, v., str. 1;OEskman M£ shynen

send en send, v., weak 1; ME;, < shjre, shire,«.; ME; < 02? scirOE scndan shortly, adv.; ME, NE; < OE scort-

Seo (that), pron. demonstr.fetn., see lices'e; OZ? > «/. » NE the s h o u I d . V-. ^ ; < 0E s c u I a n f W f

Sgon see,v.,str.5i.0E scolde f/»«sr subjunct.j;seoSan, seethe (boil, cook, by ME s h o l d e

-polling), v.. -y""- 2<0E shoure, shower, it.; ME; < OE scurggggratg, oajf.; NE; < ME separate; ishow. n.; NE; < ME sheue, «•/. to

t separatus 0/j sceawian, v., weak 2;ME shaven/shewen/showen

161

PART 4. GLOSSARY

show, v.; NE; < OE sceawian, v., solemn, adj.; NE; < ME,weak 2; ME shaven/shewen/ OFsolempne;L solemnem

_ s h o w e n som, some, pron. indef.; ME;<SI, see beon, wesan; OE OE sum

sick, adj.; NE; < OE seoc, ME seek some, pron.; NE; < OE sum;

sjcke, sick, adj., ENE,see sick M£som. A a ., , „ «„ _, somewhat. /?ron. / adv.; NE; <

Side, side, n.; ME; < OE side OE sum hwxt; ME som-what ^^

Sje, «« beon, wesan; O^ somtvme. sometime, adv.; ME; <SJ3, see beon, wesan; O£ OE sume-timan

Sin, see beon, wesan; OE sona, soon, arfv.; OE

Since, con;.; ME; < OE si3San; s o n d r v . sundry, aJ/.; ME:ME sith(e) (?£syndri3

SJT, «.; iVS; < short for sire, F sire; sonne. sun,«.; ME; < OE sunneL s e n i o r soote. sweet, adj.; ME; < OE swotfe/

Sister , n.; NE; < OE sweostor; sweteME suster (form influenced by §QX& s o r e (ha rd)> adv / adj.. ME;kbc) OEsare

SJttan,sit,v.,^r.5;O£ S o r r v . adj.; NE; < OE saris;si55an. since (afterwards), advJeonj.; ME sory

0E SO tha t . conj.,NE; < OE swa;Size, v.; NE; < ME (a)ssis(en)i v., ME swo, so + OEfcaet; Affi that.,

wea^ 2; rel. to OF assisen ^ s o o t h ( t ru th)> n#> n e M t ) a.stem-

slaue. slave, n., JEWE; < ME sclaue; 0#OFesclave; 5c sclyaff; L sclavus S 0 U n d . n.; NE; < ME soun;

slender, adj.; NE; < ME s(c)lendre; OF sounOF esclendre sounden. sounen. sound, v., weak

s lepen . sleep, v., str. 7; ME; < 2;ME; < OF suner; L sonareOFslSpen s o u r c e , n.; NE; < ME source;

smale. small, adj.; ME; < OE smasl OF sourssmede, smooth,adj.; OE s ove re ign , adj.; NE; '<

, , , , ME sovereyng; OF spvenansnybben. snubben. snub, v., weak . ,_

2; ME; < Sc snibbe, snubba sowperne. southern, adj.; ME; <OE suoerne

SO, conjJadv.; ME, NE; < OE swa , ,_ . „* space, space, n.; ME; < OF espace;

SOlg, adj.; NE; < OF sol; L solum Lspatium462

a(a,£e)-b-c-d-e-f-g(^)-h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-}j(d)-u-v-w-x-y-2

s p e a k e . speak, v., ENE;'< s toop, n.\ NE;'< OE stupian, v.,OE sprecan, v., str. 5; ME speken weak J; ME stoupen

s p e c h e . speech, n.; ME; < stow, stow (place),«., fern., wo-stem;OE spralc OE

specially, especially, adv.; ME; < Strange, adj.; NE; < ME straunge;rel. to OF especial (adj.), OF estrange; L extraneusIspecialis street, street (the road built by the

speken . speak, v., str. 4; ME; < Romans), n., fern., o-stem;OEOE sprecan s t raunge, strange (foreign), adj.;

spell, spell (story), n., neut., a-stem; ME; < OF estrange! L extraneusOE strond, strand (shore), n.; ME; <

sprecan. speak, v., str. 5; OE OE strand

Stable, stable, n.; ME; < OF estable; stycce- mSIum. stockmeal (hereLstabulum and there), adv.; 02?

stand, v.;NE;<OEstandan,v.,str. subjeccion. sub jecc ioun .6; ME stonden subjection, n.; ME; <

.rr, .. OF subjection, L subiectios t a n d a r d , adj.; NE; < J J

OF estandard; L standardum succeed, v.; NE; < OF succeder;r . . L succedere

State. «.; NE; < OF estat, L statumI j r r,ME, s u c h , pron.; NE; < OE swilc;

statement, n.; NE; < ME/OF estat; —^fE Swich/swuchL status + OF -ment

,rr, />r. t * • SJUHJ some,pronJadj.;OEstatut . statute, «.; ME; < OF statut; ' 'y •"

• L statutum sumdel. (somewhat), adv.; ME; <.„ , OE sumne dael

Steep, v.; NE; < ME stepen rel. toOE stlepan, v., weak 1 sume. some, pron. indef.; OE

stefn, (voice, sound), n. masc. / Sumer, sumor. summer. /;.. masc. u-, neut. /fern., o-stem; OE stem; OE

slgnM!, = stefn, see above; OE sun, n.; NE; < OE sunne; ME sonne

stenc, stench, n. masc, i-stem; OE sunne. see sun, n., ENE

5|ggr-bord, star-board,«., neut., a- sunu. son, n., masc, u-stem; OE•swm 0E su|)rvhte. south right (right/straight

gjgVjrardL »•; NE; < OE stlweard to the south), adv.; OEstick, v.; NE; < OE stician, v., weak sudweard. southward (southwards),—2TM#stiken adv.;OEStill, adv.; NE; < OE stille; ME stille SWa, so, adv. /prep, /conj.; OE

463

PART 4. GLOSSARY

swa... swa. so (so as... as), conj;, OE

SWech. such, pron.; ME; < OE swilc

SWeltan. (die, perish), v., str. 3; OE

sweren, swear, v., str. 6; ME; <OE swerian

SWete. sweet, see soote; ME

SWJch, such, pron. indef.; ME; <OE swilc

SWJlc, such, pron.; OE

SWTde. (very much, exceedingly),^.;OE

SWfjbOSt. (mostly), adv., superl. d:,seeswi6e; OE

Swore, see sweren ; ME

swura. (neck), n. mascn-stem; OE

sylle; see sellan; OE

synd. see wesan; OE

systematic, adj.; NE;, <L systematic(us)

take, v.; NE; < OE takan, v., str. 6; that, pron. demonstr ./pron. relat./ME taken conj.; ME, NE;<OE ba?t (se, seo)

taken, take, v., str. 6; ME; < the, art.; ME, NE; < OE se, seo,OE tacan; cf. OSc taka 6aet; ME also bat / that

tale, tale, п.; МЯ; < 0 Я talu thee, pron. pers.; NE; < OE f>e, J)ec;

taste, v.; NE; < ME_ tasten;OF taster; L taxitare, taxare their, pron. poss. ; M?; < 0Z? hira /

