Stud

ies

in th

e H

isto

ry o

f Sc

ienc

e, T

echn

olog

y an

d M

edic

ine

edite

d by

Joh

n K

rige

, CR

HST

, Par

is, F

ranc

e.

Studies in the History of Science, Technology and Medicine

aim

s to

stim

ulat

ere

sear

ch in

the

fiel

d, c

once

ntra

ting

on th

e tw

entie

th c

entu

ry. I

t see

ks to

con

-tr

ibut

e to

our

und

erst

andi

ng o

f sc

ienc

e, te

chno

logy

and

med

icin

e as

they

are

embe

dded

in s

ocie

ty, e

xplo

ring

the

links

bet

wee

n th

e su

bjec

ts o

n th

e on

e ha

ndan

d th

e cu

ltura

l, ec

onom

ic, p

oliti

cal a

nd in

stitu

tiona

l con

text

s of

thei

r ge

nesi

san

d de

velo

pmen

t on

the

othe

r. W

ithin

this

fra

mew

ork,

and

whi

le n

ot fa

vour

ing

any

part

icul

ar m

etho

dolo

gica

l app

roac

h, th

e se

ries

wel

com

e st

udie

s w

hich

exam

ine

rela

tions

bet

wee

n sc

ienc

e, te

chno

logy

, med

icin

e an

d so

ciet

y in

new

way

s e.

g. th

e so

cial

con

stru

ctio

n of

tech

nolo

gies

, lar

ge te

chni

cal s

yste

ms.

The

His

tori

ogra

phy

of C

onte

mpo

rary

Sci

ence

and

Tec

hnol

ogy

Oth

er ti

tles

in th

e se

ries

Edi

ted

byT

hom

as S

oder

qvis

tR

oski

lde

Uni

vers

ity, D

enm

ark

Vol

ume

IT

echn

olog

ical

Cha

nge:

Met

hods

and

The

mes

in th

e H

isto

ry o

f T

echn

olog

y

edite

d by

Rob

ert F

ox

Volume 2

Tec

hnol

ogy

Tra

nsfe

r ou

t of G

erm

any

afte

r 19

45ed

ited

by M

atth

ias

Judt

& B

urgh

ard

Cie

sla

Volume 3

Ent

omol

ogy,

Eco

logy

and

Agr

icul

ture

: The

Mak

ing

of S

cien

tifc

Car

eers

inN

orth

Am

eric

a, 1

885-

1985

Pao

lo P

alla

dino

Volume 4

The

His

tori

ogra

phy

of C

onte

mpo

rary

Sci

ence

and

Tec

hnol

ogy

edite

d by

Tho

mas

S6d

erqv

ist

Oth

er V

olum

es in

Pre

para

tion

Mak

ing

Isot

opes

Mat

ter:

F.W

Ast

on a

nd th

e C

ultu

re o

f Ph

ysic

sJe

ff H

ughe

s

Mol

ecul

aris

ing

Bio

logy

and

Med

icin

e: N

ew P

ract

ices

and

Alla

nces

1930

s-19

70s

Sora

ya d

e C

hada

revi

an &

Har

mke

Kam

min

ga

Thi

s bo

ok is

par

of a

ser

ies.

The

pub

lishe

r w

il ac

cept

con

tinua

tion

orde

rs w

hich

may

be

canc

elle

d at

any

tim

e an

d w

hich

pro

vide

for

aut

omat

ic b

iling

and

shi

ppin

gof

eac

h tit

le in

the

seri

es u

pon

publ

icat

ion.

Ple

ase

wri

te f

or d

etai

ls.

harw

ood

acad

emic

pub

lishe

rsA

ustr

alia

. Can

ada.

Chi

na. F

ranc

e. G

enna

ny .

Indi

a. J

apan

Luxe

mbo

urg.

Mal

aysi

a. T

he N

ethe

rland

s. R

ussi

a. S

inga

pore

Switzerland. Thailand. United K

ingd

om

tt '+

CH

APT

ER

12

Scie

ntis

ts a

s Po

licym

aker

s, A

dvis

ors,

and

Inte

llige

nce

Age

nts:

Lin

king

Con

tem

pora

ryD

iplo

mat

ic H

isto

ry w

ith th

e H

isto

ry o

fC

onte

mpo

rary

Sci

ence

Ron

ald

E. D

oel

No

mod

em s

tate

sman

can

affo

rd to

be

scie

ntifi

cally

illit

erat

e(Abba Eban, Chief Is

rael

i del

egat

e to

the

Uni

ted

Nat

ions

, Am

bass

ador

to th

e

Uni

ted

Stat

es, circa 1960)1

INT

RO

DU

CT

ION

: 'SC

IEN

CE

IN

BL

AC

K'

After 1940 - which A

. Hun

ter

Dup

ree

has

iden

tifie

d as

the

begi

nnin

g of

a G

reat

Inst

aura

tion

for

scie

nce

in A

mer

ica

scie

ntis

ts e

nter

ed th

e re

alm

of

fore

ign

policy as never before.

The

dev

elop

men

t of

the

atom

ic b

omb

has

com

e to

sym

boliz

e th

e un

ion

betw

een

scie

ntis

ts a

nd th

e U

.S. p

oliti

cal e

stab

lishm

ent,

but

atom

ic e

nerg

y w

as o

nly

one

of m

any

inte

rnat

iona

l iss

ues

that

fac

ed s

cien

tists

and

polic

ymak

ers

in th

e de

cade

s af

ter

Hir

oshi

ma.

As

the

Col

d W

ar d

eepe

ned,

U.S

. sci

entis

ts la

bore

d to

incr

ease

thei

r pr

esen

ce in

and

influ

ence

ove

r fo

reig

npo

licy,

cre

atin

g an

Offc

e of International Relations within the National

Aca

dem

y of

Sci

ence

, pro

mot

ing

a sy

stem

of

scie

nce

atta

ches

with

in th

e D

epar

-m

ent o

f St

ate,

and

org

aniz

ing

scie

nce

offc

es w

ithin

the

Cen

tral

Int

ellg

ence

Age

ncy

and

its s

iste

r or

gani

zatio

ns; t

hey

also

eva

luat

ed s

cien

ce a

s a

pote

ntia

lag

ent o

f ps

ycho

logi

cal w

arfa

re a

nd u

rged

new

pro

gram

s of

sci

entif

ic a

id to

Eur

ope,

Lat

in A

mer

ica,

and

Afr

ica.

The

se e

xpan

ding

rol

es f

or s

cien

ce a

nd s

cien

-tis

ts p

rofo

undl

y sh

aped

the

grow

th o

f sci

entif

ic d

isci

plin

es, i

nstit

utio

ns, a

nd th

e

prof

essi

onal

iden

titie

s of

res

earc

hers

. Sta

tesm

en a

nd g

over

nmen

t off

cial

s, w

ho

215

.---

",.

...-- "

' .-

.. "

_,..

,.".

..._,-

-' ,.. '

, - '

' -

' ,' ,

- '." ,

,''-

, ,.-

216 The

His

tori

ogra

phy

of C

onte

mpo

rary

Sci

ence

and

Tec

hnol

ogy

face

d in

crea

sed

relia

nce

on e

xper

ts p

revi

ousl

y un

repr

esen

ted

in th

e co

aliti

ons

that

forg

ed U

. S. f

orei

gn p

olic

y, f

ound

thes

e ch

ange

s no

less

tran

sfon

ning

.M

uch

of th

is h

isto

ry r

emai

ns u

nwri

tten

, how

ever

, and

our

per

cept

ions

of

the

role

that

sci

ence

and

sci

entis

ts p

laye

d in

the

Col

d W

ar a

re c

onst

rain

ed a

s a

resu

lt.T

his

chap

ter

addr

esse

s th

e hi

stor

iogr

aphi

c an

d pr

actic

al c

halle

nges

of

stud

ying

the

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

aft

er 1

940

, par

ticul

arly

its

inte

grat

ion

into

the

plan

ning

and

exec

utio

n of

for

eign

pol

icy.

Her

e I

shal

l con

cent

rate

on

the

U. S

. exp

erie

nce

between 1945 and 1960

, aJt

houg

h th

ese

argu

men

ts c

an a

lso

be a

pplie

d to

oth

erna

tiona

l con

text

s an

d ev

en m

ore

cont

empo

rary

tim

es. M

any

poin

ts o

f co

ntac

tex

iste

d be

twee

n sc

ient

ists

and

for

eign

pol

icy

in th

is p

erio

d: b

esid

es th

e do

mi-

nant

issu

e of

ato

mic

wea

pons

dip

lom

acy,

sci

entis

ts jo

ined

bus

ines

s le

ader

s , in

-du

stri

alis

ts, i

nter

natio

nal c

ultu

ral g

roup

s , a

nd o

ther

ele

men

ts o

f A

mer

ican

soc

iety

to p

ress

for

fav

orab

le a

cces

s to

for

eign

mar

kets

or

relie

f fr

om in

tern

atio

nal r

egul

a-tio

n.3

Mor

eove

r, '

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

' has

sev

eral

dis

tinct

but

ove

rlap

ping

mea

n-in

gs, e

mbr

acin

g in

divi

dual

col

labo

ratio

ns a

nd p

artic

ipat

ion

in in

tern

atio

nal

scie

ntif

ic u

nion

s as

wel

l as

delib

erat

e ef

fort

s by

gov

ernm

ents

to u

tiliz

e sc

ienc

ean

d sc

ient

ists

to r

each

for

eign

pol

icy

goal

s.In

this

cha

pter

, I s

hall

conc

entr

ate

on th

e in

ters

ectio

n of

sci

entis

ts w

ith e

stab

lish-

men

ts o

f fo

reig

n po

licy

at th

e hi

ghes

t lev

els

of U

.S. g

over

nmen

t, '

paricularly the

effo

rts

of s

cien

tists

and

pub

lic o

ffci

als

to e

mpl

oy s

cien

ce a

s a

mea

ns to

adv

ance

U.S

. dip

lom

acy

duri

ng th

e ea

rly

Col

d W

ar e

ra. M

y ai

m, t

o pu

t it a

noth

er w

ay, i

s to

call

atte

ntio

n to

a p

oten

tial h

isto

ry o

f 'sc

ienc

e in

bla

ck' - a hi

stor

y th

at f

ocus

es le

sson

the

visi

ble,

pub

lic in

stitu

tions

of

scie

nce

and

the

publ

ishe

d ac

hiev

emen

ts o

f th

eir

scie

ntis

ts th

an o

n th

e la

rge,

une

xplo

red

cont

inen

t of

inte

rcon

nect

ions

, mai

ntai

ned

inse

crec

y, b

etw

een

scie

ntis

ts a

nd p

ublic

off

cial

s m

utua

lly in

tere

sted

in a

dopt

ing

sci-

ence

to s

erve

U. S

. int

eres

ts a

nd th

e na

tiona

l sec

urity

sta

te. S

uch

a hi

stor

y, b

y fo

cus-

ing on poorly studied aspects of the post-

1945

per

iod,

can

hav

e en

orm

ous

sign

ific

ance

in r

e-ev

alua

ting

how

the

Col

d W

ar a

ffec

ted

dem

ocra

tic in

stitu

tions

and

esta

blis

hed

cent

ers

of s

cien

ce, a

nd p

rovi

de n

ew in

sigh

t int

o w

ays

that

sci

ence

infl

u-en

ced,

and

was

influ

ence

d by

, U. S

. for

eign

pol

icy.

HID

EN

AS

PE

CT

S O

F P

OS

TW

AR

SC

IEN

CE

:T

HE

INT

ER

NA

TIO

NA

L A

RE

NA

In k

eepi

ng w

ith th

e ce

ntra

l the

me

of th

is b

ook:

wha

t, in

his

tori

ogra

phic

term

s, is

new

abo

ut s

cien

ce in

for

eign

pol

icy

afte

r 19

40?

Sinc

e th

e ei

ghte

enth

cen

tury

his

to-

rian

s ha

ve tr

aced

incr

ease

d ov

erla

p be

twee

n th

e es

tabl

ishm

ents

of

scie

nce

and

the

stat

e, r

esul

ting

from

the

emer

ging

vig

or o

f na

tion-

stat

es a

nd a

scen

dant

util

ity o

fpr

actic

al s

cien

ce. T

o be

sur

e, th

e E

nlig

hten

men

t con

cept

of s

cien

ce a

s a

'Rep

ublic

of Letters

, beh

olde

n to

no

part

icul

ar n

atio

nal i

dent

ity, w

as s

low

to f

ade.

In

1780

Bri

tish

forc

es a

llow

ed a

Har

vard

exp

editi

on to

atte

mpt

obs

erva

tions

of

a so

lar

eclip

se in

Mai

nes

Peno

bsco

t Bay

des

pite

the

Rev

olut

iona

ry W

ar, a

nd in

181

3 Si

rH

umph

ry D

avy

trav

elle

d to

Par

s to

acc

ept a

pri

ze f

rom

the

Aca

dem

ie d

es S

cien

ces

Sci

entis

ts a

s P

olic

ymak

ers,

Adv

isor

s, a

nd I

ntel

ligen

ce A

gent

s 21

7

in th

e m

idst

of t

he A

nglo

-Fre

nch

mili

tary

con

flic

t.s

Nev

erth

eles

s, a

s C

harle

s C

.

Gill

spie

has

arg

ued,

mod

ern

gove

rnm

ent-

fund

ed w

eapo

ns r

esea

rch

was

alr

eady

takng fonn by 1793 w

hen

Cla

ude-Louis Bertollet, the founder of physical ch

em-

istr, conducted secret in

vest

igat

ions

with

gun

pow

der;

suc

cess

ful a

pplic

atio

n of

this work in the

levee en masse

of 1

793-

94 h

elpe

d es

tabl

ish

the

Fre

nch

Rep

ublic

.

Thr

ough

out t

he n

inet

eent

h an

d ea

rly

twen

tieth

cen

turi

es, s

cien

tists

str

engt

hene

d

thei

r in

tern

atio

nal t

ies

by c

reat

ing

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

entif

ic u

nion

s an

d aw

ard

sys-

tem

s su

ch a

s th

e N

obel

Priz

e; fu

rthe

nnor

e, b

y th

e 19

20s,

the

Inte

rnat

iona

l Edu

ca-

tion

Boa

rd, o

ne o

f th

e la

rges

t of

the

Roc

kefe

ller

Foun

datio

n ph

ilant

hrop

ies,

had

mad

e si

gnif

ican

t inv

estm

ents

in s

cien

tific

res

earc

h ov

erse

as.7

At t

he s

ame

time,

scie

ntis

ts b

ecam

e ev

er m

ore

clos

ely

asso

ciat

ed w

ith n

atio

nalis

m a

nd f

orei

gn p

olic

yai

ms.

Wor

ld W

ar I

, the

'ch

emis

t's' w

ar, m

arke

d an

impo

rtan

t mile

ston

e. A

llied

sci

-

entis

ts e

xclu

ded

Gen

nan

colle

ague

s fr

om th

e ne

wly

fon

ned

inte

rnat

iona

l uni

ons

in19

19 f

or th

eir

fam

ous

"App

eal t

o th

e C

ivili

zed

Wor

ld"

of 1

914,

sup

port

ing

the

Kai

ser

s de

cisi

on to

bac

k th

e A

ustr

an a

ttack

on

Ser

bia

that

led

to th

e w

orld

's first

glob

al c

onfl

ict.

8Y

et W

orld

War

IT m

arke

d a

dist

inct

wat

ersh

ed in

the

inte

grat

ion

of s

cien

tists

into

the

polit

ical

est

ablis

hmen

t, in

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

as w

ell a

s ot

her

scie

ntifi

cally

ad-

vanc

ed n

atio

ns. T

he b

uild

ing

and

use

of a

tom

ic w

eapo

ns in

194

5 ha

d en

onno

usin

flue

nce

on f

orei

gn p

olic

y, a

nd im

plic

atio

ns d

raw

n fr

om th

e m

ushr

oom

clo

uds

over

Hir

oshi

ma

and

Nag

asak

, rai

sing

fea

rs a

bout

cat

acly

smic

des

trct

ion, h

ave

just

ly

rece

ived

con

side

rabl

e at

tent

ion

from

his

tori

ans

of s

cien

ce a

nd d

iplo

mat

ic h

isto

rian

sal

ike.

9 N

onet

hele

ss, W

orld

War

IT in

corp

orat

ed s

cien

ce a

nd s

cien

tists

into

fore

ign

polic

y in

two

addi

tiona

l way

s, b

oth

lack

ing

clea

r pr

eced

ent.

Firs

t, it l

ed to

the

crea

-

tion

of n

ewpe

rman

ent

inst

itutio

ns d

esig

ned

to a

sses

s or

man

ipul

ate

inte

rnat

iona

lsc

ienc

e to

ben

efit

U.S

. nat

iona

l sec

urity

. By

1950

thes

e ca

me

to in

clud

e th

e O

ffce

of S

cien

tific

Int

ellg

ence

of

the

Cen

tral

Int

ellg

ence

Age

ncy

(CIA

), th

e Sc

ienc

e A

d-vi

sor

s of

fce

with

in th

e D

epar

men

t of

Stat

e, a

nd th

e R

esea

rch

and

Dev

elop

men

t

Boa

rd (

RD

B)

of th

e D

epar

men

t of

Def

ense

, 10

as w

ell a

s m

yria

d ho

mes

for

inte

rna-

tiona

l sci

ence

pla

nnin

g w

ithin

oth

er g

over

nmen

t bra

nche

s, suc

h as

the

Psyc

holo

gi-

cal S

trat

egy

Boa

rd (

PSB

) th

e O

pera

tions

Coo

rdin

atin

g B

oard

(O

CB

), th

e N

atio

nal

Secu

rity

Cou

ncil

(NSC

), a

nd d

evel

opm

ent a

genc

ies

such

as

the

Inte

rnat

iona

l Coo

p-er

atio

n A

dmin

istr

atio

n (I

CA

) an

d th

e A

genc

y fo

r In

tern

atio

nal D

evel

opm

ent (

AID

).Such agencies created new

prof

essi

onal

ro

les

for

scie

ntis

ts.