, , . , „ heara;MEbeir(e); OScbeiratechen, teach, v., и/ед 1; ME; < * v

OE tecan them, see they; NEtechvnge, teaching, gerund, see themselues, see themselves, ENE

techen; ME themselves, pron. reflex.; NE; <tell v.; NE; < OE tellan, v., weak 1, ME f>eim/them; OSc {)eim +' 'irreg.; ME tellen OE self

tellen, tell, v., weak I, irreg.; ME; < ther . there, adv./conj.; ME; <ДО tellan OE baer

tend, v.; NE; < ME tenden, v., weak there, adv.; NE; < OE Ьагг; ME ther,2;'OFtendre thar

tendre tender, adj.;ME; < OFtendr& these, pron. demonstr.; ME, NE; <

^ 7 ; NE; < F texte; L textus °*** M E a l " t h i s e ' a "™ PL

^p^m'aiso&?Bi < &%$*• "«*•• ™-' <ME ^

ti^i Рш^тШ ^ П С 1 а П ' V " 1ЫШЬ thither (to that place), adv.;i*?at 2; Mb tnanken M £ , . < O £ , ^ j d e r

465

PART 4. GLOSSARY

thin, thine, thy, pron. poss.; ME; < to^prep.; ME, NE; < OE to

°E&n tO,to,prep.;OEthinke, think, v., ENE; < . , , .„ _„,_

OE pencan, v., weak 1, irregular; & ' t 0 0 ' adv/>ME' < 0E t o

ME thynken too, adv.;NE;< OE t5; ME to, tooth irde , third, num.; ME; < to-eacan. fin addition to). advJprep.;

OE pridda OE

th ir t ie , thirty, num.; ENE; < toforan, (before),adv.;OE0F,priti3;MEthritty/pirty

together, pron. demonstr.; NE; <this, pron. demonstr.; ME, NE; < OE to-^sedere; ME toeedere

OEpis x °A. . , tonge. tongue, n.; ME; < OE tun3ethither, adv.; NE; < OE f>ider, 777" ,

M£ thider total. «<://.; AE; < F total; L total(is)thorowoute, throughout, prep.; tQ&, tooth, n., ma^c, root-stem; OE

ME; < OE frurh-ut touch, v.; AE; < ME touchen, v.,those , pron. demonstr.; NE; < weak2, OF tochier

OE f)os; ME thos toward, toward(s), pron. relative;thou, (you), / W H . pers., ENE; < ME;<OEto-weard

OEt>\x; ME thou traditional, adj.; NE; <though, conj.; NE; < OE £eah; F traditional; L traditional(is)

ME t h o u 8 h t raged ie . tragedy, «., ENE; <thought , n.; NE; < OE Jjoht / 0E tragedie; ME tragedie

3e-{)oht; ME thought travaillen. travel, v., weak 2; ME; <thrift, n.; NE; < ME thrift; OSc fnift OF travaillierthrough, prep.; iVfi; < 0 £ f>urh; treason, n.; A^£; < M£ tresoun;

M£ thurgh OF tresounthus, adv.; NE; < OE fws; M£ thus iE£§. "•'. ME; < OiS treo; M£ tree

thy, (you), pron. p o ^ ; ENE; < t r i a l i «•; A^5 < rc/- ^ ME tryen, v.,OE $>m; ME thyn(e)/thy weak 2; OF trier

thynken, think, v., weak 1; ME; < trumpet, /!.; iV£; < ME trompette,O£ ' fy n c a n ^ m e t n y n k e t n - 1 [ t n i n k, OF trompetteimpers. construction ^ v . NE-t < ME trye^ Vi> wefl / t 2 ;

tld, tide (period of time), «., /em., OFtraero-stem; OE turn, v.; A'E; < <?^ turnian, v., weak

time, n.; NE; < OE tima; M£ tyme 2; ME turnen; re/, to OF turner;

Us = it is, ENE466

a(a,£e)-b-c-d-e-f-g(3)-h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-|3(5)-u-v-w-x-y-z

twa, two, num.; OE twice, num.; NE; < ME twies;tweie. two, num.; ME; < OB trtto O£ twiwa, twi3estwelue . twelve, num.; ENE; < ^^cen, (kid), „ neut., a-stem; OE

OE twelf; ME twelve, twelue tyme, time, n.; ME; < OE tima

twenty , twenty, num.; ME; <OEiwen-ti3

PART 4. GLOSSARY

T hree Catholic

zealots fleeing

persecution

jba, (then), adv.; OE p_agt vice, that ilk (just the same),

fct, (when), conj.; OE Pronr' O E

|>a, those, pron. demons*., pi; OE ^ j p ' ( w h e n " t h e n ) ' conjJadv.;

ujm, yet, «*.; «? M j w h i c h > that)> pwn r d a t ,бает, foam, that (those), pron. conj. (often placed in

demonstr.; see se; OE combination with pronouns); OE

p a n , than, conj.; ME; < OE fcanne fee, the, art.; ME; < OE se, seo, |>aet

foanne, foonne, than, then (when), foeah. though, cwy.; OJBCOT;., foe5en. (warrior), п., inasc, a-stein;

|>anon, thence (from there), adv.; 0Л? OE

5Г£Г, |)Sra, there, дЛ. /conj.; OE f)eodscipe. (people, tribe),n.;OE;<»— , , , suffix rel. toNE-shipo a e r e , that, pro/i. demonstr., dat. sing., JJ *

fem.; see seo; OE foeowian. (serve), v\; weak 2; OE| ) s e r - o f , thereof, adv.; OE fcerby. thereby, adv.; ME; < OE> * i • i fcaer-b!

pa3S, pes , шг^, /;го/г. demonstr.;OE fcere, there, adv./conj.; ME; <

paes-f>e, ей pss, pe; OE_ _, . . , pes, this, рго/г. demonstr., masc; OE9get, that, co«/. / pron. demonstr.; f

<7J5" p e y , they, р/шг. perj.; MJE1; <OScb&a

bat, that, pro/7, demonstrJpron. relatJconj.;ME;<OE$azt Older, thither (there, to that place),

' . __ adv. OEpaet.. . paet, that... that, conj.; OE

468

a(a,a)-b-c-d-e-f-g('Q-h-i-i-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-b(d)-u-v-w-x-v-z

frjn, thine, thy, pron. posses.; OE fere, three, num.; ME; < OE f>n

fcing. thing, n. neut., astern; OE frrle. three, num.; OE

jbing, thing, n.; ME; < OE f>in3 forim. see f>rle; OE

fois. this, pro/i. demonstr.; ME; < feu, thee, thou (you), pron. pers,OE f)is sing. (ace. pec, $e, dat. £e, gen.

bissum. this, pron. demonstr., dat. *""* °E

sing., masc. (see jbes,); OE dus. thus, adv.; OE

foonan. thence (from there), adv.; OE ftyder, thither (there, to that place),

-done, that (the),pron. demonstr.;see _a V"'se; Oi? foystrian, (become dark), v., wea/t 2;

bowsand. thousand, ««/». (subst.);ME; < OE fcusend

PART 4. GLOSSARY

^шшУ ncleSam

unanswered, adj.; NE; < rel. toOE un + OE andswarian, v., weak2; ME answeren

undergietan. (understand), v., weak3; OE > rel. to NE under, get

unfrid. (hostility), п., masc, astern;OE

unintelligible, adj. ;NE;<OEun +Fintelligible;/, intelligibilis

unite, v.; NE; < L unit

unto, prep.; < rel. to und (OFries,Goth, OSax) + OE to; ME unto

up, adv.; NE; < OE up, upp; ME up

up-in, up in, adv.; OE

uplondisshe, uplandish, adj.; ME;< OE up-lendisc

upon, prep.; NE; < OE uppon;ME upon

upweard, upward (upwards), adv.;OE

US. pron. pers.; NE; < OE us; ME us

usage, usage (custom), п.; ME, NE;< OF usage

use, v.; NE; < F user, L Qsare

useful, adj.; NE; < ME/OF us;L Osus + OE/ME -ful

usen. use, v., weak 2; ME; <OF user; L usare

fit, out, adv.; OE

fltagan. (go out, go forth), v.,anom.; OE

Utan. out (on/from the outside), adv.;OE

a(a,ae)-b-c-d-e-f-g(3)-h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-l3(6)-u-v-w-x-y-z