Seco

nd, t

he p

rest

ige

valu

e of

sci

entif

ic a

nd te

chno

logi

cal a

dvan

ces

beca

me

anim

port

ant i

ssue

in th

e co

nduc

t of

fore

ign

polic

y, a

link

age

forg

ed in

the

earl

y 19

50s

but g

reat

ly s

tren

gthe

ned

afte

r th

e la

unch

of

Sput

nik

in 1

957.

The

se p

oint

s, of c

ours

e,

do n

ot e

xhau

st th

e ra

nge

of n

ovel

them

es r

equi

ring

trea

tmen

t. A

ful

l acc

ount

of

U.

invo

lvem

ent i

n in

tern

atio

nal s

cien

ce a

fter

194

5 m

ust a

sses

s, in

addi

tion

to a

tom

ic

dipl

omac

y, a

nd m

ilita

r re

sear

ch a

nd d

evel

opm

ent co

mm

itmen

ts, h

ow e

stim

ates

of

scie

ntif

ic a

dvan

ces

in f

rien

dly

and

host

ile n

atio

ns in

flue

nced

for

eign

pol

icy

deci

-si

ons,

how

anx

ietie

s in

volv

ing

biol

ogic

al a

nd c

hem

ical

war

are

affe

cted

inte

rna-

tiona

l dip

lom

acy,

how

and

why

lead

ers

of th

e N

atio

nal A

cade

my

of S

cien

ces

(NA

S)an

d th

e N

atio

nal S

cien

ce F

ound

atio

n (N

SF)

initi

ated

sci

ence

pro

gram

s ai

med

at

218

The

His

torio

grap

hy o

f Con

tem

pora

ry S

cien

ce a

nd T

echn

olog

yS

cien

tists

as

Pol

icym

aker

s, A

dvis

ors,

and

Inte

llige

nce

Age

nts

219

Lat

in A

mer

ica ,

and

how

cov

ert i

nter

natio

nal a

ctiv

ities

con

ceal

ed w

ithin

the

budg

ets

of m

ains

trea

m c

ente

rs o

f U

. S. s

cien

ce s

uch

as th

e N

atio

nal I

nstit

utes

of

Hea

lthaf

fect

ed th

e m

anda

tes

and

mor

ale

of th

ese

agen

cies

. Als

o de

man

ding

atte

ntio

n is

the

inte

grat

ion

of s

cien

ce a

nd te

chno

logy

with

in th

e Po

int I

V p

rovi

sion

s of

the

Mar

shal

lPl

an, t

he g

ift o

f nu

clea

r re

acto

rs b

y th

e A

tom

ic E

nerg

y C

omm

issi

on (

AE

C)

tofr

iend

ly T

hird

Wor

ld n

atio

ns, t

he c

reat

ion

of n

ew c

aree

r op

tions

for

sci

entis

ts, t

heef

fect

s of

cov

ert s

cien

ce o

n pe

er r

evie

w p

roce

dure

s , a

nd th

e ex

tent

to w

hich

the

dem

ands

of

the

post

-war

nat

iona

l sec

urity

sta

te tr

ansf

orm

ed in

tern

atio

nal p

ract

ices

in s

cien

ce, s

ubst

antia

lly a

s w

ell a

s sy

mbo

lical

ly.

To

date

, how

ever

, the

re h

as b

een

scan

t his

tori

cal w

ork

on th

ese

issu

es. S

cien

ceaf

ter

1940

, as

Arn

old

Tha

ckra

y ha

s re

cent

ly r

emar

ked

, rem

ains

"a

sort

of

last

fron

tier

in th

e hi

stor

y of

sci

ence

" . 11

Nev

erth

eles

s, s

ever

al a

ppro

ache

s ar

e pr

om-

isin

g. S

chol

ars

have

exa

min

ed th

e sh

arp

rise

of

fede

ral a

nd militar patronage

for

scie

nce

in th

e C

old

War

, cha

rtin

g w

ays

that

fun

ding

infl

uenc

ed th

e ch

arac

ter

and

mis

sion

s of

res

earc

h un

iver

sitie

s an

d st

eere

d th

e in

tere

sts

of r

esea

rche

rs to

-w

ards

pro

blem

s of

pra

ctic

al o

r po

tent

ial m

ilita

ry in

tere

st; t

he e

volu

tion

of M

. LT

.in

to a

hom

e fo

r se

cret

mili

tary

-aca

dem

ic s

tudi

es o

f na

tiona

l sec

urity

, for

exa

m-

ple ,

can

not b

e un

ders

tood

out

side

the

inte

rnat

iona

l con

text

of t

he C

old

War

.O

ther

sch

olar

s ha

ve in

vest

igat

ed s

cien

tists

in g

over

nmen

t adv

isor

y ag

enci

es, i

n-cl

udin

g G

regg

Her

ken

s st

udy

of p

resi

dent

ial s

cien

ce a

dvis

ing

and

Dan

iel J

.K

evle

ss

anal

ysis

of t

he K

orea

n W

ars

impa

ct o

n A

mer

ican

sci

ence

pol

icy.

13 N

ew

wor

k ha

s al

so a

ppea

red

on in

stitu

tiona

lized

sec

recy

in p

ost-

war

cen

ters

of

civi

lian-

mili

tar

rese

arch

and

how

loya

lty in

vest

igat

ions

aff

ecte

d sc

ient

ists

in th

e19

50s.

Inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

has

bee

n a

cent

ral f

ocus

for

Elis

abet

h C

raw

ford

(soc

ial,

eco

nom

ic, a

nd p

oliti

cal c

onte

xts

of tr

ansn

atio

nal s

cien

ce),

Aan

t Elz

inga

(the multi-national politics of A

ntar

ctic

res

earc

h), J

ohn

Kri

ge (E

urop

ean

phys

ics

and

spac

e co

nsor

tium

s), a

nd Y

akov

Rab

kin

(U.

S.R

sci

entif

ic e

x-ch

ange

s).15

Yet

man

y im

port

ant d

imen

sion

s of

sci

ence

in f

orei

gn p

olic

y re

mai

nun

expl

ored

. Off

cial

his

tori

es o

f fe

dera

l sci

ence

age

ncie

s w

ith im

port

ant i

nter

na-

tiona

l dim

ensi

ons ,

suc

h as

the

AE

C, h

ave

prov

ided

at b

est t

anta

lizin

gly

brie

fgl

imps

es a

t the

coo

rdin

atio

n of

sci

ence

with

fore

ign

polic

y. 1

6 T

he ro

le o

f m

ajor

phila

nthr

opic

fou

ndat

ions

so

cri

tical

for

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

rel

atio

ns in

the

earl

y tw

entie

th c

entu

ry

is a

lso

poor

ly u

nder

stoo

d in

the

post

-194

5 er

a. I?

Sim

ilarl

y, in

tern

atio

nal s

cien

ce h

as n

ot a

ttrac

ted

the

atte

ntio

n of

man

y di

plom

atic

hist

oria

ns, e

xcep

t in

the

case

of

atom

ic p

olic

y. S

tudi

es o

f T

rum

an, E

isen

how

er, a

ndK

enne

dy a

dmin

istr

atio

ns, n

ot u

nexp

ecte

dly,

hav

e fo

cuse

d on

the

appl

icat

ion

ofsc

ienc

e-ba

sed

tech

nolo

gies

to w

arar

e an

d its

rol

e in

bip

olar

Col

d W

ar d

efen

sive

capa

bilit

ies,

incl

udin

g th

e st

rate

gic

impl

icat

ions

of

NSC

68

, Eis

enho

wer

s N

ewLo

ok p

olic

y, a

nd th

e or

igin

s of

nuc

lear

ove

rkill

. 18 But a nu

mbe

r of

sch

olar

s, u

sing

varous methods

, hav

e be

gun

to e

xplo

re h

ow s

cien

tists

, as

mem

bers

of a

n ex

pert

clas

s, g

aine

d en

ough

pow

er to

cre

ate ,

dom

inat

e, s

hape

, or

influ

ence

U.S

. for

eign

rela

tions

dur

ing

the

earl

y C

old

War

era

. Usi

ng th

e co

rpor

atis

m a

ppro

ach

of M

icha

elJ.

Hog

an, w

hich

ass

igns

pri

ority

to th

e re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n la

rge

busi

ness

ass

ocia

-tio

ns a

nd r

elat

ed g

over

nmen

t age

ncie

s in

the

mak

ng o

f for

eign

eco

nom

ic p

olic

y,

John

Gim

bel a

sses

sed

U.S

. rep

arat

ions

pol

icy

on s

cien

ce a

nd te

chno

logy

tow

ards

Gen

nany

imm

edia

tely

fol

low

ing

Wor

ld W

ar I

I, w

hile

Ric

hard

Dam

ms

has

calle

dat

tent

ion

to th

e in

dust

ral c

onne

ctio

ns o

f sc

ient

ists

who

adv

ised

Eis

enho

wer

on

na-

tional security policy. 19 N

atio

nal s

ecur

ity p

olic

y su

ccin

ctly

def

ined

by

Mel

vyn

P.

Lef

fer

as "

actio

ns d

eem

ed im

pera

tive

to p

rote

ct d

omes

tic c

ore

valu

es f

rom

ext

erna

lth

eats

is c

entr

al to

Joh

n L

ewis

Gad

dis'

rec

ent e

xam

inat

ions

of

over

figh

t sur

-

veill

ance

, Joh

n Pr

ados

' stu

dy o

f the

NS

C d

ecis

ion-

mak

ng, W

alte

r La

queu

rs

anal

y-

sis

of s

cien

tific

inte

llgen

ce, J

osep

h P

. Man

zion

es

wor

k on

sci

entis

ts a

nd

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

entif

ic r

elat

ions

in th

e 19

50s,

and

Rob

ert A

. Div

ine

s in

vest

igat

ions

of th

e N

ucle

ar T

est B

an T

reat

y de

bate

and

the

U.S

. res

pons

e to

Spu

tnik

; the

pre

stig

e

valu

e of

sci

ence

in f

orei

gn p

olic

y ha

s be

en tr

eate

d by

sev

eral

sch

olar

s as

wel

l, in

-cl

udin

g th

e cu

ltura

l his

tori

an M

icha

el S

mith

.O

ther

app

roac

hes

in d

iplo

mat

ic h

isto

ry a

lso

hold

muc

h pr

omis

e fo

r as

sess

ing

the

infl

uenc

e of

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

. Mic

hael

Hun

ts

emph

asis

on

ideo

logy

as

an im

port

ant c

ompo

nent

of

fore

ign

polic

y m

erits

atte

ntio

n, p

artic

ular

ly g

iven

the

popu

lar

iden

tific

atio

n of

sci

ence

with

libe

ral d

emoc

ratic

val

ues

and

the

vivi

dcu

ltura

l im

ages

that

sha

pe A

mer

ican

atti

tude

s to

war

ds n

ucle

ar e

nerg

y.21

BU

e

reau

crat

ic p

oliti

cs (

expl

ored

in th

e w

orks

of L

eslie

Gel

b an

d J.

Gar

Clif

ford

)

may

als

o ill

umin

ate

the

enco

urag

emen

t (an

d re

sist

ance

) th

at s

cien

tists

exp

eri-

ence

d in

the

Stat

e D

epar

men

t, th

e C

IA, a

nd r

elat

ed g

over

nmen

tal a

genc

ies.

Yet

rel

ativ

ely

few

stu

dies

in d

iplo

mat

ic h

isto

ry h

ave

focu

sed

on th

e ro

le o

fsc

ienc

e in

thes

e ag

enci

es. N

ew in

fonn

atio

n on

sci

entif

ic in

telli

genc

e w

ithin

the

CIA

has

rec

ently

com

e to

ligh

t thr

ough

the

publ

icat

ion

of d

ecla

ssif

ied,

san

itize

dearly histories of this ag

ency

by

prof

essi

onal

his

tori

ans.

But

thes

e vo

lum

es

addr

ess

adm

inis

trat

ive

issu

es, p

rovi

ding

littl

e in

form

atio

n ab

out h

ow s

cien

tific

inte

llige

nce

affe

cted

dec

isio

n-m

akin

g w

ithin

the

NSC

, the

trai

ning

and

qua

lity

of in

divi

dual

s w

orki

ng w

ithin

sci

entif

ic in

telli

genc

e, h

ow s

uch

mat

eria

l was

anal

yzed

, or

the

kind

s of

res

earc

h ef

fort

s th

at C

IA r

esea

rche

rs u

nder

took

.N

ever

thel

ess,

by

negl

ectin

g th

e ro

le o

f sci

ence

in in

tern

atio

nal a

ffairs

, his

tor-

ians

ris

k ov

erlo

okin

g cr

itica

l asp

ects

of

U.S

. for

eign

pol

icy

in th

e C

old

War

era

-st

udyi

ng th

e tip

of t

he ic

eber

g w

hile

igno

ring

a w

ide

aray

of

inte

rcon

nect

ed a

gen-

cies

, priv

ate

foun

datio

ns, i

ndiv

idua

ls, a

ttitu

des

and

shar

ed b

elie

fs th

at, u

ntil

now

,ha

ve la

rgel

y re

mai

ned

belo

w s

ea le

vel.

Seve

ral e

xam

ples

may

hel

p m

ake

this

cle

ar.

It is

incr

easi

ngly

app

aren

t tha

t sci

entis

ts s

trug

gled

to o

btai

n a

voic

e in

the

Stat

eD

epar

men

t aft

er 1

945

, and

did

so

in c

onsc

ious

effo

rts

to p

rom

ote

fore

ign

polic

ies

favo

rabl

e to

thei

r di

scip

linar

and

pro

fess

iona

l int

eres

ts. T

heir

cam

paig

n fo

r in

ter-

natio

nal s

cien

tific

coo

pera

tion

was

nei

ther

who

lly a

ltrui

stic

nor

bas

ed o

n po

pula

rnotions of science divorced from politics. The famous 1950

Sci

ence

and

For

eign

Rel

atio

ns

repo

rt to

the

Stat

e D

epar

ent (

writ

ten

at th

e re

ques

t of U

nder

Sec

reta

r

of S

tate

Jam

es W

ebb

by L

loyd

V. B

erkn

er)

defe

nded

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

as

a w

ayto strengten Western economies, promote democratic values

, and

enh

ance

U.

rese

arch

. Thi

s re

port

, we

now

kno

w, w

as a

ccom

pani

ed b

y a

secr

et s

uppl

emen

t, st

il

clas

sifi

ed, d

etai

ling

the

valu

e of

em

ploy

ing

civi

lian

and

dipl

omat

ic c

hann

els

toob

tan

scie

ntif

ic in

tellg

ence

inte

nded

to a

id national security planning. Yet the

220 The

His

torio

grap

hy o

f Con

tem

pora

ry S

cien

ce a

nd T

echn

olog

yS

cien

tists

as

Pol

icym

aker

s, A

dvis

ors,

and

Int

ellig

ence

Age

nts

221

inte

grat

ion

of s

cien

tists

into

the

polit

ical

fab

ric

beca

me

incr

easi

ngly

con

tent

ious

durin

g th

e E

isen

how

er A

dmin

istr

atio

n, a

nd b

y 19

59 d

ebat

e ro

se in

the

NS

C o

ver

intemational science policy regarding outer space, Antarctica, c

onta

cts

with

indi

-vi

dual

s in

non

-rec

ogni

zed

regi

mes

, and

the

two-

Chinas problem.2

Until recently,

the

schi

sm b

etw

een

scie

ntis

ts a

nd th

e U

. S. g

over

nmen

t afte

r th

e m

id- 1

960s

was

thou

ght t

o be

roo

ted

in o

ppos

ition

to th

e V

ietn

am W

ar.2

5 B

ut th

ese

crac

ks a

ppea

red

muc

h so

oner

in f

orei

gn p

olic

y de

bate

, an

impo

rtan

t poi

nt f

or s

chol

ars

stud

ying

the

Gai

ther

Com

mitt

ee r

epor

t on

Am

eric

an n

ucle

ar d

efen

ses

of 1

957

, the

sta

rt o

fN

ucle

ar T

est B

an T

reat

y ne

gotia

tions

the

follo

win

g ye

ar, o

r th

e ro

le th

at s

cien

tists

play

ed in

the

Vie

tnam

con

flct

.W

hen

scie

ntis

ts a

re v

iew

ed a

s ac

tive

part

icip

ants

in f

orgi

ng f

orei

gn p

olic

yco

aliti

ons ,

add

ition

al, l

ess

obvi

ous

links

bet

wee

n co

re n

atio

nal s

ecur

ity is

sues

and

inte

rnat

iona

l act

iviti

es r

emot

e fr

om th

em s

omet

imes

bec

ome

appa

rent

, cas

t-in

g ot

her

Col

d W

ar a

ctiv

ities

in a

new

and

qui

te d

iffer

ent l

ight

. An

impo

rtan

tca

se in

poi

nt is

the

Inte

rnat

iona

l Geo

phys

ical

Yea

r (I

GY

) of

195

7-58

. Inv

olvi

ngsc

ient

ist!

) fr

om s

ixty

-sev

en c

ount

ries

in c

oord

inat

ed s

tudi

es o

f th

e ea

rth

scie

nces

,th

e IG

Y s

eem

ed to

con

tem

pora

ry w

rite

rs a

nd h

isto

rian

s a

rem

arka

ble

thaw

inC

old

War

tens

ions

.26

Wal

ter

McD

ouga

ll's 1985

The Heavens and the Earth

mad

ecl

ear

that

Eis

enho

wer

s in

tere

st in

the

IGY

had

muc

h to

do

with

usi

ng a

civ

ilian

scie

ntifi

c sa

tellt

e, a

cen

terp

iece

of

IGY

pla

nnin

g, to

est

ablis

h a

lega

l pre

cede

ntfo

r or

bita

l ove

rfig

ht o

f th

e So

viet

Uni

on. M

ore

rece

ntly

, in

an im

port

ant n

ewex

amin

atio

n of

Ber

kner

, the

geo

phys

icis

t and

prim

e m

over

of t

he IG

Y, A

llan

A.