V.irtuous wife

validitie. validity, п., ENE; <F validite; L validitas

valley, п.; NE; < ME valeie;OF valee

valley-fountain, n. (composite),see valley, fountain; NE

variety. n.;NE; < rel. to ME varien,v.; OF varier; L variare; F variete,n.;L varietas

vertu. virtue (force), п.; ME; <OF vertu

Very, adv.; NE; < OF verai; L ueras

yeyne. vein, п.; ME; < OE veine

Violence, п.; NE; < ME violence;OF violence; L violentia

violent, adj.; NE; < ME violent;OF violent

visit, v.; # # ; < F visiter; L uisitare

vis itat ion. «.; NE; < rel. toF visiter; L uisitare + F -tion

vnripe. unripe, adj., ENE; < OE un-ripe; ME unripe

vnshaken, unshaken, adj. I part. 2of shake, ENE; < OE ип+зе-scacen; OE scacan (inf), v., str. 6;ME shaken

voice, п.; NE; < ME, OF vois;L uocem

vouch, v.; NE; < MF voucher;L uocare

vouchsafe, v.; NE; see vouch, safe

voyden. void, v., weak ; ME; < rel.to OF voide, adj.

Vp. see up, ENE

Vpon. see upon, ENE

VS, see us, ENE,

PART 4. GLOSSARY

wifeofBath

walk, v.; NE; < OE wealcan, v., str. wel, well (almost, very), adv.; ME; <7; ME walken OEwel

want, n.; NE; < ME want(e); OSc welcome, see well, come; NEV a n t well, adv.; NE; < OE, ME wel

warm, adj.:NE: < OE wearm . - ,tU. ,——— •* w e n a n . ween (think, suppose,wasron. were, v., past t.; see wesan; believe), v., weak I; OE

wendan. wend (go), v., weak 1; OEwaes. was, v.,past t. (see wesan); OE •, ,, . , , H,p.y ' wenden . wend (go), v., weak 1;ME;wash, n.; NE; < OE wsesc; ME wassh < OE wendan

Wast, see witan; OE went , went , past t., see wenden;

Western, western, adj.; OEwatch , v , NE; < OE wa^ccan, v., ^^Mk, (become), v., str. 3;OE

weak 3; ME wacchen were(n) . were, pas? f., see been; MEway, n.; NE; < OE we3; ME wey, were. seebe,NE

W a y w e s a n . (be), v., 5?r. 5, defectivewe, /?ron. perj.; ME, NE; < OE we fprej. /. sing, eom, eart, is; pi. sint,.,,««ir /• \rc i * /IE- - synd. sindan, sindon; pcwf f. wass,3 £ § a S i ' ^ ' ^ ^ r e t t o ° W££Can' w«ron; J M y . si, sl3, pi. sin; « «

y . ,w^7;M£:weken beon);OEwear v ; yVE; < O£ werian, v., weak w e s t a n w i n d . west wind,«., /WOK?., fl-

/ ;M£weren s(em.OE '

^ • 'ME^wcdden W e d d i a n ' V"' ^ weste. waste (uninhabited), arfj.; O£weste, west, at//.; ME; < OE west

472

a(a,a)-b-c-d-e-f-g(^)-h-i-i-k-i-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-b(d)-u-v-w-x-y-z

Westen. waste (uninhabited land), n., willan, will (want, wish), v., mom.; OEneut.,ja-stem;OE .,, .,, ,

WlHen, will (would), anom. verb;westwearri, westward (westwards), ME; < OE willan

adv.;OEwin, wine, n. neut., astern; OE

WJ5£, way, n.; ME; <0Ewe^ . . «„3 W ^ W C J winter, winter,».. masc. u-stem: OE

a§yk, weak, adj.;ME;<OEwac • „ , , . , . ,y ' Wircan, work (perform, do), v., weak

S h a n , when, adv. /pron.; ME; < 1, irreg.; OEw a e n n e wirisan. wyrgan. (outlaw, curse),

Shat) pron. indef./interrogative; v.,weakl;OEME,NE;<OE^xt wisely, adv.; NE; < OE wis;

ffihech, which, pron. rel.; ME; < ME wys + OE lieWJSSe, (knew), v., past t.; see witan;

SJien, adv.; NE; < OE hwanne/ OEhwa3nne;M£:whan(ne) ^ wiste. J g g witan; O£

^ ^ w h S S r N E i < 0E hwSr: H B M *

wit (know'observe'know'mn wner(e) understand), v., pret.-pres. (pres.

Svlnch., /?^o/z. rel. / indef. / t. sing, wat, wast, wat; pi. witon;interrogative, ME, NE; < past t. wisse, wist; part. 2 witenj;0 £ hwile; ME flfao whiche 0£"

SEll!l,whUe,awyVflrfi».;MB;<Ofihwil with, prep.; ME, NE; < OE wid;S!hQ,pron. interrog./indef./rel.; NE;

< OE hwa; ME who withal. Wv.; A^£; < C751 wifl+eal;ffihole, ^ y , ^ ; < O£ hal; ME hal/ ^ w i t h a l

whole Wlthdrawen. withdraw, v., str. 6;, __ M£; < £>£" wi3 + dra3an

V lCian. (live), v., »pea& 2; O£• J i „ , , „ nT^ - J Wltodhc, (certain, sure), «*#.; OJ?

w i d e l y , arfv., £A^£; < OE wid;ME wyd + OE -lie, ME -ly wijj, with, /;/•<?/?.; OE, ME

Wld-saL wide sea, 7i., fern., i-stem; OE wlaffen, stammer, v., weak 2; ME; <~Z . _ OEwlaffianWlj, (battle), n., neut., a-stem; OE

. . . __ ... wlaifervnge. stammering, gerund;Wilde, wild,adj.;ME;<OEwide — j e e wlaffenWill, «.; A®; <OEwilla; ME wille y ^ n . ^ j j . < 0 £ w g ; M £ w o ; 0

Will, v.; A E; < OE willan, omwia/. v.; woe is me! - interjection (phrasalME willen Uttit>

Willa. will, n. m « , n-jton; OE wol, will, see wilien; ME473

PART 4. GLOSSARY

wold, would, see willen; ME

wolde, would (wished), v., past t.;seewillan; OE

wolde(n), would, see willen; ME; <OE willan, wolden (pastpi.)