Nee

dell

note

s th

at B

erkn

er f

irst

pro

pose

d th

is m

assi

ve u

nder

taki

ng th

e sa

me

mon

th

Science and Foreign Policy

reac

hed

the

Stat

e D

epar

tmen

t. N

eede

ll ar

gues

that

it is

impo

ssib

le to

und

erst

and

Stat

e D

epar

tmen

t and

mili

tary

bac

king

for

this

maj

or, m

uch-

hera

lded

pro

gram

with

out u

nder

stan

ding

the

degr

ee to

whi

ch c

ov-

ert i

ntel

ligen

ce- gathering, national security objectives, a

nd b

elie

f in

the

rela

tion-

ship

of

scie

nce

with

Wes

tern

val

ues

wer

e m

utua

lly li

nked

for

sci

entis

ts a

ndgo

vern

men

t off

cial

sY T

his

is n

ot to

arg

ue th

at th

e IG

Y f

aile

d to

enh

ance

inte

r-na

tiona

l sci

entif

ic c

oope

ratio

n or

to p

rodu

ce im

port

ant g

eoph

ysic

al in

sigh

ts, f

orit

did;

yet

it is

impo

rtan

t to

unde

rsco

re th

e ex

tent

to w

hich

the

IGY

was

cha

rac-

teri

stic

of,

and

not

an

exce

ptio

n to

, U.S. international science policy in the 1950s.

The

Col

d W

ar c

ast d

eep

shad

ows

acro

ss v

irtu

ally

all

aspe

cts

of in

tern

atio

nal

scie

nce,

mor

e th

an m

any

hist

oria

ns o

f sc

ienc

e or

dip

lom

acy

have

reco

gniz

ed;

asse

ssin

g sc

ient

ific

pro

gram

s of

this

kin

d ca

n th

us il

umin

ate

how

U. S

. pol

icy-

mak

ers

saw

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

as

a ve

hicl

e to

pro

mot

e A

mer

ican

val

ues

and

inte

rest

s in

the

post

-war

wor

ld.

Car

eful

atte

ntio

n to

sci

entif

ic in

telli

genc

e ca

n al

so h

elp

ilum

inat

e ho

w th

e U

nite

dSt

ates

eva

luat

ed th

e co

st o

f po

ssib

le S

ovie

t exp

ansi

on in

to W

este

rn E

urop

e du

ring

the

earl

y C

old

War

era

, a c

ritic

al f

acto

r in

und

erst

andi

ng th

e or

igin

of

mut

ual s

ecu-

rity

pac

ts s

uch

as th

e N

orth

Atla

ntic

Tre

aty

Alli

ance

(N

AT

O).

As

Gad

dis

and

Rob

inW

inks

hav

e re

cent

ly r

emin

ded

dipl

omat

ic h

isto

rian

s , a

crit

ical

'so what' question

mus

t be

addr

esse

d: d

id in

tellg

ence

rea

lly m

atte

r to

pol

icy?

"Fascination with eso-

teri

c m

inut

iae "

gat

here

d th

roug

h es

pion

age ,

Gad

dis

note

s, c

an m

ake

one

lose

sig

ht

of w

hat,

if a

nyth

ing,

it a

ll m

eant

".2B

One

cas

e w

here

scientific intelligence

may

have

mat

tere

d in

volv

es S

wed

en in

the

late

194

0s. S

wed

ens

neut

ralit

y po

licy

led

its

gove

rnm

ent t

o re

ject

mem

bers

hip

in N

AT

O, a

ste

p th

e U

nite

d St

ates

had

des

ired

toso

lidif

y Sc

andi

navi

an d

efen

ses

agai

nst S

ovie

t exp

ansi

onis

m. A

fter

the

NSC

deb

ate

in D

ecem

ber

1948

ove

r po

ssib

le c

halle

nges

to S

wed

ens neutrality policy, the

Tru

man

adm

inis

trat

ion

let t

his

issu

e dr

op fr

om v

iew

, des

pite

mou

ntin

g E

ast-

Wes

t

tens

ions

ove

r th

e B

erlin

blo

ckad

e an

d th

e ou

tbre

ak o

f th

e K

orea

War

in 1

950.

Thi

s si

tuat

ion

mak

es th

e re

cent

ly d

ecla

ssifi

ed O

SI 1

/49,

"A

n E

stim

ate

of S

wed

ish

Cap

abili

ties

in S

cien

ceth

e fir

st m

ajor

rep

ort b

y th

e C

IA's

Offc

e of

Sci

entif

icIn

tellg

ence

- an

impo

rtan

t fin

d. O

ver

sixt

y pa

ges

in le

ngth

, add

ress

ing

Sw

edis

h

achi

evem

ents

in b

iolo

gica

l war

are,

for

estr

y, s

olid

-sta

te p

hysi

cs, m

etal

lurg

y, a

nd

Pul

seje

t eng

ine

and

axia

l-fl

ow tu

rbin

e te

chno

logy

, thi

s as

sess

men

t dec

lare

d th

at th

eSoviets "w

ould

gai

n di

stin

ct, b

ut r

elat

ivel

y sm

all,

adva

ntag

e fr

om th

e po

int o

f vi

ewof

sci

ence

by

oveI

Tnn

ing

Swed

en a

t the

pre

sent

tim

e. T

o w

hat d

egre

e th

is r

epor

t,

rega

rded

by

Swed

ish

hist

oria

ns o

f sc

ienc

e as

com

preh

ensi

ve a

nd h

ighl

y ac

cura

teac

tual

ly in

flue

nced

Tru

man

adm

inis

trat

ion

polic

y to

war

ds S

cand

inav

ia m

ust s

till

be d

eter

mne

d.B

ut it

s re

com

men

datio

n to

den

y 20

to 4

0 to

p Sw

edis

h sc

ient

ists

to S

ovie

t aut

hori

ties

if h

ostil

ties

aros

e in

dica

tes

that

the

once

con

tent

ious

pol

icy

that

gui

ded

Proj

ect P

aper

clip

, whi

ch b

roug

ht G

erm

an r

ocke

t eng

inee

rs to

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

in 1

946,

wer

e no

w in

tegr

ated

into

nat

iona

l sec

urity

pla

nnin

g.Fi

nally

, fur

ther

atte

ntio

n to

the

role

of

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

as

an e

lem

ent o

f ps

y-ch

olog

ical

str

ateg

y is

war

ante

d. U

ntil

rece

ntly

, his

toria

ns h

ave

argu

ed th

atT

rum

an a

nd E

isen

how

er a

dmin

istr

atio

n of

fcia

ls p

aid

little

atte

ntio

n to

sci

entif

icpr

estig

e in

psy

chol

ogic

al w

arar

e ca

mpa

igns

unt

il th

e in

tern

atio

nal i

mpl

icat

ions

of

Sput

nik'

s la

unch

in O

ctob

er 1

957

mad

e th

eir

stra

tegi

c va

lue

appa

rent

. In

par

such

judg

emen

ts r

este

d on

ear

lier

stud

ies

of th

e PS

B a

nd th

e O

CB

, whi

ch d

ecla

red

that

high

leve

ls o

f bur

eauc

ratic

infig

htin

g an

d in

effe

ctiv

e co

ordi

natio

n lim

ited

thei

rin

fluen

ce o

n fo

reig

n po

licy.

32 B

ut n

ewly

dec

lass

ifie

d do

cum

ents

fro

m th

ese

agen

-

cies

sug

gest

s a

mor

e pe

rvas

ive

role

. Rip

Bul

kele

y ha

s sh

own

that

the

OC

B, e

mph

a-si

zing

psy

chol

ogic

al f

acto

rs, w

as a

sig

nific

ant a

ctor

in d

evel

opin

g E

isen

how

er

Adm

inis

trat

ion

polic

y to

war

d sp

ace

flig

ht a

nd A

ntar

ctic

a by

the

mid

-1950s. In

addi

tion,

Mar

in 1

. Med

hurs

t has

rec

ently

arg

ued

that

the

Eis

enho

wer

-era

Ato

ms

for

Pea

ce p

rogr

am m

ust b

e un

ders

tood

as

a ps

ycho

logi

cally

-bas

ed g

loba

l str

ateg

y

that

per

mitt

ed E

isen

how

er to

impl

emen

t his

New

Loo

k do

ctri

ne, a

ctiv

ities

inw

hich

the

OC

B a

nd th

e A

tom

ic E

nerg

y C

omm

issi

on p

laye

d m

ajor

rol

es.33

Gre

ater

atte

ntio

n to

the

role

that

maj

or s

cien

ce-b

ased

fed

eral

age

ncie

s pl

ayed

in c

aIin

gou

t U.S

. for

eign

pol

icy

is n

eede

d. W

hat i

t mea

nt f

or impoverished developing

coun

tres

, with

lim

ited

scie

ntif

ic in

fras

truc

ture

s, to

rec

eive

gif

ts o

f re

sear

ch r

eac-

tors

thou

gh A

tom

s fo

r Pe

ace,

is a

rel

ated

pro

blem

that

als

o m

erits

inqu

iry.

Thi

s is

har

dly

an e

xhau

stiv

e lis

t. O

ther

bro

ad a

reas

of

high

-lev

el in

tern

atio

nal

scie

nce

polic

y ar

e ju

st b

egin

ning

to e

mer

ge f

rom

the

shad

ows

of C

old

War

sec

recy

.B

io-c

hem

ical

war

are

so w

orre

d H

arar

d Pr

esid

ent J

ames

B. C

onan

t tha

t in

1946

he a

dvis

ed a

cor

resp

onde

nt th

at "if B.W

. is

real

ly a

wea

pon

like

the

Ato

mic

Bom

b", a

pub

lic d

emon

stra

tion

like

the

Bik

ini t

est m

ight

be

nece

ssar

y. D

espi

te

. --,

--.

_ __n-

-_,.

.,,-

,. --

- .-

-. -

- -

-

222

The

His

tori

ogra

phy

of C

onte

mpo

rary

Sci

ence

and

Tec

hnol

ogy

Sci

entis

ts a

s P

olic

ymak

ers,

Adv

isor

s, a

nd I

ntel

lgen

ce A

gent

s 22

3

impo

rtan

t new

wor

k on

this

issu

e by

Bar

ton

Ber

nste

in, J

ames

Her

shbe

rg, a

ndSu

san

Wri

ght,

how

bio

-che

mic

al w

eapo

ns a

ffec

ted

U. S

. for

eign

pol

icy

duri

ng th

eea

rly C

old

War

pa

rtic

ular

ly f

ollo

win

g 19

52 C

omm

unis

t cha

rges

that

NA

TO

forc

es h

ad e

mpl

oyed

bio

logi

cal a

nd c

hem

ical

age

nts

in K

orea

ha

s re

ceiv

edlit

tle a

ttent

ion

from

his

tori

ans

of s

cien

ce o

r di

plom

acy.

34 S

cien

tific

and

tech

nica

l

aid

prog

ram

s to

Wes

tern

Eur

ope

(and

late

r L

atin

Am

eric

a an

d A

fric

a) h

ave

also

rece

ived

littl

e at

tent

ion;

it w

ould

be

good

to k

now

for

exa

mpl

e ho

w I

CA

or

AID

prog

ram

s in

flue

nced

the

envi

ronm

enta

l sci

ence

s , o

r pu

blic

per

cept

ions

of

the

dan-

gers

of n

ucle

ar te

stin

g an

d ch

emic

al p

ollu

tion.

35 C

old

War

dip

lom

atic

tens

ions

also

buf

fete

d in

tern

atio

nal s

cien

tific

act

iviti

es f

ar f

rom

cor

e na

tiona

l sec

urity

ar-

eas

and

mat

ters

of

high

pol

icy.

Fra

nk N

inko

vich

has

dem

onst

rate

d th

at b

y 19

50th

e St

ate

Dep

artm

ent,

adju

stin

g to

Col

d W

ar p

ress

ures

, suc

ceed

ed in

mak

ng c

ul-

tura

l int

erna

tiona

lism

an

inst

rum

ent o

f na

tiona

l pol

icy - a dr

amat

ic r

ever

sal o

f its

pre-

war

rol

e as

a p

rom

oter

of

priv

ate

initi

ativ

es. W

e ne

ed to

und

erst

and

how

thes

ech

ange

s af

fect

ed in

tern

atio

nal m

eetin

gs o

f sc

ient

ists

, and

for

eign

per

cept

ions

of

S. r

esea

rche

rs.36 All of these topics are fruitful areas of in

quir

y fo

r hi

stor

ians

of

dipl

omac

y no

less

than

his

tori

ans

of s

cien

ce.

reco

rds,

then

dem

and

thei

r re

leas

e th

roug

h FO

IA r

eque

sts.

Non

e of

this

pro

ceed

squ

ickl

y, a

vex

ing

prob

lem

for

gra

duat

e st

uden

ts n

eedi

ng a

cces

s to

sou

rce

mat

eri-

als

with

min

imal

del

ays.

Doc

umen

ts th

at m

ust b

e cl

eare

d by

the

NSC

req

uire

, at

this

wri

ting,

18

to 3

6 m

onth

s fo

r de

cisi

ons

to b

e m

ade.

Rev

iew

tim

es f

or F

eder

alB

urea

u of

Inv

estig

atio

n (F

BI)

rec

ords

, ano

ther

impo

rtan

t sou

rce

of in

form

atio

non offcial attitudes towards scientists and in

tern

atio

nal s

cien

ce, c

an b

e lo

nger

stil. B

ut th

is is

not

the

only

arc

hiva

l pro

blem

that

con

fron

ts h

isto

rian

s in

tere

sted

inin

tern

atio

nal s

cien

ce d

urin

g th

e C

old

War

. Uni

vers

ity a

rchi

vist

s, g

uide

d by

the

prev

ailn

g in

tere

sts

of h

isto

rian

s of

sci

ence

, hav

e pr

efer

entia

lly p

rese

rved

the

pape

rs o

f sc

ienc

e fa

culty

not

ed f

or th

eir

cont

ribu

tions

to d

isci

plin

ary

rese

arch

rath

er th

an th

eir

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

ass

ignm

ents

. The

se c

ateg

orie

s ce

rtai

nly

are

not e

xclu

sive

: maj

or c

olle

ctio

ns e

xist

for

Geo

rge

Kis

tiako

wsk

y, th

e no

ted

Har

vard

che

mis

t who

bec

ame

Eis

enho

wer

s Sc

ienc

e A

dvis

or in

195

9, a

nd f

orFr

ank

Pres

s, th

e em

inen

t ear

th s

cien

tist w

ho le

d ge

ophy

sica

l stu

dies

for

the

Nuc

lear

Tes

t Ban

Tre

aty

and

late

r be

cam

e S

cien

ce A

dvis

or to

Pre

side

nt J

imm

yC

arer

.39

Nev

erth

eles

s, m

any

scie

ntis

ts w

ho a

ddre

ssed

for

eign

pol

icy

issu

es a

fter

1940

no

long

er w

orke

d at

uni

vers

ities

at a

ll bu

t in

agen

cies

and

inst

itutio

ns la

ck-

ing

open

arc

hive

s; a

s a

resu

lt, l

ittle

info

rmat

ion

is a

vaila

ble

on in

divi

dual

s w

hosp

ent m

uch

of th

eir

care

ers

in th

e N

SC, R

DB

, the

CIA

, the

IC

A, o

r th

e N

atio

nal

Secu

rity

Age

ncy.

Eve

n w

hen

scie

ntis

ts in

volv

ed in

for

eign

pol

icy

wor

k re

mai

ned

at u

nive

rsity

pos

ts, a

nd d

onat

ed th

eir

pape

rs to

app

ropr

iate

rep

osito

ries,

sig

nifi-

cant

gap

s in

doc

umen

tatio

n of

ten

appe

ar. B

ecau

se '

blac

k' s

cien

ce a

ctiv

ities

by

thei

r na

ture

wer

e co

vert

or

clas

sifie

d, f

iles

abou

t the

m a

re o

ften

mis

sing

or

sig-

nifi

cant

ly th

inne

d. T

he e

xten

sive

col

lect

ion

of R

oger

Ada

ms,

the

Uni

vers

ity o

fIl

inoi

s ch

emis

t who

ser

ved

as s

cien

ce a

dvis

or to

Gen

eral

Luc

ius

Cla

y in

pos

t-w

ar G

erm

any,

see

ms

to c

onta

in f

ew o

r no

rec

ords

cla

ssif

ied

as "confidential" or

high

er. W

hile

impo

rtan

t rec

ords

of

Ada

ms'

ser

vice

und

er C

lay

do e

xist

, few

reco

rds

have

sur

vive

d of

Ada

ms

' equ

ally

sig

nifi

cant

rol

e as

a s

enio

r ad

viso

r on

fore

ign

scie

nce

to o

ther

gov

ernm

ent a

genc

ies.

The

sam

e lim

itatio

ns c

hara

cter

ize

the

pape

rs o

f H

.P. R

ober

tson

, the

Cal

tech

phys

icis

t and

Sci

ence

Adv

isor

to S

AC

EU

R (

Supr

em A

llied

Com

man

der

Eur

ope)

, and

thos

e of

Van

neva

r B

ush

, a p

rinc

ipal

arc

hite

ct o

f po

st-W

orld

War

II

milt

ary

scie

nce

polic

y an

d sc

ient

ific

inte

llgen

ce g

athe

ring

.41 Certain individu-

al's

col

lect

ions

ric

hly

docu

men

t the

rel

atio

nshi

p of

indi

vidu

al s

cien

tists

to th

eC

IA: f

or e

xam

ple,

the

Ger

ard

P. K

uipe

r pa

pers

ilum

inat

e th

is le

adin

g A

mer

ican

astr

onom

ers

activ

ities

as

an a

dvis

or o

n S

ovie

t ast

rono

mic

al a

nd a

eron

autic

al

rese

arch

.T

he F

rank

Pre

ss c

olle

ctio

n pr

ovid

es im

port

ant i

nsig

hts

into

the

role

spl

ayed

by

geop

hysi

cist

s in

neg

otia

tions

for

the

Nuc

lear

Tes

t Ban

Tn-

,aty

.43 Y

et

thes

e se

em e

xcep

tions

. The

dif

fcul

ty o

f st

orin

g cl

assi

fied

pap

ers

in a

cade

mic

of-

fice

s th

us li

mits

the

kind

of

arch

ival

mat

eria

l nee

ded

to in

vest

igat

e ho

w in

divi

dual

scie

ntis

ts p

aric

ipat

ed in

cov

ert a

nd in

tern

atio

nal s

cien

ce, a

nd th

e ex

tent

of

thes

eac

tiviti

es w

ithin

the

gene

ral s

cien

tific

com

mun

ity. A

rchi

val c

olle

ctio

ns f

or c

on-

tem

pora

r sc

ient

ists

oft

en d

ocum

ent t

heir

pro

fess

iona

l liv

es le

ss c

ompl

etel

y th

an

UN

CO

VE

RIG

TH

E H

IST

OR

ICA

L R

EC

OR

D: D

IFF

ICU

LTIE

SA

ND

OPP

OR

TU

NIT

IES

One

rea

son

why

his

tori

ans

have

not

yet

tum

ed to

the

inte

rsec

tion

betw

een

scie

nce

and

fore

ign

polic

y af

ter

1940

invo

lves

sou

rce

mat

eria

ls: a

vaila

ble

docu

men

tatio

nis

mea

ger.