woman, п.; NE; < OE wlf-man;ME womman

WOnen, (dwell, remain), v., weak 2;ME; < OE wunian

WOnien, (be used to, dwell, remain),v., weak 2; ME; < OE wunian

Word, //.; OE, ME, NE

WOrhton, v., past t.; see wircan; OE

work, п.; NE; < OE weorc; ME were

world, п.; NE; < OE woruld;ME worlde

wormwood, п.; NE;. <OE wermwod; ME wermode(corrupted form)

worsh ip , п.; NE; < short forworthship, OE weor5 scipe;ME worth ship

Worst, adv.; NE; < OE wyrst;ME wurst, werst

Would, v., see will; NE

write, v.;NE; < OE wrltan, v., str. 1;ME writen

wyde, wide, adj.; ME; < OE wld

wylle, see willa; OE

a(a,ge)-b-c-d-e-f-g(^)-h-i-i-k-l-m-n-o-p-q-r-s-t-l3(9)-u-v-w-x-y-z

Yeoman - a proper forester

y_§, eye, n.; ME; < OE Ea^e. yonge. young, adj.; ME; < OE3eon3

yes, particle, NE; < OE yse, 3ese; YOU, pron. pers.; NE; < OE eow;ME yis, yus ME you

.Vet, adv.; NE; < OE 3it; ME yet your, pron. poss.; NE; < OE eower;fcfaUe,falUee fallen; MS M2?your(e),,P l . „ yow, you, pron. pers.; ME; <yjel, evil, n.,neut.,i-stem;OE J o~E ^owyjc = ik , ilk (same) (0 of that ilk, y . r o n n e . r u n ) p a r U 2 ; see r y n e n ; ME

archaic - the same), pron. indef.;OE y§. - IS, see wesan; OE

yldre. elder, fli/;., comp degr., see ^ t t = 1M, jee etan; OEeald;<9£

ymb. (about/around),prepJadv.; OE

Tart 5.Summary

Philosopher in his studyJohn Stanbridse, London, 1520

Основные вехи в истории английского языка

449 - высадка первых германцев на Британские острова

7 век - введение Христианства

7- 9 века - Семицарствие. Территориальные диалекты

871 -901 - правление короля Альфреда Великого

9 век - скандинавское завоевание

878 - раздел Британских островов на зоны англо-саксонского и датского (скандинавского) правления

9-10 века- превосходство Уэссекса и уэссекского диалекта- основного диалекта древнеанглийского периода

1017-1042 - переход всей Англии под власть датского(скандинавского) короля

1066 - Битва при Гастингсе. Норманнское завоевание

11-13 века - французский язык - язык государственногоустройства, судопроизводства и обучения

13 век - первый Парламент страны

1258 - Прокламация короля Генриха III впервыеопубликована на французском и английском языках

14 век- возврат английского языка во все сферы жизнистраны. Лондонский диалект - основной диалектязыка. Творчество Дж. Чосера

1477 - введение книгопечатания

1455-1485 - война Алой и Белой Розы. Централизация

страны, образование национального языка.

15 век- установление абсолютной монархии

16 век- разрыв с Римской католической церковью

16-17 века - начало эпохи Великих географических

открытий

1649-1660 - Великая буржуазная революция. Правление

Оливера Кромвеля

1660 - реставрация монархии

17-18 века - установление литературной нормы

английского языка. Творчество Уильяма Шекспира

17-20 века - географическая экспансия английского языка

17 век - первые английские поселенцы в Америке

18 век - колонизация Индии и Канады

19 век - освоение Австралии

20 век - появление английских поселенцев в Южной Африке

Лекция 1. Введение. Общие характеристикигерманских языков

/. Цель изучения предмета. Любой язык представляет собойпостоянно изменяющееся историческое явление. Изменения охватываютвсе аспекты языка: грамматику и словарь, фонетику и письменность.Основная цель изучения истории языка состоит в объяснениисегодняшнего этапа его существования, позволяющем лучше понять егосовременные особенности.

2. Внутренняя и внешняя история языка. Внешняя историялюбого языка - это события в жизни народа, говорящего на нем,оказывающие влияние на сам язык, это отражение истории людей вязыке, на котором они говорят. Внутренняя история языка описываетизменения, происходящие в самом языке, его грамматике, словарномсоставе, фонетическом строе и письменности.

3. Основные характеристики германских языков. Германскиеязыки принадлежат к индоевропейской языковой семье. В началепервого тысячелетия германские племена проживали на обширныхтерриториях Западной, Центральной и Восточной Европы.

3.1. Фонетические особенности. К основным характеристикамфонетического строя германских языков относятся: динамическоеударение, фиксированное на первом корневом слоге; абляут -позиционно независимое чередование гласных в корне, суффиксе илиокончании слова, способствующее формо- и словообразованию; умляут -фонетическая ассимиляция корневого гласного с гласным окончания,проявляющаяся как своего рода внутренняя флексия; передвижениясогласных - регулярные фонетические соответствия согласныхгерманских и прочих индоевропейских языков.

3.2. Грамматические особенности. Германские языки былиязыками синтетического строя. Именные части речи имели категориипадежа, рода и числа, глагольные - времени, наклонения, лица и числа.Основными способами формообразования были окончания, а такжечередование гласных в корне слова (особенно в глаголах) и в редкихслучаях супплетивизм - образование разных форм слова от разныхкорней.

5.3. Система письма. Германцы имели собственный, такназываемый рунический алфавит, и фонетическую систему письма, прикоторой каждый звук передавался одним символом - руной. Этоталфавит появился во втором веке нашей оры и просуществовал унекоторых народов в течение всего средневековья.

479

PART 5. SUMMARY

Лекция 2. Древнеанглийский период. Общаяхарактеристика

/. Внешняя история. История английского языка начинается с 5века нашей эры, когда произошло вторжение западногерманских племенанглов, саксов, ютов и фризов на Британские острова. Захватив почти всеплодородные земли, они частично уничтожили, частично вытеснили, ачастично подчинили себе местное население - кельтов.

/./. Основные письменные памятники. Первые письменныепамятники представляют образцы рунического письма.

В 7 веке с приходом Христианства на Британские острова пришли имногочисленные монахи, говорившие на латыни и использовавшиелатинский алфавит, который постепенно вытеснил рунический,позаимствовав из него отдельные символы для обозначения звуков,отсутствовавших в латыни - так возникло так называемое инсулярное,или островное письмо.

1.2. Диалектная классификация письменных памятников.

1.2.1. В отличие от племенных диалектов германских, племен до ихпереселения на Британские острова, диалекты древнеанглийскогопериода являются территориальными и именуются по названиюкоролевств, в которых на них говорили. Наиболее важнымикоролевствами и, таким образом, диалектами того периода былиНортумбрия (нортумбрийский диалект), Мерсия (мерсийский диалект) иУэссекс (уэссекский диалект).

1.2.2. Основные письменные памятники периода написаныинсулярным письмом. Большинство их них относятся к уэссекскомудиалекту и представлены трактатами религиозного содержания, а такжехрониками, историческими и философскими трудами.

2. Внутренняя история. В течение древнеанглийского периодаязык развивался крайне медленно.

2.1. Фонетические особенности. Фонетический стройдревнеанглийского периода отличался фиксированным динамическимударением, падавшим на первый корневой слог слова.

Количественные и качественные характеристики гласных звуковбыли позиционными, т.е. зависели от положения звука в слове. Долготаударных гласных была фонематичной, позволяя различать слова толькодолготой ударного корневого гласного. Существовал полныйпараллелизм долгих и кратких гласных звуков, как монофтонгов, так идифтонгов.

Согласные были менее многочисленны, чем в современном языке. Вих числе не было некоторых фрикативных, звуков. Имелся ряд

480

ЛЕКЦИИ 1—12

позиционных качественных характеристик согласных, в том числезвонкость/глухость звука.

2.2. Система письма. Древнеанглийская письменность была восновном фонематична - каждой букве соответствовал один звук.

2.3. Грамматические особенности. Как и другие германскиеязыки, древнеанглийский был языком синтетического строя с хорошоразвитой системой флексий. Основными средствами передачи'Рематических значений были суффиксация, чередование гласных исупплетивизм. Порядок слов в предложении был относительносвободным.

2.4. Словарный состав. Словарный состав почти полностьюсостоял из исконных слов. Немногочисленные заимствования были'лавным образом из латыни. Новые слова образовывались путемДеривации (создания производных слов) и словосложения.

Лекция 3. Среднеанглийский период. Общаяхарактеристика

1. Внешняя история.1.1. Скандинавское вторжение. Скандинавское вторжение

продолжалось в течение более двух веков, с конца 8 по начало 11 века,когда под контроль завоевателей перешла вся Англия. Скандинавскоевторжение и последовавшее за ним переселение скандинавов натерриторию Англии, их постоянные контакты и смешение с местнымнаселением оказали глубокое воздействие на все аспекты английскогоязыка. Относительная легкость взаимопроникновения языковобъяснялась отсутствием каких-либо политических, социальных,культурных или языковых барьеров между их носителями.

1.2. Норманнское завоевание. Началом норманнского завоеваниясчитается 1066 год. Норманны, скандинавское племя, переселившееся задва века до этого на территорию современной Франции, воспринялиязык и культуру своей новой страны, и именно французский язык онипринесли с собой на Британские острова.

В результате норманнского завоевания французский язык на два слишним века стал языком правящих классов, языком королевского двора,парламента, судопроизводства, церкви и школы, отодвинув английскийна второй план. Восстановление утраченной роли английского языка в 14веке сопровождалось большим количеством заимствований изфранцузского и существенным изменением грамматической структурыязыка.

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1.3. Образование национального английского языка.Национальный английский язык сложился к 15 веку на базе лондонскогодиалекта, сформировавшегося из ранних южных и юго-восточныхдиалектов. Столица Англии, начиная с 11 века, Лондон был крупнейшийэкономическим, политическим, а также культурным центром, в которомжили и работали многие лучшие писатели и поэты того времени. Однаколитературная норма языка возникла гораздо позднее, только вновоанглийский период.

2. Внутренняя история. Среднеанглийский период был временембеспрецедентно быстрого развития языка. Этому способствовало то, чтов течение первых трех веков периода английский был исключительноустным языком, не имел письменной нормы и мог изменяться безсущественных ограничений. В результате все аспекты языка претерпелифундаментальные изменения.

2.1. Фонетические особенности. Фиксированное динамическоеударение сохраняется в исконных словах, в заимствованиях (особеннофранцузских) ударение падает на последний слог слова.

Появляются новые согласные (фрикативные и аффрикаты). Качествосогласных перестает быть позиционным.

Ударные гласные претерпевают количественные изменения подвлиянием так называемой ритмической тенденции, усредняющейдлительность слога.

2.2. Грамматические особенности. Грамматический строй всреднеанглийский период претерпевает фундаментальные изменения,превращая синтетический древнеанглийский язык в язык аналитическогостроя. Возникающие аналитические средства передачи грамматическихзначений в конце периода становятся доминирующими.

2.3. Словарный состав. Словарный состав языка в течениесреднеанглийского периода почти полностью обновился за счетчрезвычайно большого числа заимствований, главным образомскандинавских и французских. Наряду с внешними источникамипополнения словаря определенную роль играли и внутренние - в томчисле образование производных слов с использованием исконных изаимствованных элементов.

Лекция 4. Новоанглийский период. Общаяхарактеристика

/. Внешняя история11 Становление нации. 15 век стал поворотной вехой в истории

английского народа. Закончившаяся в 1485 году война Алой и Белой482

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Розы означала конец феодальной раздробленности и переход кпигализму, реальное политическое и экономическое объединение

траны, появление единой нации и единого национального языка.повоанглийский период стал периодом великих географических

рыгии, присоединения к британской империи новых земель ироких контактов с носителями других языков на всех континентах,

оставивших свой след в английском языке.Именно этот период дал миру такие великие имена, как Шекспир,

1енсер, Бэкон, Марлоу и многие другие.Относительно спокойное развитие страны было нарушено в 17 веке,

когда противоречие королевской власти и парламента привело к переходувласти к последнему, казни короля, а затем, через несколько лет,Реставрации монархии. Возвращение на престол сына казненногокороля, прожившего более десяти лет в ссылке во Франции, знаменовалоновую волну влияния французского языка.

•2. Установление литературной нормы. Литературная нормаанглийского языка сформировалась в конце 17 века, когда появилисьпервые словари и грамматики, основанные на научных принципах иставившие своей целью стабилизировать использование языка.Существенный вклад в становление литературной нормы внесли такжемногие знаменитые литераторы своего времени, и в первую очередьУильям Шекспир. Стандарт разговорного английского языка установилсянесколько позднее.

1.3. Географическое распространение английского языка в 17-20веках. Новоанглийский период стал периодом языкового объединениястраны и вытеснения нормированным английским других языков иДиалектов - кельтского, уэльского, ирландского и др.

В 16 веке с экспансией британского колониализма началосьпроникновение английского языка в другие регионы земного шара: в 17веке - в Северную Америку, в 18 - Индию, 19 - Австралию и 20 -Южную Африку. Сейчас английский язык является национальнымязыком более 300 миллионов человек во всем мире, а в качестве своеговторого языка его признает во много раз большее число людей.

2. Внутренняя история. Скорость развития языка в течение всегопериода постепенно замедляется, чему особенно способствуетустановление литературной нормы, оказывающей стабилизирующеевоздействие на язык.

2.1. Фонетические особенности. Ударение в исконных словахфиксировано, в заимствованных может падать на любой слог.Ритмическая тенденция привела к возникновению вторичных ударений вмногосложных словах.

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Изменения в согласных звуках были не столь велики, как всреднеанглийский период. Новым явлением была позиционнаявокализация согласных.

Безударные гласные на конце слов в большинстве случаев исчезли,гласные под ударением подверглись влиянию так называемого Великогосдвига - качественного изменения, в результате которого они стали болееузкими и передними по месту их артикуляции

2.2. Грамматические особенности. Грамматический строи вновоанглийский период не претерпел фундаментальных изменении.Основные изменения касались усиления аналитических черт языка,расширения использования вспомогательных слов, увеличения числааналитических форм, укрепления фиксированного порядка слов впредложении.

2.3. Словарный состав. Словарь - самый быстро развивающийсяаспект языка новоанглийского периода. Способы обогащения словарногосостава языка - как внутренние (образование производных слов,конверсия), так и внешние (заимствования). Источники последнихвесьма многочисленны благодаря не только прямым, но и косвенным(через книги, а в 20 веке - через кино, радио, телевидение) контактам совсем миром.

Лекция 5. Фонетика древнеанглийского периода

/. Гласные древнеанглийского периода.1.0. В древнеанглийский период существовал полный параллелизм

долгих и кратких гласных, как монофтонгов, так и дифтонгов, чтопозволяет говорить о фонематичности качественных и количественныххарактеристик гласных.

/./. Все гласные древнеанглийского периода происходят от гласныхобщегерманского праязыка, хотя и с некоторыми изменениями,результате которых монофтонги могли превращаться в дифтонгинаоборот.