In

fair

ness

, it m

ust b

e no

ted

that

cer

tain

rec

ord

grou

ps, i

nclu

ding

thos

eof

the

Off

ce o

f In

tern

atio

nal R

elat

ions

with

in th

e N

atio

nal A

cade

my

of S

cien

ceha

ve s

impl

y be

en u

nder

-util

ized

. Mor

eove

r, f

eder

ally

fun

ded

rese

arch

cen

ters

suc

has

RA

ND

oft

en d

istr

ibut

ed e

xpur

gate

d re

port

s on

inte

rnat

iona

l pro

ject

s to

mai

n-tain the professional credibilty of their re

sear

cher

s, a

nd s

ever

al p

resi

dent

ial

scie

nce

advi

sors

did

pub

lish

mem

oirs

.3?

Yet

man

y si

gnif

ican

t rec

ords

rem

ain

lock

ed v

aults

, sin

ce th

ey c

onta

in m

ater

ial s

till p

resu

med

vita

l to

natio

nal s

ecur

ity.

Res

earc

hers

inte

rest

ed in

ato

mic

wea

pons

pol

icy,

one

of

the

mos

t fre

quen

tly v

isite

dto

pics

in th

e hi

stor

y of

mod

ern

scie

nce,

stil

l fin

d la

rge

num

bers

of

docu

men

tspa

rially

or

who

lly c

lass

ifie

d.T

he s

ituat

ion

is w

orse

for

topi

cs w

here

few

his

tori

ans

have

wor

ked,

sin

ce th

enu

mbe

r of

doc

umen

ts a

lrea

dy r

elea

sed

thro

ugh

rese

arch

er-i

nitia

ted

man

dato

ryre

view

s or

Fre

edom

of

Info

rmat

ion

Act

(FO

IA)

requ

ests

is s

mal

ler.

It a

ppea

rs th

atab

out 7

0 pe

rcen

t of

docu

men

ts r

elat

ing

to in

tern

atio

nal s

cien

ce h

ouse

d at

the

Tru

man

and

Eis

enho

wer

pre

side

ntia

l lib

rari

es r

emai

n cl

assi

fied

; sig

nifi

cant

por

-tio

ns o

f de

clas

sifi

ed m

ater

ials

wer

e sa

nitiz

ed b

efor

e re

leas

e. O

f gr

eate

r co

ncer

nto

sch

olar

s, h

owev

er, i

s th

at s

ever

al r

elev

ant r

ecor

d gr

oups

, inc

ludi

ng v

irtu

ally

all

Stat

e D

epar

men

t and

CIA

fie

s on

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

act

iviti

es, r

emai

n w

ithin

thei

r or

igin

atin

g ag

enci

es. H

isto

rian

s w

ishi

ng a

cces

s to

thes

e m

ater

ials

mus

t de-

term

ine,

oft

en w

ithou

t the

adv

anta

ge o

f fi

ndin

g ai

ds, the identity of relevant

_._-

---

-- ,

,- .,

-_.

_

224

The

His

torio

grap

hy o

f Con

tem

pora

ry S

cien

ce a

nd T

echn

olog

y

thos

e fo

r se

nior

col

leag

ues

who

con

clud

ed th

eir

care

ers

befo

re 1

940.

The

sam

eholds true for the papers of non-scientists, i

nclu

ding

adm

inis

trat

ors

and

law

yers

who

took

on

criti

cal o

vers

ight

or

orga

niza

tiona

l res

pons

ibili

ties

with

in P

resi

den-

tial r

evie

w p

anel

s su

ch a

s th

e fi

rst H

oove

r C

omm

issi

on o

f 19

48 a

nd th

e Se

cond

Hoo

ver

Com

mis

sion

of

1955

.M

oreo

ver,

his

toria

ns o

f sci

ence

face

ext

raor

dina

ry c

halle

nges

in in

vest

igat

ing

scie

ntif

ic w

ork

that

was

nei

ther

con

duct

ed o

penl

y no

r fu

nded

thro

ugh

trad

ition

alch

anne

ls. S

tand

ard

tool

s of

the

trad

e, in

clud

ing

cita

tion

coun

ts, m

emoi

rs, a

ndpr

ofes

sion

al b

iogr

aphi

es, a

re o

f lim

ited

valu

e fo

r st

udyi

ng s

cien

tists

act

ive

inblack' fields of international science.

Off

icia

l app

oint

men

ts a

re s

omet

imes

mis

lead

ing.

Wal

lace

R. B

rode

, the

nat

iona

lly p

rom

inen

t che

mis

t and

form

erO

hio

Stat

e pr

ofes

sor

who

ser

ved

as A

ssoc

iate

Dir

ecto

r of

the

Nat

iona

l Bur

eau

ofStandards from 1947 to 1958

, act

ually

occ

upie

d th

is p

ost o

nly

afte

r O

ctob

er19

48. B

efor

e th

en, u

nder

an

agre

emen

t wor

ked

out b

etw

een

NB

S D

irect

orE

dwar

d U

. Con

don

and

Adm

iral

Ros

coe

C. H

ilenk

oette

r, d

irect

or o

f the

new

lyes

tabl

ishe

d C

IA, Brode used this appointment as a blind while he organized

scie

ntif

ic in

telli

genc

e w

ithin

this

age

ncy.

Suc

h pr

actic

es w

ere

not u

ncom

mon

inC

old

War

Was

hing

ton.

46 I

n ad

ditio

n, h

isto

rian

s of

sci

ence

hav

e of

ten

appe

ared

relu

ctan

t to

pres

s sc

ient

ists

to d

iscu

ss th

eir

conn

ectio

ns to

'bl

ack'

sci

ence

act

ivi-

ties

in o

ral h

isto

ry in

terv

iew

s, p

artly

rec

ogni

zing

the

real

ity o

f C

old

War

res

tric

-tio

ns b

ut a

lso,

one

sus

pect

s, b

ecau

se h

isto

rian

s of

sci

ence

are

oft

en u

neas

y ab

out

rais

ing

issu

es o

f ev

iden

t dis

com

fort

to th

eir

subj

ects

Y T

he e

ndin

g of

the

Col

dW

ar h

as m

ade

it on

ly s

light

ly e

asie

r fo

r sc

ient

ists

to r

efle

ct o

n th

e co

ntra

dict

ions

and

prof

essi

onal

com

prom

ises

that

aff

ecte

d in

tern

atio

nal r

elat

ions

in s

cien

ce.

Nev

erth

eles

s, th

e pr

ospe

cts

for

rese

arch

in th

is fi

eld

are

good

. Det

erm

ined

re-

sear

cher

s w

ill f

ind

a va

rety

of

reso

urce

s al

read

y av

aila

ble.

Pap

ers

from

num

erou

sm

embe

rs o

f C

ongr

ess

in o

ffce

dur

ing

the

Col

d W

ar h

ave

been

dep

osite

d, c

hief

lyin university archives, a

roun

d th

e co

untr

y. S

ince

thes

e co

llect

ions

incl

ude

reco

rds

of d

iscu

ssio

ns w

ith in

divi

dual

sci

entis

ts o

n in

tern

atio

nal r

elat

ions

, and

ofte

n un

-gu

arde

d co

mm

ents

abo

ut th

e po

litic

s an

d ut

ilty

of in

clud

ing

scientists in diplo-

mat

ic e

ffort

s, t

hey

are

a va

luab

le (

and

here

tofo

re v

irtu

ally

unt

appe

d) s

ourc

e fo

r th

ero

le o

f sc

ienc

e in

for

eign

rel

atio

ns.48

Con

flct

s w

ithin

the

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

unio

ns, o

ften

ref

lect

ing

gove

rnm

ent i

nvol

vem

ent a

nd in

terf

eren

ce a

nd f

orei

gnpo

licy

obje

ctiv

es, a

re o

ften

doc

umen

ted

in th

e pa

pers

of

unio

n of

fcer

s. R

ecor

dsfo

r th

e O

ffce

of

Inte

rnat

iona

l Rel

atio

ns o

f th

e N

atio

nal A

cade

my

of S

cien

ce a

reav

aila

ble

at th

e A

cade

my

s W

ashi

ngto

n-ba

sed

arch

ives

, whi

ch a

lso

cont

ain

rela

ted

file

s on

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

act

iviti

es. C

opie

s of

man

y de

clas

sifi

ed g

over

nmen

tan

d ag

ency

rec

ords

are

ava

ilabl

e at

the

univ

ersi

ty-based National Security Archive

in W

ashi

ngto

n, w

hose

sta

ff c

an p

rovi

de in

valu

able

ass

ista

nce

to h

isto

rian

s in

vest

i-ga

ting

scie

nce-

stat

e re

latio

nshi

ps d

urin

g th

e C

old

War

. The

two-

to-t

hree

yea

r de

lay

in o

btai

ning

doc

umen

ts a

t pre

side

ntia

l lib

rare

s sh

ould

not

dis

cour

age

hist

oria

ns a

l-re

ady

in s

ecur

e po

sitio

ns, s

ince

man

dato

ry r

evie

w r

eque

sts

ofte

n re

leas

e vo

lum

es o

fnew infonnation: at the Truman librar, fo

r in

stan

ce, a

ppro

xim

atel

y 70

to 8

0 pe

r-ce

nt o

f m

ater

ial s

ough

t in

this

way

is s

ubse

quen

tly c

lear

ed f

or r

elea

se.

- ,

Sci

entis

ts a

s P

olic

ymak

ers.

Adv

isor

s, and Intelligence Agent.f 225

One

of

the

mos

t im

port

ant s

ourc

es o

f in

form

atio

n on

sci

ence

in f

orei

gn p

olic

ydu

ring

the

Col

d W

ar h

as u

ntil

rece

ntly

bee

n ex

trem

ely

unde

r-ut

ilize

d: o

ral h

is-

tory interviews with science attaches, S

tate

Dep

artm

ent o

ffci

als,

federal scien-

tists

, adm

inis

trat

ors,

and

oth

ers

who

witn

esse

d ne

w s

cien

ce-s

tate

rel

atio

nshi

psas

they

em

erge

d. T

he v

alue

and

lim

itatio

ns o

f or

al h

isto

ry f

or w

ritin

g th

e hi

stor

yof

sci

ence

, whi

ch w

as r

ecen

tly tr

eate

d at

leng

th, do not need to be repeated

here

. 50

Yet

few

ora

l his

tory

inte

rvie

ws

have

exp

lore

d at

dep

th in

terr

elat

ions

be-

twee

n sc

ient

ists

and

for

eign

pol

icy.

For

inst

ance

, the

ext

ensi

ve o

ral h

isto

ry c

ol-

lect

ion

at th

e T

rum

an P

resi

dent

ial L

ibra

ry c

onta

ins

few

inte

rvie

ws

with

sci

entis

tsac

tive

in th

e T

rum

an A

dmin

istr

atio

n, a

nd o

ther

adm

inis

trat

ion

offc

ials

fam

iliar

with

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

pol

icy,

incl

udin

g Jo

hn R

. Ste

elm

an, t

ypic

ally

wer

e no

tqu

estio

ned

on th

is s

ubje

ct. O

ral h

isto

ry p

rogr

ams

orga

nize

d by

his

tori

ans

of s

ci-

ence

hav

e ge

nera

lly d

one

little

bet

ter

at a

ddre

ssin

g th

is is

sue,

foc

usin

g in

stea

don disciplinary, professional, or largely national topiCS.51 The occasional oral

hist

ory

that

doe

s ad

dres

s th

e re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n sc

ient

ists

and

for

eign

pol

icy

for instance, E

lizab

eth

Hod

es' i

nter

view

with

the

chem

ist J

osep

h B

. Koe

pfl

who

ser

ved

as S

cien

ce A

dvis

or to

Sec

reta

ry o

f St

ate

Dea

n A

ches

on b

etw

een

1950 and 1952, done as part of Caltech's

ongo

ing

oral

his

tory

pro

gram

de

mon

stra

tes

how

eff

ectiv

e in

-dep

th in

terv

iew

s on

this

topi

c ca

n be

.D

espi

te c

once

rn th

at to

o m

any

acto

rs in

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

pol

icy

from

the

earl

y C

old

War

era

are

alr

eady

dec

ease

d th

ere

is n

o ar

gum

ent t

hat o

ral h

isto

ry

proj

ects

on

this

topi

c sh

ould

hav

e be

en la

unch

ed e

arlie

r - much

oral

his

tory

wor

k

can

stil

be a

ccom

plis

hed

, and

sho

uld

be v

igor

ousl

y pu

rsue

d. S

ever

al ju

stifi

catio

nsfor doing oral history interviews in history of science are particularly applicable

here

: arc

hiva

l sou

rces

are

rel

ativ

ely

thin

and

som

etim

es d

elib

erat

ely

obsc

ure;

inte

rvie

ws

can

act a

s gu

ides

to s

till-

clas

sifi

ed o

r vo

lum

inou

s re

cord

gro

ups;

and

fina

lly, i

nter

view

s of

ten

unco

ver

reco

rds,

who

se e

vent

ual p

rese

rvat

ion

is o

ne o

f th

egr

eate

st b

enef

its o

f or

al h

isto

ry u

nder

taki

ngs.

Man

y in

divi

dual

s on

ce a

ctiv

e in

this

area

rem

ain

aliv

e an

d m

enta

lly a

ctiv

e. Preliminar interviews completed th

is s

um-

mer

mak

e cl

ear

the

pote

ntia

l rew

ards

of

trea

ting

such

issu

es a

s te

nsio

ns o

ver

CIA

oper

atio

ns a

nd th

e at

titud

es o

f St

ate

Dep

artm

ent o

ffci

als

tow

ards

sci

ence

and

scie

ntif

ic d

evel

opm

ents

. 53

Ora

l his

tory

inte

rvie

ws

are

espe

cial

ly v

alua

ble

also

for

expl

orin

g w

hat w

as ta

citly

und

erst

ood

amon

g pa

ricip

ants

and

'w

ent w

ithou

t say

-

ing

' in

wri

tten

docu

men

ts. Q

uest

ions

par

icul

arly

wor

th p

osin

g to

sci

entis

ts

par

beca

use

so li

ttle

docu

men

tatio

n is

ava

ilabl

e fo

r th

ese

topi

cs

incl

ude

thei

r

mot

ivat

ions

for

ext

endi

ng s

cien

ce p

olic

y to

Lat

in A

mer

ica

and

sub-

Sahara Africa

thei

r im

pres

sion

s of

cov

ert i

nter

natio

nal s

cien

ce a

ctiv

ities

, and

thei

r vi

ews

on th

eva

lue

of m

aint

aini

ng c

onta

cts

with

col

leag

ues

in C

omm

unis

t Chi

na, t

he S

ovie

t

Uni

on, E

aste

rn E

urop

e, a

nd o

ther

are

as u

nder

Com

mun

ist d

omin

atio

n.Fi

nally

, the

rol

e of

sci

ence

in f

orei

gn p

olic

y is

an

inhe

rent

ly in

tern

atio

nal s

ubje

ct;

dipl

omat

ic h

isto

rian

s as

wel

l as

hist

oria

ns o

f sc

ienc

e ha

ve a

dvan

ced

conv

inci

ng a

r-gu

men

ts f

or tr

eatin

g su

ch is

sues

in c

ompa

rativ

e an

alyt

ical

fra

mew

orks

to a

ddre

sssu

ch c

ompl

ex is

sues

suc

h as

dep

ende

ncy,

impe

rial

ism

, and

ideo

logy

.54 T

o da

te, r

ela-

tivel

y lit

tle w

ork

on s

cien

tists

and

for

eign

pol

icy

has

been

don

e in

Eur

opea

n or

Asi

an

" : -

.. ,

H'--.

; . -

' -;-

"' ,-

-,,

r:.

'"",

--

,-

- . '

. .- -

- '-

.. ,..

.;"

;'" -

. .. ,

.. ,

. .

a..."

...

.-.

226 The

His

tori

ogra

phy

of C

onte

mpo

rary

Sci

ence

and

Tec

hnol

ogy

cont

exts

aft

er 1

945,

alth

ough

sev

eral

stu

dies

hav

e be

gun

to e

mer

ge. F

or in

stan

ceK

laus

-Har

ro T

iem

ann

has

inve

stig

ated

exc

hang

es o

f sc

ient

ists

bet

wee

n th

e So

viet

Uni

on a

nd E

ast G

enna

ny in

mili

tari

ly c

ritic

al f

ield

s of

ear

th s

cien

ce d

urin

g th

e19

50s,

whi

le N

ikol

ai K

rem

ents

ov h

as e

xplo

red

how

Sta

lin a

nd le

adin

g Po

litbu

rom

embe

rs s

ough

t to

empl

oy p

erce

ived

bre

akth

roug

hs in

can

cer

trea

tmen

t as

a po

liti-

cal i

nstr

umen

t to

coun

ter

the

U.S

.'s a

tom

ic b

omb

mon

opol

y in

194

6 an

d 19

47.

Arc

hive

s in

Eur

ope

and

the

fonn

er S

ovie

t Uni

on (

incl

udin

g, f

or e

xam

ple,

the

Aca

d-em

y of

Sci

ence

s of

the

fonn

er E

ast G

erm

an s

tate

) ha

ve y

et to

be

min

ed c

aref

ully

for

international science in the Cold War. 56

Iro

nica

lly, w

ith m

uch

docu

men

tatio

n on

S. a

ctiv

ities

in f

orei

gn s

cien

ce d

urin

g th

e ea

rly

Col

d W

ar e

ra s

till c

lass

ifie

d an

dun

avai

labl

e, th

ese

arch

ives

may

yie

ld a

bund

ant d

ocum

enta

tion

and

insi

ghts

into

Wes

tern

sci

ence

pol

icy,

and

pro

vide

the

adde

d bo

nus

of E

aste

rn p

ersp

ectiv

es o

nth

ese

actio

ns.