1.2. В доисторический период развития английского языка вгласных произошел ряд качественных изменений, объясняющих различиемежду древнеанглийскими и общегерманскими гласными фонемами, ^тизменения были двух видов: позиционными (или ассимилятивными)независимыми (неассимилятивными). Наиболее важным^ассимилятивными изменениями были преломление и палатальнаперегласовка.

1.2.1. Результатом преломления стало появление дифтонгов имонофтонгов в определенном фонетическом окружении.

ЛЕКЦИИ 1—12

1.2.2. Палатальная перегласовка привела к сужению и сдвигу вперед110 аР'г"куляции большинства гласных под влиянием последующих звукови появлению новых гласных фонем.

1.2.3. Последствия палатальной перегласовки проявились как вграмматике, так и в словарном составе языка. В грамматике она привелак чередованию гласных в корне слова у существительных корневогосклонения и в степенях сравнения прилагательных, а также унеправильных слабых глаголов. Чередование гласных в корне врезультате палатальной перегласовки стало также средствомсловообразования.

2. Согласные древнеанглийского периода

2.0. Система древнеанглийских согласных отличалась отсовременной рядом особенностей. Среди них можно отметитьсравнительно небольшое число фонем, отсутствие фрикативныхсогласных и аффрикатов, а также зависимость качественныххарактеристик фонемы от ее непосредственного окружения в слове,последнее привело к появлению так называемых позиционныхвариантов, впоследствии развившихся в разные фонемы.

Соответствие английских согласных согласным другихиндоевропейских языков объясняется двумя фонетическими законами,именуемыми по имени их авторов Законом Гримма и Законом Вернера.

Лекция 6. Грамматика древнеанглийскогопериода. Система имени

0. Древнеанглийский язык был языком синтетического строя,предусматривавшего передачу всех основных грамматических значенийизменением формы самого слова, сочетавшего в себе как лексическое,так и грамматическое значение. Он отличался большим количествомфлексий как в парадигме имени, так и в парадигме глагола, и наличиемнескольких вариантов формоизменения в рамках каждой парадигмы взависимости от первоначальной структуры слова.

1. Общая характеристика системы имени. В древнеанглийскомязыке было пять склоняемых частей речи: существительное,местоимение, прилагательное, числительное и причастие.

2. Существительное. Парадигма существительного вдревнеанглийский период объединяла три грамматических категории:род, число и падеж.

2.1. Категория рода была образована оппозицией трех форм:мужского, женского и среднего рода. Отнесение существительных к тому

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или иному роду не основывалось на их биологической принадлежности ктаковым.

2.2. Категория числа была образована оппозицией форммножественного и единственного числа.

2.3. Категория падежа объединяла формы четырех надежей:именительного, родительного, дательного и винительного.

Различие в типах склонения существительных объясняетсяособенностями их первоначальной структуры. В общегерманском языкебольшинство существительных имело три элемента: корень,основообразующий суффикс и окончание. Именно этот изначальныйосновообразующий суффикс и является основанием для классификациисуществительных но группам, или "склонениям", хотя сам он вдревнеанглийский период зачастую уже не виден, так как слился с корнемили претерпел некоторые иные изменения.

2.4. В доисторический период развития английского языка каждыйпадеж имел собственные отчетливые окончания, зависящие от типасклонения существительного и его рода. Однако впоследствииразличные семантические и фонетические процессы привели ксближению окончаний в пределах одной парадигмы и появлениюомонимичных падежных форм. Это послужило одной из предпосылоксоздания новых средств для передачи грамматических значений.

3. Местоимение. В древнеанглийский период существовалиразличные классы местоимений: личные, притяжательные, указательные,вопросительные, относительные и неопределенные. Система склоненияразличных типов местоимений была неодинаковой, поскольку одни и теже грамматические категории имели различное число категориальныхформ.

3.1. Личные местоимения имели грамматические категории,сходные с категориями существительного. Однако различие в родепроявлялись только у существительных третьего лица единственногочисла, а категория числа местоимений первого и второго лица былаобразована оппозицией не двух, а трех форм: единственного,множественного и двойственного числа.

Другим отличием местоимений является то, что в их парадигмешироко используются супплетивные формы, а омонимия проявляетсянезначительно.

3.2. Все прочие местоимения склонялись подобносуществительным, за исключением того, что в отличие от них некоторыеместоимения имели пять падежных форм, добавляя формуинструментального падежа.

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4. Прилагательное. Парадигма прилагательного схожа спарадигмой существительного и местоимения. Она включает формыпадежей, родов и чисел.

4.1. Особенностью склонения прилагательных было наличие двух1Ипов склонения: определенного и неопределенного, по которым моглосклоняться одно и то же прилагательное. Значение данного явления быловпоследствии воплощено в категории артикля, возникшей существеннонозднее.

4.2. Еще одной категорией прилагательных были степенисравнения. Способы выражения значений степеней сравнения, как иДругих грамматических значений, были синтетическими: суффиксация,чередование гласных в корне и супплетивизм. Чередование гласных вформах степеней сравнения стало результатом палатальной перегласовки,происшедшей в дописьменный период развития языка, и не встречается вДругих германских языках.

Лекция 7. Грамматика древнеанглийскогопериода. Система глагола

/• Общий обзор личных и неличных форм глагола. Глагольнаясистема древнеанглийского языка была представлена личными инеличными формами глагола, различие между которыми было болеесущественным, чем в настоящее время, поскольку неличные формы нетолько спрягались, но и склонялись, подобно именным частям речи.

2. Грамматические категории личных форм глагола. Системаспряжения древнеанглийского глагола включала категории времени,наклонения, числа и лица.

2.1. Категория лица глагола включала формы первого, второго итретьего лица. Это различие проявлялось только в формах единственногочисла изъявительного наклонения.

2.2. Категория числа была образована оппозицией формединственного и множественного числа.

2.3. Категория времени была представлена формами настоящего ибудущего времени. Значение будущего времени выражалось с помощьюформы настоящего в сочетании с временным наречием или сочетаниеммодального глагола с инфинитивом.

2.4. Категория наклонения включала формы изъявительного,повелительного и косвенного наклонения. Последнее использовалосьдля выражения как нереальных, так и проблематичных действий (для

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чего в современном английском используется два разных наклонения), атакже вместо изъявительного наклонения для передачи косвенной речи.

3. Морфологическая классификация глаголов. Все глаголыдревнеанглийского языка можно подразделить на группы в зависимостиот грамматических средств, используемых при образовании их основ -чередование гласных в корне и суффиксация.

3.1. Т. наз. сильные глаголы использовали в качестве основногосредства выражения различных грамматических категорий чередованиегласных в корне, или абляут. Грамматические окончания присоединялисьнепосредственно к корню-основе глагола.

Сильные глаголы относятся к наиболее древним глаголам языка.Существовало несколько классов сильных глаголов, отличающихсяформой проявления абляута, зависящей от первоначальной фонетическойструктуры основы глагола.

3.2. Т. наз. слабые глаголы более новые по времени своегопоявления в языке. В качестве основного грамматического средстваобразования основы они использовали суффиксацию. Этот способобразования форм был наиболее продуктивным, и именно егоиспользовали вновь образуемые или заимствованные глаголы, постояннорасширяя число слабых глаголов.

Слабые глаголы, в отличие от сильных, имели передграмматическим окончанием основообразующий суффикс, в зависимостиот которого их также можно разделить на несколько классов.