RE

APP

RA

ISIN

G T

HE

HIS

TO

RY

OF

SCIE

NC

E A

FTE

R 1

940

Muc

h w

ork

mus

t be

done

bef

ore

cohe

sive

new

interpretations of international

scie

nce

in th

e C

old

War

era

can

be evaluated and revised. Nevertheless, it is

wor

th f

ram

ing

sign

ific

ant q

uest

ions

eve

n if

res

ourc

es to

ans

wer

them

are

not

yet

fully

at h

and.

In

this

sec

tion

I w

il su

gges

t sev

eral

line

s of

inve

stig

atio

n th

atm

erit

furt

her

cons

ider

atio

n by

his

tori

ans

of s

cien

ce a

nd d

iplo

mat

ic h

isto

rian

sal

ike.

In

keep

ing

with

the

aim

of

this

boo

k, th

ese

ques

tions

are

bia

sed

tow

ards

hist

ory

of s

cien

ce, a

lthou

gh th

ey c

anno

t be

adeq

uate

ly a

ddre

ssed

with

out p

aral

lel

effo

rts

by h

isto

rians

of U

.S. f

orei

gn p

olic

y.H

ow d

id p

oliti

cal i

deol

ogy

affe

ct th

e vi

ews

of u

.s. s

cien

tists

tow

ards

inte

rna-

tional science during the Cold War?

Unt

il re

cent

ly, h

isto

rian

s w

ho h

ave

stud

ied

the

invo

lvem

ent o

f sc

ient

ists

in f

orei

gn p

olic

y du

ring

the

earl

y C

old

War

yea

rsha

ve fo

cuse

d on

'ou

tsid

ers

, typ

ical

ly p

hysi

cist

s, w

ho s

ough

t to

use

the

mor

alau

thor

ity o

f in

tern

atio

nal s

cien

ce to

aid

dem

ocra

tic c

ause

s. I

n th

e U

., a

ttent

ion

has

cent

ered

on

such

indi

vidu

als

as L

inus

Pau

ling

and

Leo

Szi

lard

, who

opp

osed

McC

arth

yist

atta

cks,

res

tric

tions

on

inte

rnat

iona

l tra

vel,

and

deve

lopm

ent o

f th

ehy

drog

en b

omb.

In th

e S

ovie

t con

text

, sim

ilar

and

dese

rved

atte

ntio

n ha

s be

ende

vote

d to

the

infl

uent

ial d

isso

nant

And

rei S

akha

rov,

like

Pau

ling

a w

inne

r of

the

Nob

el P

rize

for

Pea

ce.

The

impo

rtan

ce o

f at

omic

dip

lom

acy

cert

ainl

y m

akes

this

an

impo

rtan

t asp

ect o

fC

old

War

his

tory

. Yet

we

know

far

less

abo

ut s

cien

tific

'ins

ider

s' w

ho b

ecam

e in

-

volv

ed in

fore

ign

polic

y th

roug

h th

e S

tate

Dep

arm

ent,

CIA

, NSC

, and

oth

er in

stitu

-

tions

. Edw

ard

Tel

ler

was

har

dly

the

only

con

serv

ativ

e ph

ysic

ist i

n th

e U

nite

d St

ates

afer

Wor

ld W

ar I

I, n

or w

as p

hysi

cs th

e on

ly s

cien

ce d

isci

plin

e w

hose

mem

bers

strggled to define U.

S. f

orei

gn p

olic

y in

the

post

-war

yea

rs. F

or e

xam

ple,

we

know

com

para

tivel

y lit

tle a

bou

the

infl

uenc

e of

the

Cal

tech

ast

roph

ysic

ist H

owar

d Pe

rcy

Rob

erts

on, w

ho s

erve

d as

sci

ence

adv

isor

to G

ener

al A

lfre

d M

. Gru

enth

er (

Supr

eme

Alli

ed C

omm

ande

r, E

urop

e) a

nd m

oved

fre

ely

amon

g de

fens

e an

d fo

reig

n ad

viso

ry

, ,

Sci

entis

ts a

s P

olic

ymak

ers,

Adv

isor

s, and intellgence Agents

227

posi

tions

in th

e U

nite

d St

ates

. Sim

ilarl

y, w

e kn

ow li

ttle

abou

t Wal

lace

R. B

rode

, the

firs

t hea

d of

sci

entif

ic in

tellg

ence

with

in th

e C

IA (

1947

-48)

who

in h

is r

ole

asSc

ienc

e A

dvis

or to

the

Stat

e D

epar

men

t (19

58-6

0) a

ttem

pted

to li

mit

U.S. scien-

tific

con

tact

s w

ith s

cien

tists

fro

m n

on-r

ecog

nize

d re

gim

es in

ord

er to

pre

serv

e th

eclarty of U.S.

for

eign

pol

icy

tow

ards

Fon

nosa

and

Com

mun

ist C

hina

. H

unt's

em

phas

is o

n id

eolo

gica

l fac

tors

in U

.S. f

orei

gn p

olic

y ra

ises

an

impo

r-

tant

que

stio

n: h

ow w

ell c

an th

e de

cisi

ons

and

care

er c

hoic

es o

f th

ese

indi

vidu

als

be d

escr

ibed

in te

nns

of id

eolo

gy, a

nd w

hat d

o th

ese

actio

ns s

ugge

st a

bout

the

exte

nt o

f po

litic

al c

oher

ence

and

dis

sent

with

in th

e br

oad

com

mun

ity o

f U

.S.

scie

ntis

ts in

the

1950

s? A

t pre

sent

, thr

ough

the

wor

k of

Spe

ncer

R. W

eart

, Lor

enR

. Gra

ham

and

oth

ers,

we

have

a b

ette

r un

ders

tand

ing

of th

e sh

arp

polit

ical

stru

ggle

s be

twee

n lib

eral

and

con

serv

ativ

e sc

ient

ists

, and

thei

r co

nseq

uenc

es f

orre

sear

ch p

rogr

ams

and

fore

ign

polic

y, f

or F

ranc

e an

d th

e So

viet

Uni

on, w

here

frac

ture

s in

Col

d W

ar p

oliti

cs b

ecam

e vi

sibl

e ea

rly in

the

Col

d W

ar.59 There is

ever

y re

ason

to e

xpec

t tha

t car

eful

stu

dy o

f th

e in

ters

ectio

ns b

etw

een

U.S

. sci

en-

tists

and

suc

h es

tabl

ishm

ents

as

the

Sta

te D

epar

tmen

t, th

e N

SC

, and

fore

ign

deve

lopm

ent a

genc

ies

wil

yiel

d a

rich

er a

nd m

ore

ilum

inat

ing

port

rait

of s

cien

-tis

ts in

for

eign

rel

atio

ns th

an d

eten

nine

d fo

cus

on n

ucle

ar is

sues

has

her

etof

ore

perm

itted

. Nee

dell'

s re

cent

stu

dy o

f Pro

ject

TR

OY

, a 1

950

stud

y of

psy

chol

ogi-

cal w

arfa

re f

unde

d by

the

Stat

e D

epar

men

t, p

rovi

des

such

a w

indo

w in

to th

e

inte

rloc

king

net

wor

k of

sci

entis

ts, g

over

nmen

t pol

icy-

mak

ers

and

mili

tary

lead

ers

forg

ed th

roug

h na

tiona

l sec

urity

con

cern

s an

d ha

s th

e ad

ded

bene

fit

of a

ddre

ssin

g so

cial

sci

entis

ts a

s w

ell,

who

se c

ontr

ibut

ions

to C

old

War

res

earc

hha

ve th

us f

ar r

ecei

ved

limite

d at

tent

ion.

60 S

imila

r st

udie

s ar

e ne

eded

of l

eade

rs

of th

e m

ajor

phi

lant

hrop

ic f

ound

atio

ns d

urin

g th

e ea

rly

Col

d W

ar e

ra, w

ho o

ften

carr

ied

out f

orei

gn p

olic

y in

itiat

es th

at e

stab

lishe

d ag

enci

es w

ere

unab

le o

runwiling to do. The Ford Foundation

s tie

s to

the

CIA

, and

the

wili

ngne

ss o

fFo

unda

tion

man

ager

s to

fun

d U

.S. p

artic

ipat

ion

in th

e in

tern

atio

nal s

cien

tific

unio

ns a

fter

Sec

reta

ry o

f St

ate

John

Fos

ter

Dul

les

balk

ed a

t doi

ng s

o, m

ake

it a

prim

e ca

ndid

ate

for

stud

y.T

o w

hat d

egre

e di

d U

.S. s

cien

tists

see

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

as

a si

gnif

cant

tool in promoting democratic tendencies abroad?

One

of

the

mos

t con

sist

ent

argu

men

ts th

at U

.S. s

cien

tists

use

d to

just

ify

cont

acts

with

Sov

iet c

ount

erpa

rts

duri

ng th

e C

old

War

was

that

sci

ence

was

a w

edge

cap

able

of

stre

ngth

enin

g

advo

cate

s of

dem

ocra

cy b

ehin

d th

e Ir

on C

urta

in. T

he e

xten

t to

whi

ch th

is b

elie

fw

as r

ealiz

ed in

pra

ctic

e st

il aw

aits

exa

min

atio

n; p

artia

lly d

ecla

ssif

ied

NSC

reco

rds

prov

ocat

ivel

y hi

nt th

at th

is p

olic

y bo

re f

ruit

in C

zech

oslo

vaki

a in

the

deca

de f

ollo

win

g th

e 19

48 C

omm

unis

t tak

eove

r.62 But another interesting and

far

less

stu

died

env

ironm

ent w

here

U.S

. sci

entis

ts s

ough

t inf

luen

ce d

urin

g th

e

1950

s w

as th

e T

hird

Wor

ld, p

aric

ular

ly L

atin

Am

eric

a an

d A

fric

a. T

he c

olla

pse

of th

e co

loni

al e

mpi

res

in th

e af

tenn

ath

of W

orld

War

II,

and

the

Poin

t IV

pro

vi-

sion

s of

the

Mar

shal

l Pla

n, w

hich

cal

led

for

"a b

old

new

pro

gram

for

mak

ng th

e

bene

fits

of

our

scie

ntif

ic a

dvan

ces

and

indu

stri

al p

rogr

ess

avai

labl

e fo

r th

e im

-pr

ovem

ent a

nd g

row

th o

f un

derd

evel

oped

are

as, g

radu

ally

turn

ed th

e fo

cus

of

- , -

n

' .,_

""_-

M.

....

,i-

..=-

...""

.. ,

.. '. ,

_. ,

" ,-

,,. -

,, ,

, '. "

" "

" ''

,"

" '

' -: '

228

The

His

torio

grap

hy o

f Con

tem

pora

ry S

cien

ce a

nd T

echn

olog

ySc

ient

ists

as

Polic

ymak

ers,

Adv

isor

s, a

nd I

ntel

lgen

ce A

gent

s 22

9

deve

lopm

ent p

lans

from

Wes

tern

Eur

ope

tow

ards

the

Thi

rd W

orld

.B

y th

e ea

rly

1950

s, le

ader

s of

the

new

ly f

orm

ed N

SF w

ere

activ

ely

cam

paig

ning

for

opp

ortu

-ni

ties

to f

und

rese

arch

in Lati America, and by the end of that decade, acting

thro

ugh

the

lead

ersh

ip o

f th

e Pr

esid

ent

s Sc

ient

ific

Adv

isor

y C

ounc

il (P

SAC

),th

e N

atio

nal A

cade

my

of S

cien

ces

esta

blis

hed

com

mis

sion

s to

stu

dy s

cien

ce in

Lat

in A

mer

ica

as w

ell a

s su

b-Sa

hara

Afr

ica.

64 T

o w

hat d

egre

e di

d pr

opos

ed L

atin

Am

eric

an p

rogr

ams

refle

ct n

eeds

of U

.S. r

esea

rche

rs d

esig

ning

res

earc

h pr

o-gr

ams

for

the

IGY

(19

57-5

8), a

nd to

wha

t ext

ent d

id th

ey r

efle

ct a

ttitu

des

and

valu

es c

onsi

sten

t with

the

Mon

roe

Doc

trin

e?65

Did

sci

entis

ts ta

ke th

e le

ad in

advo

catin

g te

chni

cal s

uppo

rt f

or A

fric

a, p

artic

ular

ly w

ithin

dev

elop

men

tal a

gen-

cies

suc

h as

the

Inte

rnat

iona

l Coo

pera

tion

Adm

inis

trat

ion, or is their participa-

tion

mor

e a

resp

onse

to p

oliti

cal o

ppor

tuni

ties?

66 F

ew s

tudi

es h

ave

exam

ined

the

exte

nt to

whi

ch th

ese

prog

ram

s fu

lfill

ed th

e ai

ms

of U

.S. f

orei

gn p

olic

y, o

rsh

aped

the

wor

ld-v

iew

s an

d pr

ofes

sion

al id

entit

ies

of s

cien

tists

.H

ow d

id c

over

t fun

ding

for

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

pol

icy

affe

ct e

xist

ing,

ove

rtce

nter

s fo

r sc

ienc

e du

ring

the

Col

d W

ar?

How

did

it in

fluen

ce p

eer

revi

ew a

nddecisions about the direction of major research programs?

Alth

ough

impo

rtan

tst

udie

s ha

ve b

een

mad

e of

cla

ssif

ied

mili

tary

pro

ject

s de

sign

ed to

aid

U.S

. nat

iona

l

secu

rity

, inc

ludi

ng M

icha

el A

aron

Den

nis'

wor

k on

the

role

of

secr

ecy

and

itsre

cons

titut

ion

of th

e bo

unda

ry b

etw

een

civi

lian

and

mili

tary

, wha

t I h

ave

in m

ind

are

ende

avor

s in

tend

ed to

infl

uenc

e fo

reig

n po

licy

or to

aid

inte

llige

nce-

gath

erin

g,ra

ther

than

wea

pons

dev

elop

men

t. T

hese

eff

orts

did

not

mer

ely

shif

t sci

entif

ic a

ndhu

man

res

ourc

es in

to a

gend

as r

emot

e fr

om th

ose

at p

re-w

ar u

nive

rsiti

es, a

s St

uart

W. L

eslie

arg

ues

in h

is im

port

ant s

tudy

of

Col

d W

ar r

esea

rch

at M

J.T. and

Stan

ford

68 b

ut u

nder

min

ed th

e in

tegr

ity o

f pu

blic

inst

itutio

ns o

f sc

ienc

e th

atpl

aced

ban

iers

not

mer

ely

betw

een

low

er-l

evel

res

earc

hers

and

cla

ssifi

ed m

ater

i-al

s bu

t als

o be

fore

chi

ef a

dmin

istr

ator

s an

d th

eir

supe

riors

. It h

as o

nly

rece

ntly

com

e to

ligh

t, f

or in

stan

ce, t

houg

h fr

agm

enta

ry r

efer

ence

s, th

at a

genc

y he

ads

atthe National Institutes

f H

ealth

and

NSF

com

plai

ned

abou

t pro

vidi

ng o

ffci

alco

ver

for

cove

rt s

cien

ce p

rogr

ams

disg

uise

d w

ithin

thei

r bu

dget

s.T

hat s

uch

com

prom

ises

wer

e m

ade

to f

ight

the

Col

d W

ar s

houl

d no

t be

surp

ris-

ing, but these practices, m

ade

unde

r no

min

al p

eace

time

cond

ition

s, r

aise

man

yun

answ

ered

que

stio

ns: w

ere

peer

rev

iew

pro

cess

es b

ent o

r by

pass

ed in

acc

omm

o-da

tig '

blac

k' s

cien

ce?

Wha

t per

cent

age

of s

cien

ce a

genc

y aw

ards

dur

ing

the

heig

ht o

f th

e C

old

War

rep

rese

nted

cov

ert m

issi

ons?

How

did

thes

e un

dert

akng

saf

fect

the

fund

ing,

res

earc

h m

issi

ons,

mor

ale

, and

inde

pend

ence

of

thes

e ag

enci

es?

One

way

of a

ppro

achi

ng th

ese

ques

tions

may

be

to ta

ke u

se C

hand

ra M

uker

ji'in

sigh

t, d

evel

oped

in h

er s

tudy

of

the

mili

tari

ly s

trat

egic

fie

ld o

f oc

eano

grap

hy,

that

sci

entis

ts b

ecam

e an

"el

ite r

eser

ve la

bor

forc

e, o

n ta

p to

mee

t pre

ssin

g na

tiona

lem

erge

ncie

s.70

We

now

kno

w th

at a

195

3 C

IA a

sses

smen

t of

Sovi

et S

cien

tific

and

Tec

hnic

al M

anpo

wer

, whi

ch f

ound

that

the

quan

tity

and

qual

ity o

f So

viet

res

earc

hto

be

"app

roac

hing

com

para

bilit

y w

ith th

at o

f th

e U

nite

d St

ates

, cir

cula

ted

amon

gke

y E

isen

how

er A

dmin

istr

atio

n of

fcia

ls.71

How

impo

rtan

t wer

e su

ch e

stim

ates

in

secu

ring

fed

eral

fun

ds f

or m

ajor

sci

entif

ic u

nder

taki

ngs

such

as

the

IGY

? U

nder

-

stan

ding

how

for

eign

pol

icy

conc

erns

afe

cted

hig

hest

leve

l dec

isio

ns a

bout

the

cul-

tivat

ion

of s

cien

tific

res

earc

h with Cold War

Am

eric

a w

ill c

ompl

emen

t exi

stin

g

studies of militar patronage

s in

flue

nce

on d

omes

tic d

isci

plin

ar d

evel

opm

ents

,

incl

udin

g Pa

ul F

onna

ns

now

cla

ssic

stu

dy o

f the

dev

elop

men

t of q

uant

um e

lect

ro-

dyna

mcs

afe

r W

orld

War

n.

How

did

the

purs

uit o

f in

tern

atio

nal s

cien

ce in

the

U.S

. con

text

dif

er f

rom

that in other nations?