Лекция 8. Изменения в фонетической системе всреднеанглийский и новоанглийскийпериоды

1. Среднеанглийский период.1.1. Гласные в безударном положении. Все гласные в безударном

положении претерпели качественное изменение, превратившись внейтральный звук'[]. Это фонетическое изменение оказало очень сильноевлияние на грамматическую структуру языка, поскольку в результате негомногие грамматические окончания слов стали омонимичными.

1.2. Гласные под ударением претерпели как количественные, так икачественные изменения.

1.2.1. Качественным изменениям подверглись три долгих и двакратких монофтонга, а также все дифтонги, которые в концедревнеанглийского периода претерпели стяжение, превратившись в

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монофтонги. Одновременно возникли новые дифтонги, образовавшиесяиз сочетания гласного звука с согласным, подвергшимся вокализации.

1.2.2. Имелись также количественные изменения ударных гласных.Они происходили в определенных позициях, называемых удлиняющимиили сокращающими.

Эти процессы оставили свой след в грамматике и словарномсоставе языка; приведя к возникновению чередования корневых гласныхв различных формах одного и того же слова, а также появлениюразличных гласных в исторически однокоренных словах.

1.3. Согласные. Наиболее важным изменением в системе согласныхсреднеанглийского периода было возникновение фрикативного [f] иаФфрикат[1<|"] и № ] из палатальных согласных или сочетаний спалатальным согласным, имевшихся в древнеанглийском языке. Этопривело к разделению аллофонов на самостоятельные фонемы.

Самостоятельными фонемами стали и аллофоны согласных,отличавшихся в древнеанглийский период по глухости/звонкости (s/z, f/v,о\9).

2. Новоанглийский период.2.1. Гласные в безударном положении, нейтрализованные в

среднеанглийском, в новоанглийский период опускаются и в редкихслучаях остаются исключительно для благозвучия.

2.2. Гласные под ударением претерпели как количественные, так икачественные изменения.

2.2.1. Все долгие монофтонги подверглись процессу, именуемомуВеликим сдвигом гласных, в результате которого они стали более узкимии сдвинутыми вперед по способу артикуляции. Некоторые из них приэтом превратились в дифтонги. Особо следует отметить случаи, когда задолгим гласным, претерпевавшим Великий сдвиг, следовал звук "г",который, вокализуясь, изменял предшествующий гласный, делая егоболее открытым и превращая монофтонг в дифтонг, а дифтонг - втрифтонг.

Определенные позиционные качественные изменения произошли ис некоторыми краткими монофтонгами ([а], [и]).

Два из четырех среднеанглийских дифтонгов ([ai], [аи]} подвлиянием Великого сдвига также сузились, причем один из них, [аи], приэтом превратился в монофтонг [и].

2.2.2. Количественные изменения гласных в новоанглийский периодбыли вызваны главным образом вокализацией согласных [г] и [h],удлиняющих предшествующий краткий гласный, а в некоторых случаях иизменяя его качественно.

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2.3. Согласные. Изменения в согласных звуках в новоанглийскиипериод не очень многочисленны. К ним относится появление новойфонемы [3] и развитие аффрикат из палатальных согласных взаимствованных словах, а также озвончение фрикативных согласныхпосле безударных гласных и в словах, не несущих синтаксическогоударения.

3. Изменения в алфавите и системе письма в среднеанглийский иновоанглийский периоды. Фонетическая система письма,существовавшая в древнеанглийском, в 13-14 веках подвергласьсущественным изменениям в результате деятельности переписчиков,находившихся под влиянием французских традиций письма, а такжезачастую допускавших смысловые ошибки.

"Островное письмо" было вытеснено "континентальным", врезультате чего были утрачены некоторые буквы, а соответствующие имзвуки стали обозначаться новыми, позаимствованными из французскойписьменности, а также сочетаниями букв - диграфами, что также былохарактерно для французского языка.

Орфографическая норма возникла одновременно с литературнойнормой, однако она подвергалась неоднократным попыткам ееулучшения или рационализации. В 16 веке был предложен новыйпринцип письма, стремившийся отразить исконную форму слова, ноприводящий зачастую к ошибкам.

В то же время крупные фонетические изменения, включая Великийсдвиг гласных, практически не отразились на системе письменности. Врезультате в современном английском языке один и тот же звукпередается зачастую разными буквами и их комбинациями, а одна и та жебуква может иметь разное прочтение. Кроме того, имеется большоеколичество нечитаемых, букв, как отражающих написание прежнихпериодов, так и добавленных впоследствии для обозначенияособенностей чтения предшествующих, букв.

Лекция 9. Изменения в системе имени всреднеанглийский и новоанглийскийпериоды

/. Общая характеристика грамматических изменений всреднеанглийский и повоангпийский периоды. Грамматика языкапретерпела кардинальные изменения: многие грамматические значения,ранее выражавшиеся синтетическими средствами, либо исчезли, либоначали выражаться аналитически, что привело к изменению самого типаязыка.

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2. Имя существительное.

• '• Среднеанглийский период. Сложная именная парадигмаДревнеанглийского языка в течение среднеанглийского периодасущественно упрощается.

2т'-1^ Морфологическая классификация. Различные типыклонений сохраняются, но происходит перераспределение числаносимых к ним существительных. Первоначальное а-склонение всельше расширяется за счет существительных других склонений, а также

заимствований.

2.1.2. Грамматические категории. В системе склонения остаютсяко^две грамматические категории: число и падеж. Количество

падежей сокращается до двух: общего и родительного.

2.2. Новоанглийский период. Процесс упрощения системысклонения продолжился.

2.2.1. Морфологическая классификация. Подавляющеебольшинство существительных склоняется по типу а-склонения;остальных типов склонений не существует (исключения единичны).

2.2.2. Неправильные формы существительных. Все современныенеправильные" формы существительных представляют реликтовые

формы малочисленных склонений или заимствования из латыни в формеи единственного, и множественного числа.

2.2.3. Грамматические категории. Количество категорий икатегориальных форм среднеанглийского периода сохраняется, ноУменьшается число существительных, используемых в родительном(притяжательном) падеже, а также сужается значение притяжательногопадежа.

3. Прилагательное. В парадигме прилагательного всреднеанглийский период представлены грамматические категориисклонения (сильное и слабое) и числа (единственное и множественное).В новоанглийский период эти категории прекращают своесуществование.

Напротив, степени сравнения прилагательных получают дальнейшееразвитие. При этом из трех основных средств образования формстепеней сравнения, существовавших в древнеанглийский период,продуктивной остается только одно - суффиксация, но в дополнение кнему возникает новое, аналитическое средство - использованиевспомогательных слов.

4. Местоимение. Сложная парадигма местоимения всреднеанглийский период существенно упрощается. К концусреднеанглийского - началу новоанглийского периода остается толькодва падежа, исчезает род как грамматическое явление, а двойственное

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число перестало существовать еще на рубеже древнеанглийского исреднеанглийского периода.

5. Артикль. Эта категория как оппозиция определенного инеопределенного артикля возникла в среднеанглийский период. Формаопределенного артикля восходит к указательному местоимению se,неопределенного - к числительному an.

Лекция 10. Изменения в системе глагола всреднеанглийский и новоанглийскийпериоды

/. Неличные формы глагола. В процессе истории неличные формыпостепенно теряют именные черты (элементы системы склонения),приобретая взамен глагольные (элементы системы спряжения). Всреднеанглийский период также возникает новая неличная форма -герундий.

2. Морфологическая классификация глаголов в среднеанглийскийи новоанглийский период

2.0. В среднеанглийский период разделение глаголов на сильные ислабые сохраняется.

2.1. Сильные глаголы

2.1.1. В новоанглийский период в группе сильных глаголовпроисходят изменения. Это вызвано разделением первоначальныхклассов на подклассы, присоединением глаголов одного класса кдругому, переходом сильных глаголов в группу слабых и в редких случаяхнаоборот.

2.1.2. Четыре основных формы сильных глаголовдревнеанглийского периода в новоанглийском переходят в тривследствие того, что вместо разных гласных абляута все чащеупотребляется одна.

2.2. Слабые глаголы. Группа слабых глаголов становится все болеемногочисленной, так как пополняется за счет заимствований и вновьобразованных слов.

2.2.1. Классы слабых глаголов теряют свои различия, глаголыпервого и третьего классов становятся неправильными.

2.2.2. В позднем среднеанглийском - раннем новоанглийскомпериоде вторая и третья формы слабых глаголов становятсяомонимичными.

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2.3. В новоанглийский период вследствие различных фонетическихизменений две основных группы древнеанглийских глаголов - сильные ислабые - дали две главных ipynnbi современных глаголов: правильные инеправильные, ни одна из которых не происходит непосредственно оттех или иных ipynn древнеанглийских глаголов.

Основными источниками неправильных глаголов былинемногочисленные неправильные глаголы древнеанглийского периода,ольшинство сильных глаголов, слабые глаголы первого класса, а также

глаголы - скандинавские заимствования.

j . Грамматические категории английского глагола. В дополнениек Древнеанглийским категориям лица, числа, времени и наклонения всреднеанглийский и новоанглийский период постепенно возникли ещетРи грамматических категории: залога, аспекта и временнойотнесенности. Для их образования использовались новые средства -аналитические формы.

Аналитические формы стали применяться и для прежнихграмматических категорий - времени и наклонения

Лекция 11. Словарный состав английского языка

1. Древнеанглийский период.1.1. Общая характеристика. Словарный состав древнеанглийского

периода был достаточно обширным. Он состоял главным образом изисконных слов. Среди них были слова, унаследованные из общегоиндоевропейского праязыка, слова общегерманского происхождения, атакже небольшое число слов, характерных только для английского языка.

1.2. Для выражения новых значений любой язык постояннообогащает свой словарный запас. Основными средствами пополнениясловаря в древнеанглийский период были внутренние.

1.2.1. К внутренним средствам обогащения словаряДревнеанглийского периода относится создание производных слов путемаффиксации или чередования гласных, а также словосложение.

1.2.2. Внешние средства обогащения словаря, или заимствования, вдревнеанглийский период были не очень многочисленны. Основньшизаимствованиями были латинские, главным образом связанные сторговыми контактами германцев, а позднее - с введениемХристианства.

2. Среднеанглийский период.2.1. Общая характеристика. Словарный состав среднеанглийского

периода изменялся крайне быстро, отражая диалектные особенности, атакже влияние контактов с другими нациями.

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2.2.1. Внутренние средства обогащения языка сохраняются, однакомногие аффиксы становятся менее продуктивными.

2.2.2. ^Основными средствами обогащения словарясреднеанглийского периода становятся внешние, заимствования.Наиболее сильное влияние на английский язык оказали два языка:скандинавский и французский, хотя природа и количество заимствованийиз этих языков, а также их последствия были различными.

3. Новоанглийский период.

3.1. Общая характеристика. Словарный состав новоанглийскогопериода растет очень быстро, не поддаваясь количественному учету.

3.2. Как внутренние, так и внешние средства обогащения словаряимеют большое значение.

3.2.1. Основным внутренним средством обогащения словарногосостава выступает конверсия - переход слова из одной части речи вдругую.

3.2.2. Большое число заимствований новоанглийского периодаотражает особенности контактов носителей языка с другими нациями.

Ранние новоанглийские заимствования представлены главнымобразом словами латинского происхождения (поскольку латынь былаязыком культуры своего времени), а также итальянскими (в связи сэпохой Возрождения, 15 век), испанскими и португальскими (16 век).

Открытие Америки принесло заимствования из языков местныхнародов, отражавшие реалии нового континента.

Заимствования позднего новоанглийского периода представленысловами французского происхождения (заимствованными в связи сРеставрацией монархии в Англии), а также отдельнымизаимствованиями из немецкого, хинди, китайского, арабского, русского идругих языков.

Лекция 12. Этимологические слои современногоанглийского языка

/. Общая характеристика. Сегодняшний словарный составанглийского языка как никакой другой аспект языка отражает глубокиеисторические изменения и различные контакты нации. Преобладающеечисло заимствований позволяет усомниться в самой природеанглийского языка, если не принимать во внимание превалирующуюфункциональную роль исконного элемента: значения, передаваемыесобственными словами, частотность и регулярность их употребления,отсутствие стилевых и функциональных ограничений их использования.

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2. Исконные слова английского языка представлены двумязимологическими слоями: общеиндоевропейским и общегерманским.

2.1. Слова общеиндоевропейского происхождения относятся камым древним словам языка, и корни их можно найти во многих других

языках этой семьи.

2.2. Слова общегерманского происхождения отражают периодремени вплоть до начала распада общегерманского языка на отдельные

ТУппы, происшедшего на рубеже 1 века до Н.Э. - ! века Н.Э.

3. Иностранный элемент (заимствования) составляет болееполовины словарного состава английского языка. Основными слоямиявляются латинские, скандинавские и французские заимствования.

3.1. Латинский элемент представлен заимствованиямищегерманского п е Р и °Д а (главным образом наименования бытовых

"редметов и продуктов); заимствованиями раннего древнеанглийскогопериода (через посредство кельтского языка - наименования объектовматериальной культуры римлян); словами, связанными с введениемХристианства в 7 веке; словами, вошедшими в язык в 15-16 веках всвязи с возрождением науки (главным образом "книжныезаимствования", слова научной номенклатуры). Большинство этих словможет быть достаточно легко определено благодаря характернымвнешним признакам, а также семантике.

3.2. Скандинавский элемент представлен заимствованиями 8-10веков, включающими слова повседневного обихода. Они настолько теснопереплелись с исконными словами, что точное этимологическоеотнесение их к заимствованиям не всегда возможно.

3.3. Французский элемент английского словаря имеет чрезвычайнобольшое значение. Ранние французские заимствования относятся кпериоду норманнского завоевания. Эти слова в основном относятся ксфере политической жизни, судопроизводству и государственномуУстройству. Большинство из них полностью ассимилировались ванглийском языке и не воспринимаются как заимствования.Средневековые французские заимствования представляют болееобиходные слова. Заимствования новоанглийского периода, связанные сРеставрацией монархии, включают много слов' - названий объектовматериальной культуры Франции, жизни высшего общества иразвлечений.

4. Слова-гибриды. Большое число заимствований из разных языкови их ассимилирование привело к возникновению в английском языкеслов, состоящих из элементов, разных по своему происхождению.

5. Этимологические дублеты. Этимологические дублеты - этослова, развившиеся из одного корня, но вошедшие в английский язык

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PART 5. SUMMARY

через посредство разных языков. Зачастую это приводит ксущественному изменению как из формы, так и значения.

Приведенные примеры различных этимологических слоевсовременного английского словаря лишний раз свидетельствуют о том,чю долгая и сложная история английского языка может быть в полноймере понята только при изучении его в тесной связи с историей, жизнинарода, являющегося его носителем.

the history of the english language

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