Wor

ld W

ar n

and

the

Col

d W

ar c

ause

d le

ader

s of

man

yW

este

rn g

over

nmen

ts, i

nclu

ding

Gre

at B

rita

in, W

est G

erm

any,

and

Fra

nce,

to

plac

e sc

ienc

e at

tach

es in

thei

r fo

reig

n em

bass

ies,

to d

evel

op a

genc

ies

resp

onsi

-bl

e fo

r sc

ient

ific

inte

llgen

ce, a

nd to

neg

otia

te tr

eatie

s to

gov

ern

the

exch

ange

of

scie

ntis

ts a

nd s

trat

egic

info

nnat

ion.

73 As the historian R

egis

Cab

ral h

as s

how

n in

the

case

of t

he B

razi

lian-

Ger

man

nuc

lear

agr

eem

ent o

f 19

54-5

5, a

nd A

ant

Elzinga in his study of the 1950s debates over the sovereignty of A

ntar

ctic

a,

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

bec

ame

a po

litic

al is

sue

of n

ew a

nd u

npre

cede

nted

impo

r-tance in Brasila, M

adri

d, S

tock

holm

, Bue

nos

Air

es, a

nd B

onn

as w

ell a

sW

ashi

ngto

n an

d M

osco

w.

4 T

oo li

ttle

is k

now

n ab

out t

hese

rel

atio

nshi

ps in

any

natio

nal c

onte

xt to

pen

nit m

eani

ngfu

l tra

nsna

tiona

l com

pars

ons,

but

ther

e ar

ere

ason

s fo

r ca

utio

n in

any

eff

ort t

o bo

ldly

ext

rapo

late

the

U.S

. exp

erie

nce

to

othe

r na

tions

. For

exa

mpl

e, th

e re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n in

tern

atio

nal g

eoph

ysic

san

d sc

ient

ific

inte

llgen

ce th

at L

loyd

Ber

kner

saw

as

a fu

ndam

enta

l asp

ect o

f th

eIG

Y w

as n

ot m

irro

red

nort

h of

the

49th

Par

alle

l. G

eoph

ysic

al p

rosp

ectin

g in

the

vast

exp

anse

of

Can

adas northern regions, n

ot m

ilita

ry p

lann

ing,

was

a m

ain

concern for leading Canadian geophysicists such as Toronto

s J.

Tuz

o W

ilson

;

the

inte

rnat

iona

l opp

ortu

nitie

s pr

esen

ted

by th

e IG

Y w

ere

cons

ider

ed in

a q

uite

diff

eren

t pol

itica

l con

text

in O

ttaw

a th

an in

Was

hing

ton.

75 E

xam

inin

g ho

w

scie

ntis

ts r

esol

ved

the

oppo

sing

pul

ls o

f na

tiona

lism

and

inte

rnat

iona

lism

dur

ing

the

Col

d W

ar, d

one

with

in a

nat

iona

lly c

ompa

rativ

e co

ntex

t, s

houl

d in

crea

se o

ur

unde

rsta

ndin

g of

how

sci

entis

ts s

aw th

eir

self

-identity and social allegiances,

and

how

par

icul

ar p

oliti

cal e

nvir

onm

ents

sha

ped

thei

r pr

ofes

sion

al o

utlo

ok.

Wha

t mot

ivat

ed s

cien

tists

to ta

ke p

art i

n sc

ient

ific

inte

llgen

ce a

ctiv

ities

duri

ng th

e C

old

War

? A

noth

er, a

nd p

erha

ps m

ore

rew

ardi

ng w

ay, t

o pu

t thi

s

ques

tion

is to

ask

: how

tem

pera

men

tally

sui

ted

wer

e sc

ient

ists

to ta

ke p

ar

espi

onag

e? T

his

is n

ot m

eant

to p

rivi

lege

sci

entis

ts a

s pa

rtic

ular

ly m

oral

, but

rath

er to

sug

gest

that

the

prof

essi

onal

rew

ard

stru

ctur

es o

f sc

ienc

e w

ere

(and

are

)de

eply

at o

dds

with

the

requ

irem

ents

of

cove

rt in

tellg

ence

-gath

erin

g - a

po-

tent

ially

ser

ious

fla

w in

mai

ntai

ning

con

sist

ently

hig

h qu

ality

info

nnat

ion

and

anal

ysis

. As

the

soci

olog

ist R

ober

t K. M

erto

n ar

gued

in h

is c

lass

ic s

tudy

of

sci-

entif

ic n

onns

, fre

e ex

chan

ge o

f sc

ient

ific

info

rmat

ion

in r

etur

n fo

r re

cogn

ized

prio

rity

see

ms

a ne

cess

ar f

ound

atio

n fo

r th

e pr

ogre

ss o

f sc

ienc

e.76

Did

the

Col

d

War

rep

rese

nt a

pro

trac

ted

peri

od d

urin

g w

hich

the

Mer

toni

an n

orm

s of

sci

ence

wer

e vi

olat

ed?

Arc

hiva

l evi

denc

e hi

nts

that

it w

as f

ar e

asie

r to

rec

ruit

U.S

. sci

en-

tists

to w

ork

as o

ccas

iona

l inf

onna

nts

or c

onsu

ltant

s fo

r th

e C

IA th

an to

rec

ruit

scie

ntis

ts to

tem

pora

r in

tellg

ence

ass

ignm

ents

in W

ashi

ngto

n, a

nd s

til m

ore

diff

cult

to f

ind

scie

ntis

ts w

iling

to g

ive

up r

esea

rch

or te

achi

ng c

aree

rs f

or

- . un

-

-,-

,,,,,,

,""

-'"-

'--

'''''''

'''''

''': '

. .. . . "

,"'

, . .

, - ..' .

, ,., .

230 The

His

tori

ogra

phy

of C

onte

mpo

rary

Sci

ence

and

Tec

hnol

ogy

perm

anen

t pos

ition

s w

ithin

the

CIA

, particularly as U.S.

invo

lvem

ent i

n th

eV

ietn

am W

ar e

scal

ated

. Yet

sci

entif

ic in

tellg

ence

oft

en p

rove

d a critical issue

for

NSC

mem

bers

in th

e 19

50s,

who

str

uggl

ed to

com

e to

term

s w

ith e

stim

ates

of Soviet bio-chemical and medical research

, tab

ulat

ions

of

mus

hroo

min

g E

ast

Blo

c re

sear

ch c

apac

ities

, est

imat

es o

f po

tent

ial l

osse

s of

fac

ilitie

s an

d sc

ient

ists

in countres bordering the Iron Curtain in the event of Soviet invasion, a

nd th

ere

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n pr

opos

ed s

cien

tific

pro

ject

s an

d th

eir

inte

rnat

iona

l pre

stig

eva

lue.

As

Salle

Pis

ani e

mph

asiz

es in

her

rec

ent s

tudy

of

the

CIA

and

the

Mar

shal

l Pla

n, th

ose

who

con

trib

ute

or c

ontr

ol in

form

atio

n av

aila

ble

to p

olic

ym

aker

s th

emse

lves

pla

y an

impo

rtan

t rol

e in

set

ting

polic

y.77

No

wor

k ad

equa

tely

addr

esse

s th

e lim

itatio

ns o

f sc

ient

ific

inte

llgen

ce a

fter

194

5, a

lthou

gh it

is n

owcl

ear

that

Tru

man

adm

inis

trat

ion

offc

ials

rec

ogni

zed

wea

knes

ses

and

soug

htm

ore

effe

ctiv

e m

onito

ring

of

fore

ign

scie

ntif

ic d

evel

opm

ents

.78

It is

impo

rtan

t

ther

efor

e, to

ass

ess

the

qual

ity o

f sci

entif

ic in

telli

genc

e re

ceiv

ed b

y th

e N

SC

.T

he h

igh

accu

racy

of t

he C

IA's

194

9 S

cien

ce in

Sw

eden

rep

orts

sug

gest

s th

at, a

tle

ast a

t tha

t tim

e, e

xact

ing

stan

dard

s w

ere

not i

mpo

ssib

le to

obt

ain.

To

cont

inue

alo

ng th

ese

lines

: wha

t fra

ctio

n of

the

U.S

. sci

entif

ic c

omm

unity

part

icip

ated

in C

IA w

ork,

apa

rt f

rom

the

man

dato

ry d

ebri

efin

gs o

f sc

ient

ists

retu

rnin

g fr

om o

vers

eas

conf

eren

ces?

Wer

e ce

rtai

n di

scip

linar

y co

mm

uniti

esm

ore

invo

lved

in c

over

t int

erna

tiona

l sci

ence

than

oth

ers

and

if s

o, w

hat s

o-ci

al, p

rofe

ssio

nal,

or n

atio

nal s

ecur

ity f

acto

rs s

timul

ated

thei

r in

volv

emen

t? I

s it

coin

cide

ntal

, or

sign

ifica

nt, t

hat s

ever

al le

adin

g sc

ient

ists

who

took

par

in th

eO

ffce

of

Scie

ntif

ic I

ntel

ligen

ce a

nd r

elat

ed o

rgan

izat

ions

wer

e ch

emis

ts b

ytr

aini

ng, p

erha

ps r

efle

ctin

g go

vern

men

t con

cern

abo

ut c

hem

ical

war

fare

or

the

stre

ngth

of

the

Sovi

et c

hem

ical

indu

stry

? O

r di

d th

is c

once

ntra

tion

refl

ect t

hepr

ofes

sion

al e

xper

ienc

es o

f ch

emis

ts, m

ore

clos

ely

invo

lved

with

indu

stri

alre

sear

ch a

ctiv

ities

than

, for example, astrophysicists?79 Did po

litic

al o

utlo

okm

atte

r, a

nd a

re th

ere

way

s of

cha

ract

eriz

ing

pari

cipa

nts

alon

g de

mog

raph

ic o

rge

nera

tiona

l lin

es?

Ans

wer

ing

such

que

stio

ns w

ill p

rovi

de n

ew in

sigh

ts in

to p

ro-

fess

iona

l and

soc

ial f

acto

rs th

at a

ffect

ed U

.S. s

cien

tific

com

mun

ities

dur

ing

the

Cold War.

Und

oubt

edly

new

que

stio

ns w

il be

rai

sed

as n

ew s

tudi

es o

f th

ese

issu

es a

rem

ade.

But

add

ress

ing

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

and

its

vario

us n

atio

nally

-situ

ated

fore

ign

polic

y co

ntex

ts w

ill y

ield

a h

isto

ry o

f m

odem

sci

ence

that

is b

ette

r ro

oted

to th

e co

ntex

t of

the

post

war

era

than

his

tori

ogra

phic

app

roac

hes

base

d on

con

-tin

uity

with

pre

-194

0 pe

riod

have

thus

far

perm

itted

.T

his

appr

oach

wil

re-

quire

his

toria

ns o

f Am

eric

an s

cien

ce to

take

ser

ious

ly C

harl

es R

osen

berg

rem

inde

r th

at "

We

cann

ot u

nder

stan

d th

e m

oder

n w

orld

with

out a

n un

ders

tand

-in

g of

the

nece

ssar

y co

nnec

tions

bet

wee

n th

e in

divi

dual

and

his

or

her

disc

i-pl

ine,

bet

wee

n th

e di

scip

line

and

the

soci

al s

ourc

es o

f its

sup

port

, bet

wee

n id

eas

and

thei

r re

al im

pact

s in

a r

eal w

orld

"81

Sci

entis

ts w

orki

ng w

ithin

the

fabr

ic o

f

the

U. S

. pol

itica

l est

ablis

hmen

t afte

r 19

45 c

an b

e ex

amin

ed a

s pa

r of the ex-

pand

ed r

ole

of e

xper

ts w

ithin

for

eign

pol

icy

coun

cils

, or

as a

gent

s of

ideo

logy

,or participants in corporatist strategies, o

r as

inno

vato

rs in

eco

nom

ic s

trat

egie

s

Sci

entis

ts a

s P

olic

ymak

ers,

Advisors, and Intelligence Agents

231

to e

nhan

ce W

este

rn g

eopo

litic

al s

tand

ing.

Dip

lom

atic

his

tori

ans

are

at h

ome

inpu

rsui

ng s

uch

ques

tions

. Inc

reas

ed d

ialo

gue

betw

een

hist

oria

ns o

f sc

ienc

e an

ddi

plom

atic

his

tori

ans

is n

eede

d to

ach

ieve

sha

rper

insi

ghts

into

the

role

and

sig

-ni

fican

ce o

f sci

ence

and

sci

entis

ts in

inte

rnat

iona

l affa

irs.

AC

KN

OW

LE

DG

EM

EN

TS

I w

ish

to th

ank

Mar

on D

eshm

ukh,

Dav

id H

. DeV

orki

n, K

atha

rine

Doe

l, C

arl-

Hen

r G

esch

win

d, G

regg

Her

ken,

Mel

vyn

P. L

effe

r, J

effe

rson

P. M

arqu

is, A

llan

A. Needell

, Ann

a K

. Nel

son,

R. A

llen

Smith

, Rob

ert W

. Sm

ith, J

essi

ca W

ang

and

Spen

cer

R. W

ear

for

com

men

ts o

n ea

rlie

r ve

rsio

ns o

f th

is e

ssay

, as

wel

l as

fello

wpa

rcip

ants

at t

he In

tern

atio

nal W

orks

hop

on th

e H

isto

riog

raph

y of

Con

tem

pora

r

Scie

nce,

Tec

hnol

ogy,

and

Med

icin

e, h

eld

in G

6teb

org,

Sw

eden

, Sep

tem

ber

1994

. Iw

ould

als

o lik

e to

than

k ar

chiv

ists

at t

he T

rum

an a

nd E

isen

how

er p

resi

dent

ial

libra

res,

par

icul

arly

Den

nis

Bilg

er a

nd D

wig

ht S

tran

dber

g, fo

r th

eir

extr

emel

y

help

ful s

ugge

stio

ns f

or lo

catin

g re

leva

nt d

ocum

ents

and

req

uest

ing

man

dato

ryre

view

s. I

gra

tefu

lly a

ckno

wle

dge

supp

ort f

or a

spec

ts o

f m

y ow

n w

ork

pres

ente

dhe

rein

fro

m th

e N

atio

nal E

ndow

men

t for

the

Hum

aniti

es, N

atio

nal S

cien

ce F

oun-

datio

n gr

ant N

SF

SB

R-9

5118

67, t

he S

mith

soni

an I

nstit

utio

n, th

e C

ente

r fo

r H

is-

tory

of

Phys

ics

of th

e A

mer

ican

Ins

titue

of

Phys

ics,

and

the

Her

bert

C. P

ollo

ck

Aw

ard.

NO

TE

S

Eba

n, q

uote

d in

Jam

es K

illia

n

, "

Mak

ing

Scie

nce

a V

ital F

orce

in F

orei

gnPo

licy

, n.d

. (ci

rca

1962

-63)

, (B

ox 2

, Lud

wig

Aud

rieth

papers, University

of Ilinois archives).

Dup

ree

1972

,44

3.Fo

r ex

ampl

e, th

e ge

olog

ist a

nd a

dmin

istr

ator

Eve

rette

deG

olye

r, w

hodi

scov

ered

the

fecu

ndity

of

the

Saud

i Ara

bian

oil

fiel

ds w

hile

on

a U

.fo

reig

n as

sign

men

t in

1943

, pla

yed

an im

port

ant r

ole

in a

lert

ing

Stat

eD

epar

men

t off

cial

s to

the value of these de

posi

ts; s

ee Y

ergi

n 19

92

392-

93. S

cien

tists

als

o w

orke

d w

ith d

iplo

mat

ic o

ffci

als

on o

ccas

ion

tose

cure

fav

orab

le a

cces

s to

nat

ural

res

ourc

es in

Lati America, lobbied fo

r

acce

ss to

inte

rnat

iona

l sta

tions

for

zoo

logi

cal a

nd o

cean

ogra

phic

stu

dy,

prom

oted

eff

orts

to c

onse

rve

natu

ral r

esou

rces

and

sou

ght g

over

nmen

t aid

to p

rote

ct th

eir

inte

llect

ual p

rope

rty

righ

ts; s

ee f

or e

xam

ple

Bur

styn

198

0,an

d B

ugos

and

Kev

les

1992

. I th

ank

Car

l-H

enry

Ges

chw

ind

for

help

ful

disc

ussi

ons

on th

is p

oint

.A

nna

K. N

elso

n, s

essi

on c

omm

enta

ry, C

old

War

Sci

ence

and

For

eign

Policy session, H

isto

ry o

f Sc

ienc

e So

ciet

y m

eetin

g, S

anta

Fe,

New

Mex

ico,

October 1993.

232 The

His

tori

ogra

phy

of C

onte

mpo

rary

Sci

ence

and

Tec

hnol

ogy

Strik 1991, 79-80 and Schroeder-

Gud

ehus

199

0,90

9; a

pen

etra

ting

anal

y-si

s is

fou

nd in

Das

ton

1990

.Gilispie 1992; see also G

illis

pie

1983

, How

se 1

989,

Herrann 1984

Edgarton 1990

, and

Hob

sbaw

m 1

989,

243

- 261

.DeVorkin 1981 and Friedman 19

90. O

n th

e w

ork

of th

e In

tern

atio

nal

Education Board, see Kohler 1991

, 133

- 61.

Kevles 1970

, Sch

roed

er-Gudehus 1973

, and

Sch

roed

er- G

udeh

us 1

990;

see

also

Gub

er 1

975.

See,

e.

, Alp

erov

itz 1

965,

Gol

dber

g 19

92, G

oldb

erg

(for

thco

min

g),

Herken 1988, Holloway 1994

, Rho

des

1986

, She

rwin

197

7, W

alke

r 19

90and Weart 1989.

The

pos

t-w

ar s

ucce

ssor

to th

e O

ffce

of

Scie

ntif

ic R

esea

rch

and

Dev

elop

men

t(O

SRD

), in

itial

ly te

nned

the

Join

t Res

earc

h an

d D

evel

opm

ent B

oard

(JR

B).

Tha

ckra

y 19

92, v

iii.

Geiger 1993, Dupree 1980, Needelll993, DeVorkin 1992

, Her

shbe

rg 1

993,

Leslie 1993, Lowen (1997), and Smith

et al. 1989.

Her

ken

1992

and

Kev

les

1992

.D

enni

s 19

94 a

nd W

ang

1992

.Crawford, Shinn

, and

Sor

lin 1

992,

Elz

inga

199

3, K

rige

and

Seb

esta

199

4an

d R

abki

n 19

88; s

ee a

lso

Bul

kele

y 1991, Burrows 1986, Jones 1988,

McD

ouga

ll 19

85, L

ogsd

on 1

970,

Log

sdon

and

Dup

as 1

994 ,

Lau

nius

199

4,an

d A

llan

A. N

eede

ll ar

id R

. E. D

oel,

" Sci

ence

in th

e na

tiona

l int

eres

t: sc

ien-

tists

and

the

stat

e de

parm

ent,

1945

- 196

0" (

in p

repa

ratio

n).

The

se in

clud

e H

ewle

tt an

d D

unca

n 19

69, a

nd H

ewle

tt an

d H

oll 1

989.

Hew

lett

and

Hol

l exp

lore

the

broa

der

cont

exts

of

this

age

ncy

mor

e th

anea

rlie

r w

orks

in th

is s

erie

s , a

nd p

rovi

de a

dis

cuss

ion

of in

tern

atio

nal s

cien

ceon pp. 530-536, but their focus neverteless remains national developments.

Technical issues are emphasized in a recent work by Hoddeson

et al. of

Los

Ala

mos

dur

ing

the

Opp

enhe

imer

yea

rs, 1943--5 (in Judson and SOderqvist

fort

com

ing)

. An

exce

llent

historiographic overview is Seidel 1990.

Rec

ent w

ork

by S

ilvan

S. S

chw

eber

on

Ford

Fou

ndat

ion

fund

ing

for

Western European physics in the 19

50s

indi

cate

s ho

w r

ich

this

topi

cpr

omis

es to

be;

see

Sch

web

er 1

994.

See,

e. g

., G

addi

s 19

82, L

effe

r 19

92, a

nd R

osen

berg

198

6.G

imbe

l 199

0 an

d R

icha

rd Ve

rnon Damms,

Sci

entis

ts a

nd S

tate

smen

:P

resi

dent

Eis

enho

wer

s S

cien

ce A

dvis

ers

and

Nat

iona

l Sec

urity

Pol

icy,

1953

-196

1 (P

h.D

. dis

sert

atio

n, Ohio State University, 1993); on cor-

pora

tism

(al

so te

nned

ass

ocia

tiona

lism

), s

ee H

ogan

199

0, H

ogan

198

7, a

ndR

osen

berg

198

2.

Quo

ted

in L

effe

r 19

90, 1

43; s

ee a

lso

Gaq

dis

1987

, Div

ine

1965

, Div

ine

1993, Smith 1983, Skolnikoff 1967

, Laq

ueur

199

3, 5

4-68, and Joseph

A. M

anzi

one

The

Am

eric

an S

cien

tifc

Com

mun

ity, t

he U

nite

d St

ates

Gov

-er

nmen

t, an

d th

e Is

sue

of I

nter

natio

nal S

cien

tifc

Rel

atio

ns d

urin

g th

e C

old

War

(P

h.D

. dis

sert

atio

n, U

nive

rsity

of M

ichi

gan, 1992).

Sci

entis

ts a

s P

olic

ymak

ers,

Adv

isor

s, a

nd I

ntel

ligen

ce A

gent

s 23

3

Hun

t 199

0, H

unt 1

987,

Ezr

ahi 1

990,

and

Wea

rt 1

989.

Gel

b an

d B

etts

197

9, G

ar 1

991.

Dar

ling

1990

and

Mon

tagu

e 19

92. G

aps

in th

ese

hist

orie

s re

mai

n su

bsta

n-tia

l, as

nei

ther

his

tory

for

exa

mpl

e re

port

s su

ch p

sych

olog

ical

dru

g te

stin

gca

red

out b

y C

IA r

esea

rche

rs in

the

earl

y 19

50s;

see

Mar

ks 1

979

and,

for

additional background,

Final Report

1976

. Litt

le in

fonn

atio

n on

sci

entif

icintelligence appears in the standard historical account of this ag

ency

(Jef

frey

s-Jo

nes

1989

).B

erkn

er 1

950.

Thi

s is

sue

has

been

ana

lyze

d in

Nee

dell

(199

6); s

ee a

lso

Nee

dell

and

Doe

l, "

Scie

nce

in th

e na

tiona

l int

eres

top

. cit.

and

Nee

dell

(for

thco

min

g).

Nelkin 1972 and Smith 1992.

Sullivan 1961 and Bullis 1973.

McD

ouga

ll 19

85, N

eede

ll (1

996)

, Nee

dell

(for

tcom

ing)

.Q

uote

d in

Gad

dis

1992

,94

; see

als

o W

inks

198

8.C

. Mar

shal

l to

Pres

iden

t Tru

man

, Jun

e 3,

194

8 (B

ox 1

59, P

resi

dent

Secr

etar

s F

iles

, HST

); R

epor

t of

NSC

on

Posi

tion

of U

S w

ith R

espe

ct to

Scan

dina

via,

Dec

. 16

, 194

8 (N

SC R

ecor

ds, H

ST);

see

als

o K

enne

dy-M

inot

t

1990

, 5-1

1 and Leffer 1992, 2

11-2

18.

an e

stim

ate

of S

wed

ish

capa

bilti

es in

sci

ence

, Aug

. 9, 1

949

(Box

257

Pre

side

nt's

Sec

reta

rs

File

s, T

rum

an L

ibra

r). O

n th

e ac

cura

cy o

f re

port

see Aant Elzinga to author, p

erso

nal c

omm

unic

atio

n; a

n in

trig

uing

om

is-

sion

in th

is r

epor

t is

geop

hysi

cs, c

over

ed b

y ot

her

inte

llgen

ce a

genc

ies.

Lasb

y 19

71; s

ee a

lso

Neu

feld

199

426

7-27

3.

The often-cited Lily 19

68 m

akes

suc

h a

clai

m; a

sim

ilar

argu

men

t con

-ce

rnin

g th

e O

pera

tions

Coo

rdin

atin

g B

oard

is f

ound

in J

effr

eys-Jones 1989,

121.

Whi

le J

ohn

Prad

os n

otes

that

PSB

bec

ame

the

larg

est c

ompo

nent

of

NSC

ope

ratio

ns in

199

1, h

e to

o no

tes

bure

aucr

atic

ent

angl

emen

ts w

hich

limite

d its

eff

ectiv

enes

s; s

ee P

rado

s 19

91, 5

2-56

.

Bul

kele

y 19

91 a

nd M

artin

1. M

edhu

rst,

"Ato

ms

for

peac

e an

d nu

clea

rhe

gem

ony:

the

rhet

oric

al s

trct

ure

of a

Col

d W

ar c

ampa

ign

, Pre

sent

atio

n

to th

e W

este

rn S

tate

s C

omm

unic

atio

n A

ssoc

iatio

n, F

eb. 2

5, 1

994

, San

Jos

e,

California, in author

s po

sses

sion

. On

psyc

holo

gica

l war

fare

, see

Nee

dell

1993

.Ja

mes

Con

ant t

o R

oger

Ada

ms,

Sep

t. 19

, 194

6 (B

ox 7

, Rog

er A

dam

spa

pers

, Uni

vers

ity o

f Il

inoi

s). C

ritic

al s

tudi

es in

clud

e B

erns

tein

198

8 an

dHershberg 1993

, esp

. 365

-367

, and

Wri

ght 1

990;

stil

ext

rem

ely

valu

able

are

Her

sh 1

968

and

Moo

n 19

84. V

ladi

slav

M. Z

ubok

rec

ently

rep

orte

d on

asp

ecia

l KG

B d

ivis

ion

char

ged

with

fab

rica

ting

disi

nfor

mat

ion

abou

t U.

use

of b

io-c

hem

ical

age

nts;

see

Zub

ok 1

994

, esp

ecia

lly p

. 25.

Exi

stin

g en

viro

nmen

tal h

isto

ries

, suc

h as

Hay

s 19

87, h

ave

tend

ed to

foc

us o

n

the

dom

estic

roo

ts o

f po

licy

for

the

1960

s; o

ne e

xcep

tion

is R

oder

ick

Nas

h'In

tern

atio

nal P

ersp

ectiv

e" c

hapt

er (

in N

ash

1982

). T

hom

as G

. Pat

erso

n ha

sun

ders

core

d th

e ne

ed f

or e

nvir

onm

enta

l per

spec

tives

for

dip

lom

atic

his

tory

- -

----

_.. .

----

-

234 The

His

tori

ogra

phy

of C

onte

mpo

rary

Sci

ence

and

Tec

hnol

ogy

in . Paterson 19

1. A

n im

port

ant r

ecen

t stu

dy is

Stu

ar W

. Les

lie

, "

Bey

ond

pOllt

.IV

: Are

can

tech

nolo

gy tr

ansf

er p

rogr

ams

in th

e C

old

War

, His

tory

of SCience Society A

nual

Meeting, Oct. 1994.

Ninkovich 1981, 167.

For example

, Kill

ian

1977

and

Kis

tiako

wsk

y 19

76. I

than

k Je

ffer

son

P.M

arqu

is a

nd M

arin

Col

lins

for

help

ful d

iscu

ssio

ns o

n th

is p

oint

.I

base

thes

e es

timat

es o

n ex

tens

ive

wor

k in

the

Tru

man

and

Eis

enho

wer

pre

si-

?entiallibrares during July and A

ugus

t 199

4. H

isto

rian

s in

tere

sted

in p

ursu

-llg

FB

I re

cord

s ca

n pr

ofit

by r

eadi

ng th

e in

trod

uctio

n to

Dia

mon

d 19

92.

George B. Kistiakowsky Papers

, Pus

ey A

rchi

ves,

Har

vard

Uni

vers

ity, a

ndFr

ank

Pres

s pa

pers

, Arc

hive

s an

d Sp

ecia

l Col

lect

ions

, MIT

.Pa

pers

of

Rog

er A

dam

s, U

nive

rsity

of

Ilin

ois

arch

ives

, Cha

mpa

ign

Urb

ana

Ilinois. Because of the paucity of other materials

, the

Ada

ms

pape

rs n

ever

-th

eles

s re

mai

n an

impo

rtan

t sou

rce

for

unde

rsta

ndin

g A

lled

inte

rest

inG

erm

an s

cien

ce in

the

post

war

per

iod.

An

impo

rtan

t new

wor

k at

the

junc

-tu

re o

f di

plom

atic

his

tory

and

his

tory

of

scie

nce

whi

ch d

raw

s on

the

Ada

ms

pape

rs is

Cas

sidy

199

4.In

thes

e in

stan

ces,

mat

eria

l is

not a

wai

ting

decl

assi

fica

tion;

it is

eith

er m

iss-

ing,

ret

urne

d to

ori

gina

ting

agen

cies

, des

troy

ed, o

r st

il to

be

dona

ted

to th

ear

chiv

es b

y su

rviv

ing

fam

ily m

embe

rs.

Ger

ard

P. K

uipe

r pa

pers

, Uni

vers

ity o

f Arz

ona

libra

r, T

ucso

n; o

n K

uipe

rre

latio

nshi

p to

the

CIA

, see

Doe

1199

2 an

d D

oel (

fort

hcom

ing-

I).

Fra

nk P

ress

col

lect

ion, Special Collections, M

assa

chus

etts

Ins

titut

e of

Tec

hnol

ogy,

Cam

brid

ge, M

assa

chus

etts

. The

Nuc

lear

Tes

t Ban

Tre

aty

rep-

rese

nted

one

of

the

mos

t sig

nifi

cant

sci

ence

-bas

ed c

oope

rativ

e ag

reem

ents

betw

een

the

Uni

ted

Stat

es a

nd th

e So

viet

Uni

on in

the

1960

s; K

ai-H

endr

ikB

arh

, a g

radu

ate

stud

ent a

t the

Uni

vers

ity o

f M

inne

sota

, is

curr

ently

wor

k-in

g on

this

topi

c.Fo

r in

stan

ce, t

he f

inan

cier

and

adm

inis

trat

or F

erdi

nand

Ebe

rsta

dt p

erso

nally

wro

te th

e re

port

on

fore

ign

scie

ntif

ic in

tellg

ence

, as

lead

er o

f th

e N

atio

nal

Sec

urity

Org

aniz

atio

n co

mm

ittee

of t

he 1

948

Hoo

ver

Com

mis

sion

on

the

Org

aniz

atio

n of

the

Exe

cutiv

e B

ranc

h of

Gov

ernm

ent.

Nev

erth

eles

s, h

isot

herw

ise

larg

e an

d va

luab

le c

olle

ctio

n ha

s vi

rtua

lly n

o m

ater

ial o

n th

isto

pic,

and

man

y or

igin

al f

ie f

olde

rs a

ppar

ently

arv

ed e

mpt

y at

Pri

ncet

onU

nive

rsity

s Se

eley

G. M

udd

Lib

rary

. Not

sur

pris

ingl

y, li

ttle

info

rmat

ion

on in

tern

atio

nal s

cien

ce a

ppea

rs in

the

pape

rs o

f A

llen

Dul

les,

dire

ctor

of

Cen

tral

Inte

llige

nce

durin

g th

e E

isen

how

er A

dmin

istr

atio

n, a

lso

secu

red

byPr

ince

ton

as p

ar o

f its

Pub

lic P

olic

y pa

pers

ser

ies,

whi

ch a

lso

incl

udes

col

-le

ctio

ns f

or J

ames

V. F

orre

stal

, Geo

rge

Ken

nan

, and

Adl

ai S

teve

nson

. Giv

enex

istin

g co

nstr

aint

s on

doc

umen

ts o

f th

is k

ind

, it i

s to

Pri

ncet

ons

cred

it th

atev

en th

ese

mat

eria

ls w

ere

pres

erve

d.Sc

ient

ists

who

join

ed th

e C

IA, i

n co

ntra

st to

indu

stri

al s

cien

tists

, ofte

nce

ased

ent

irel

y to

pub

lish

wor

k in

dec

lass

ifie

d jo

urna

ls; s

ee f

or in

stan

ceentres for H. Marshall Chadwell in

Science Citation Index

afte

r he

bec

ame

Sci

entis

ts a

s P

olic

ymak

ers,

Adv

isor

s, a

nd I

ntel

ligen

ce A

gent

s 23

5

head

of t

he C

IA's

Offc

e of

Sci

entif

ic In

telli

genc

e in

195

0. A

cla

ssifi

ed C

IAst

udy

mad

e a

sim

ilar

poin

t reg

ardi

ng s

cien

tific

pub

licat

ions

in th

e S

ovie

tU

nion

; see

"A

bstr

actin

g se

rvic

es a

s an

inte

llgen

ce to

ol f

or a

sses

sing

Sov

iet

chem

ical

res

earc

h", C

INO

SI 4

/49,

Dec

. 19,

194

9 (B

ox 2

57, P

resi

dent

's

Secr

etar

s F

iles,

HS

T).

Cro

ss-r

efer

ence

she

et d

ated

Aug

. 8, 1

948,

reo

LN

.P

. Sto

kes,

Dep

artm

ent

of C

omm

erce

(B

ox (

CIA

), C

onfi

dent

ial F

ile s

erie

s, T

rum

an P

resi

dent

ial

Librar); furter analysis appears in

Nee

dell

and

Doe

lop

. cit.

On

the

last

poi

nt, s

ee F

orm

an 1

991.

Tra

nscr

ipts

ofr

ecen

t ora

l his

tory

inte

r-vi

ews

that

I a

nd o

ther

col

leag

ues

have

led

with

sci

entis

ts concerned with

fore

ign

polic

y is

sues

mak

es c

lear

my

(and

oth

ers

) tr

epid

atio

ns a

bout

pro

b-

ing

sens

itive

topi

cs a

t len

gth,

for

fea

r of

cur

taili

ng o

ther

wis

e en

light

enin

g

inte

rvie

ws;

the

prob

lem

oug

ht n

ot b

e m

inim

ized

. A u

sefu

l dis

cuss

ion

of r

e-la

ted

issu

es a

ppea

rs in

Lili

an H

odde

son

, "

The

con

flic

t of

mem

orie

s an

d

docu

men

ts: d

ilem

mas

and

pra

gmat

ics

of o

ral h

isto

ry, in Judson and

SOde

rqvi

st (

fort

hcom

ing)

.Fo

r in

stan

ce, s

ee th

e pa

pers

of S

enat

or H

. Ale

xand

er S

mith

, Prin

ceto

nU

nive

rsity

and

thos

e of

Sen

ator

Hen

ry Jackson at the University of

Was

hing

ton,

Sea

ttle.

An

impo

rtan

t int

rodu

ctio

n to

the

wor

k of

one

Con

-gr

essi

onal

sci

ence

com

mitt

ee is

Hec

hler

198

0.D

iscu

ssio

n w

ith D

enni

s B

ilger

, sen

ior

arch

ivis

t, T

rum

an P

resi

dent

ial

Lib

rar,

sum

mer

199

4.Ju

dson

and

SO

derq

vist

(fo

rthc

omin

g).

Doe

l (fo

rthc

omin

g-2)

.

Bec

kman

n In

stitu

e A

rchi

ves

, Cal

ifor

nia

Inst

itute

of

Tec

hnol

ogy,

Pas

aden

a,

CA

.In

terv

iew

with

Fre

deri

ck S

eitz

(A

llan

A. N

eede

ll an

d R

onal

d E

. Doe

l, Ju

ly 1

9,19

94),

and

inte

rvie

w w

ith R

icha

rd T

. Arold (Ronald E

. Doe

l, A

ug. 1

0, 1

994

Cen

ter

for

His

tory

of

Phys

ics,

Am

eric

an I

nstit

ute

of P

hysi

cs, i

n pr

oces

s).

Nee

dell

and

I are

gra

tefu

l for

ass

ista

ce fr

om th

e C

ente

r fo

r H

isto

ry o

f Phy

sics

and

the

Smith

soni

an I

nstit

utio

n fo

r he

lp in

pro

cess

ing

thes

e in

terv

iew

s.Paterson 1991

, Per

ez 1

990,

Pal

ladi

no a

nd W

orbo

ys 1

993,

and

Hoc

h 19

94.

Kla

us-Haro Tiemann

, "

Die

Ent

wic

klun

g de

r so

wje

tisch

-deu

tsch

Wis

sen-

scha

ftsbe

zieh

unge

n au

f dem

Geb

iet d

er G

eo-

und

Kos

mos

wis

sens

chaf

ten

1988

man

uscr

ipt i

n au

thor

's p

osse

ssio

n, a

nd K

rem

ents

ov 1

995.

Impo

rtan

tov

ervi

ews

of r

ecen

t wor

k on

the

hist

ory

of S

ovie

t sci

ence

incl

ude

Ale

xand

rov

and

Kre

men

tsov

198

9 an

d D

anie

l Ale

xand

rov, "

His

tori

cal a

nthr

opol

ogy

of

scie

nce

in R

ussi

a, c

ontr

butio

n to

New

Tre

nds

in th

e H

isto

ry o

f Sc

ienc

e an

dT

echn

olog

y se

min

ar, S

t. Pe

ters

burg

, Jun

e 22

-23, 1994.

His

tori

ans

shou

ld a

lso

not o

verl

ook

the

poss

ibili

ty o

f or

gani

zing

con

fere

nces

or s

ympo

sia

that

incl

ude

scie

ntis

ts c

entr

al to

inte

rnat

iona

l sci

ence

act

iviti

es,

pari

cula

rly

whe

n co

unte

rpar

s fr

om o

ther

nat

ions

can

sim

ulta

eous

ly e

ngag

ein

dis

cuss

ions

. A c

onfe

renc

e on

"A

stro

nom

y an

d th

e St

ate

, fea

turin

g U

.

and

Rus

sian

par

cipa

nts,

was

hel

d in

Was

hing

ton

, D.C

. in

Janu

ar 1

994

, with

. ,," ,

. ,-

". ,.

.

236 The

His

tori

ogra

phy

of C

onte

mpo

rary

Sci

ence

and

Tec

hnol

ogy

pari

al s

pons

orsh

ip f

rom

the

Smith

soni

an I

nstit

utio

n , IR

EX

, and

the

His

tori-

cal A

stro

nom

y D

ivis

ion

of th

e A

mer

ican

Ast

rono

mic

al S

ocie

ty; a

ricl

es b

ased

on this session appeared in the

Jour

nalfo

r H

isto

ry o

f Ast

rono

my,

vo

l. 26

, pt 4

(Nov. 1995), Robert A. McCutcheon

et al. ed

s.Sakarov 1991

, Hol

low

ay 1

994

, 367

- 368

, and

Wea

r an

d S

zila

rd 1

978.

On

Rob

erts

on, s

ee R

ober

tson

to C

ol. C

. P. N

icho

las ,

Aug

. 28,

195

7 (B

ox 4

.4,

Rob

erts

on c

olle

ctio

n, C

alte

ch);

on

Bro

de, s

ee N

eede

ll an

d D

oel (

fort

h-co

min

g). D

avid

H. D

eVor

kin

s study of the post-

1945

ris

e of

spa

ce s

cien

cein

the

Uni

ted

Sta

tes

has

ilum

inat

es th

e ca

reer

s of

sev

eral

indi

vidu

als

prou

dto

wor

k on

gov

ernm

ent p

roje

cts ,

incl

udin

g th

e U

nive

rsity

of M

ichi

gan

rese

arch

er W

illia

m G

. Dow

; see

DeV

orki

n 19

92, 3

I I.

Wea

r 19

79, B

ensa

ude-Vincent 1987

, and

Gra

ham

199

3.Needell 1993; see also Needell 1992.

Reb

ecca

Low

en is

cur

rent

ly s

tudy

ing

this

fou

ndat

ion;

see

als

o B

laau

w 1

994

Pisani 1991

, 48-

49, a

nd N

eede

ll an

d D

oel "

Sci

ence

in th

e na

tiona

l int

eres

t"(o

p. c

it.R

ecor

d of

the

468t

h m

eetin

g of

the

Nat

iona

l Sec

urity

Cou

ncil ,

hel

d D

ec. I

1960 (Box 13

, NSC

ser

ies,

Ar

Whi

tman

file

, Eis

enho

wer

Pre

side

ntia

lLibrar). David Holloway si

mila

rly

conc

lude

d th

at in

the

U.

S.R

"(t

)he

sci-

entif

ic c

omm

unity

- and

espe

cial

ly th

e ph

ysic

s co

mm

unity

- was, fo

r al

l its

faili

ngs ,

the

clos

est t

hng

to c

ivil

soci

ety

in th

e St

alin

ist r

egim

e; s

ee H

ollo

way

1994

363.

For

U. S

. pol

icy

on f

undi

ng s

cien

ce in

Wes

tern

Eur

ope ,

see

Nee

dell

(I99

6).

Quo

ted

from

Pac

kenh

am 1

973,

43; s

ee a

lso

Gen

dzie

rl98

5 an

d R

abe

1993

.A

s M

arcu

s C

ueto

has

dem

onst

rate

d, U

. S. s

cien

tists

had

long

-sta

ndin

g re

la-

tions

hips

with

Lat

in a

nd S

outh

Am

eric

an s

cien

tists

thro

ugh

the

Roc

kefe

ller

Foun

datio

n, w

hich

con

tinue

d to

fun

d re

sear

ch in

thes

e re

gion

s af

ter

1945

;see Cueto 1994 as well as Glick 1994 and Kohler 199 I. Ties between

the U.S. and sub-Sa

hara

Afr

ica

wer

e pr

evio

usly

wea

ker ,

larg

ely

beca

use

scie

ntis

ts h

ad n

ot tr

ied

to c

ompe

te w

ith e

xist

ing

impe

rial

net

wor

ks; s

ee th

etr

ilogy

" by Lewis Pyenson (Pyenson 1985

, Pye

nson

198

9, a

nd P

yens

on19

93)

as w

ell a

s W

orth

ingt

on 1

958.

Nei

ther

of

the

stan

dard

his

tori

es o

f th

eN

atio

nal S

cien

ce F

ound

atio

n, L

omas

k 19

76 a

nd E

ngla

nd 1

983,

dis

cuss

the

Foun

datio

ns

invo

lvem

ent i

n in

tern

atio

nal s

cien

ce.

IGY

pro

gram

s ha

ve b

een

cite

d as

the

insp

irat

ion

of N

SF in

tere

st in

the

Am

eric

as, but foundation leaders expressed a desire to pr

omot

e La

tinA

mer

ican

sci

ence

as

early

as

1954

, bef

ore

the

IGY

was

ful

ly f

orm

ulat

edan

d ha

d ga

ined

NSF

fun

ding

; see

Tes

timon

y of

Dr.

Fre

deri

ck M

. Ber

ntha

lM

arch

17,

199

2, in L

atin

Am

eric

an S

cien

tifc

Coo

pera

tion:

Joi

nt H

eari

ngB

efor

e th

e Su

bcom

mitt

ee o

n Sc

ienc

e of

the

Com

mitt

ee o

n Sc

ienc

e, S

pace

an T

echn

olog

y, U

.S. H

ouse

of

Rep

rese

ntat

ives, One Hundredth Congress,

Second Session

(March 17

, 199

2),

25; s

ee a

lso

Ala

n W

ater

man

, Dia

r N

ote,

July 27

, 195

4 (B

ox 1

0, N

SF r

ecor

d se

ries

), a

nd E

. B. S

koln

ikof

f to

Jam

esK

ilian

, mem

o on

Sci

ence

and

For

eign

Relations Panel Meeting, Oct. 23,

Sci

entis

ts a

s P

olic

ymak

ers,

Adv

isor

s, a

nd In

telli

genc

e A

gent

s 23

7

1958

, Pre

side

nt's

Sci

ence

Adv

isor

y C

omm

ittee

file

s (B

ox I

I 1,

Rec

ord

Gro

up 3

59, b

oth

Nat

iona

l Arc

hive

s, W

ashi

ngto

n, D

.).

On

the

ideo

logi

cal

dim

ensi

ons

of U

.L

atin

Am

eric

an r

elat

ions

, see

LaF

eber

199

3 an

d Sm

ith19

94.

Pac

kenh

am 1

973

and

Hog

an 1

987.

The

sta

ndar

d w

ork

on th

e po

litic

al a

ctiv

ism

of

scie

ntis

ts in

the

1930

s is

Kuz

nick

198

7; s

ee a

lso

Stua

r W

. Les

lie

, "

Bey

ond

poin

t IV

: Am

eric

an te

ch-

nolo

gy tr

ansf

er p

rogr

ams

in th

e C

old

War

, His

tory

of

Scie

nce

Soci

ety

Ann

ual M

eetin

g, N

ew O

rlea

ns, O

ctob

er 1

994.

Den

nis

1994

and

Les

lie 1

993,

255

-256

.N

eede

ll an

d D

oel, "

Science in the national interest"

(op.

cit.

Muk

erji

1989

, 2I.

Sovi

et s

cien

tific

and

tech

nica

l man

pow

er, c

lass

ifie

d se

cret

rep

ort,

n.(c

irca

Jun

e 19

53)

(Box

3, W

hite

Hou

se, N

SC S

taff

, NS

C R

egis

tr S

erie

s,E

isen

how

er P

resi

dent

ial L

ibra

r, A

bile

ne, K

ansa

s).

Form

an 1

987.

See

for

inst

ance

Jon

es 1

988

, Gra

ham

197

3, C

assi

dy 1

994

, and

Hom

e an

dL

ow 1

993.

Cabral 1994 and Elzinga 1993.

I am

cur

rent

ly w

ritin

g a

book

on

the

rise

and

inst

itutio

naliz

atio

n of

acad

emic

geo

phys

ics

in N

or1

Am

eric

a, 1920-

1970

, fro

m w

hich

this

exam

ple

deri

ves;

for

sou

rces

, see

, e.

, J. T

uzo

Wils

on, "

Ann

ual R

epor

t for

1953

: Dep

artm

ent o

f Ph

ysic

s, G

eoph

ysic

s La

bora

tory

, draft, n.d. (circa

154)

(B

ox 2

3, J

.T. W

ilson

pap

ers,

Uni

vers

ity o

f T

oron

to),

aut

hor

s in

ter-

view

with

1. T

uzo

Wils

on F

ebru

ary

1993

, and

aut

hors interview with

Geo

rge

Gar

land

Feb

ruar

y 19

93, b

oth

at C

ente

r fo

r H

isto

ry o

f Ph

ysic

sA

mer

ican

Ins

titut

e of

Phy

sics

, Col

lege

Par

k, M

D.

Mer

ton

1973

; see

als

o D

asto

n 19

90, 1

14. I

am

grateful to Frederic L.

Hol

mes

for

fri

tful

dis

cuss

ions

on

this

poi

nt.

Pisani 1991

, 4; a

gen

eral

rev

iew

of

this

issu

e is

Ber

kow

itz a

nd G

oodm

an19

89.

See,

e.

, Dav

id Z

. Bec

kler

to R

alph

Cla

rk, D

ec. 2

, 194

7 (B

ox 1

, NS

C

records, Truman librar), and "C

olle

cted

Abs

trac

ts o

f Com

mitt

ee M

inut

esfo

r (S

ecre

tar

of W

ar R

ober

t S.) Paterson

, Ebe

rsta

dt C

omm

ittee

rec

ords

(Box

73,

Ebe

rsta

dt p

aper

s, P

rinc

eton

Uni

vers

ity);

see

als

o L

aqeu

er 1

993.

Ane

w w

ork

whi

ch a

ddre

sses

cri

tical

asp

ects

of

this

issu

e, li

mite

d to

nuc

lear

inte

llgen

ce, i

s Z

iegl

er a

nd J

acob

son 1995; I thank Ziegler for sharing a

manuscript version with me.

Ths

dis

cuss

ion

deri

ves

from

sel

ecte

d bi

ogra

phic

al c

ompi

latio

ns o

f sc

ient

ists

in th

e C

IA; t

he im

port

ance

that

aca

dem

ic c

hem

ists

atta

ched

to a

pplie

d re

-se

arch

can

be

foun

d in

Rog

er A

dam

s to

War

en W

eave

r, M

arch

17

, 195

9 (B

ox

, Ada

ms

pape

rs, U

nive

rsity

of

Ilin

ois)

.Pa

lladi

no a

nd W

orbo

ys 1

993.

Ros

enbe

rg 1

988,

569

-570

.

-"'

,,:

238

The

His

torio

grap

hy o

f Con

tem

pora

ry S

cien

ce a

nd T

echn

olog

yS

cien

tists

as

Pol

icym

aker

s, A

dvis

ors,

and

Int

ellg

ence

Age

nts

239

BIB

LIO

GR

APH

YD

ivin

e, R

ober

t A.

The Sputnik Challenge

(New

Yor

k: D

oubl

eday

, 199

3).

DeVorkin, David H.

, "

Com

mun

ity a

nd s

pect

ral c

lass

ific

atio

n in

ast

roph

ysic

s: th

e ac

cept

-an

ce o

fE.C

. Pic

kerin

gs

syst

em in

191

0"Is

isvo

l. 72

(19

81),

29-

49.

DeVorkin, David H.

Scie

nce

with

a V

enge

ance

: The

Mili

tary

Ori

gins

of

Spac

e Sc

ienc

e(N

ew Y

ork:

Spr

inge

r, 1

992)

.D

oe1, R

onal

d E

., "E

valu

atin

g S

ovie

t lun

ar s

cien

ce in

Col

d W

ar A

mer

ica

Osi

ris,

vol. 7

(199

2), 2

38-2

64.

Doel, Ronald E.

, "

Doc

umen

ts a

nd r

epor

ts: G

.P. K

uipe

rs

repo

rt o

n S

ovie

t ast

rono

my

to

the

CIA

"Istoriko-astronomicheskie issledovanniia

(for

thco

min

g-I)

.

Doe

l, R

onal

d E

., "

Ora

l his

tory

, arc

hiva

l sou

rces

, and

the

hist

orio

grap

hy o

f m

odem

sci

ence

in Interviews in Writing the History of Recent Science,

Hor

ace

F. J

udso

n an

d T

hom

as

Sode

rqvi

st, e

ds. (

Cam

brid

ge, M

A: H

arar

d U

nive

rsity

Pre

ss, f

ortc

omin

g-2)

.

Dorsey, Jurk

, "

Sci

entis

ts, c

itize

ns, a

nd s

tate

smen

: US

-Can

adia

n w

ildlif

e pr

otec

tion

trea

ties

in th

e pr

ogre

ssiv

e er

aDiplomatic History,

vol.

19 (

1995

), 4

07-4

30.

Drew, Sidney, D. and Sergei, P. Kapilz. (eds.

),

Sakh

arov

Rem

embe

red:

A T

ribu

te b

yFriends and Colleagues

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es: A

mer

ica

s Se

cret

Nuc

lear

Surveilance System

(Wes

tpor

t , C

T: P

raeg

er, 1995).

Zub

ok, V

ladi

slav

M., "

Spy

vs. s

py: t

he K

GB

vs.

the

CIA

, 196

0-19

62"

Col

d W

ar I

nter

na-

tional History Project Bulletin

(Fal

l 199

4), 2

2-33

.

CH

APT

ER

13

Who

s A

frai

d of

the

His

tory

of

Con

tem

pora

ry S

cien

ce?

Steve Fuller

INT

RO

DU

CT

ION

The

his

tory

of

cont

empo

rary

sci

ence

is a

pur

suit

that

cha

lleng

es o

ur ta

ken-

gran

ted

notio

ns o

f bo

th '

hist

ory

' and

'sc

ienc

e. T

hom

as S

. Kuh

n is

on

reco

rdho

ldin

g th

at th

e pu

rsui

t is

impo

ssib

le: H

isto

ry c

an o

nly

be w

ritte

n ab

out p

erio

dsw

hich

the

hist

oria

n do

es n

ot h

ave

a st

ake

in w

hat h

appe

ns b

ecau

se th

e is

sues

grea

test

con

cern

to th

e hi

stor

ical

age

nts

no lo

nger

hav

e th

e sa

me

rele

vanc

e. I

His

1

rians

ent

er o

nly

once

the

case

is c

lose

d. T

hus,

Kuh

n ac

cept

s th

e fa

mili

ar p

arad

that

the

hist

oria

n ca

nnot

rep

rese

nt th

e ag

ents

in th

eir

own

term

s un

less

she

is c

tach

ed f

rom

thei

r lif

e co

ncer

ns. A

lthou

gh th

e pr

ospe

ct o

f in

com

men

sura

ble

digm

s m

ay w

reak

hav

oc o

n ph

iloso

phic

al th

eorie

s of

sci

entif

ic r

atio

nalit

y,ne

vert

hele

ss e

nabl

es th

e hi

stor

ian

to d

o he

r jo

b.H

owev

er, w

hen

it co

mes

to c

c

temporar paradigms

, the

his

toria

ns

role

is a

lmos

t exc

lusi

vely

that

of a

n ar

chiv

i

one

who

ens

ures

that

a r

ecor

d of

toda

ys

scie

ntis

ts is

pre

serv

ed fo

r to

mor

rov

hist

oria

ns to

ana

lyze

fro

m th

e re

quis

ite d

ista

nce.

Kuh

n ha

s ta

ken

his

0\hi

stor

iogr

aphy

to h

ear,

wri

ting

abou

t the

his

tory

of

phys

ics

no la

ter

than

19

(rou

ghly

the

end

of c

lass

ical

qua

ntum

mec

hani

cs),

3 w

hile

con

duct

ing

inte

rvie

'

and

colle

ctin

g pa

pers

rel

ated

to th

e gr

eat q

uant

um p

hysi

cist

s la

ter

in th

e ce

ntur

Not

sur

pris

ingl

y, a

ran

ge o

f alte

rnat

ive

view

s em

erge

d fr

om th

e In

tern

atiO

l

Wor

ksho

p on

the

His

tori

ogra

phy

of C

onte

mpo

rary

Sci

ence

, Tec

hnol

ogy,

a

Med

icin

e, h

eld

in G

oteb

org,

Sw

eden

, Sep

tem

ber

1994

. The

y m

ay b

e de

finby

thei

r lo

gica

l dis

tanc

e fr

om K

uhn

s position:

contradictory, contrary,

orth

ogon

al.

In each case

, the

his

tori

cal s

ensi

bilit

y is

gui

ded

mor

e by

the

obst

acan

d op

port

uniti

es a

ffor

ded

by th

e ul

timat

e ob

ject

of

hist

oric

al in

quir

y the h

tori

cal a

gent

(s)

than

by

thos

e af

ford

ed b

y its

pro

xim

ate

obje

ct, t

he a

rchh