the graded salience hypothesis in inter language

8/8/2019 The Graded Salience Hypothesis in Inter Language

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The graded salienceThe graded saliencehypothesis inhypothesis in

interlanguageinterlanguageAdvanced SLA Class ResearchAdvanced SLA Class Research

ProjectProject

Spring 2004Spring 2004

Rebekah JohnsonRebekah Johnson


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The Graded SalienceThe Graded Salience

HypothesisHypothesis3 things must be true:3 things must be true: a. salient (=conventional) interpretation hasa. salient (=conventional) interpretation has

unconditional priority over less salientunconditional priority over less salient

(=novel) interpretations the salient meaning(=novel) interpretations the salient meaningisis alwaysalways activatedactivated

b. novel interpretation of a salient meaningb. novel interpretation of a salient meaninginvolves a sequential process (1st the salientinvolves a sequential process (1st the salientmeaning is processed, then the non-salient)meaning is processed, then the non-salient)

c. novel interpretation must be more difficultc. novel interpretation must be more difficultto deriveto derive it requires more and differentit requires more and differentcontextual supportcontextual support (Giora 1997)(Giora 1997)


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Definitions of SalienceDefinitions of Salience

Giora 1997Giora 1997

Salience = a function of its conventionality,Salience = a function of its conventionality,

familiarity, frequency, or givenness status infamiliarity, frequency, or givenness status ina certain context (p. 186)a certain context (p. 186)

Giora 1999Giora 1999

Salient = can be retrieved directly from theSalient = can be retrieved directly from thelexiconlexicon


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The LiteratureThe Literature

Many contemporary cognitiveMany contemporary cognitive

psychologists believe literal and non-literalpsychologists believe literal and non-literal

language requires and equivalencelanguage requires and equivalenceprocess (Gibbs, Glucksberg, Keysar) ;process (Gibbs, Glucksberg, Keysar) ;

Traditional theorists assume non-literalTraditional theorists assume non-literal

language requires a sequential processlanguage requires a sequential process

and is more difficult to understand (Grice,and is more difficult to understand (Grice,Searle)Searle)

Combined: the graded salience theoryCombined: the graded salience theory


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Constructivist TheoryConstructivist Theory

Constructivists hold that language learnersConstructivists hold that language learnerscontinually revise their ideas over a languagecontinually revise their ideas over a languageeach time they process a language chunk oreach time they process a language chunk or

itemitem Constructions are recurrent patterns ofConstructions are recurrent patterns of

linguistic elements that serve some well-linguistic elements that serve some well-defined linguistic function (Ellis, 2003, p. 64)defined linguistic function (Ellis, 2003, p. 64)

Cognitive linguists say that the meaning ofCognitive linguists say that the meaning ofwords depends on the perception of thewords depends on the perception of theworld around us and the way things areworld around us and the way things areorganized and relatedorganized and related


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Constructivist LiteratureConstructivist Literature

Chunking and bracketingChunking and bracketing Associative learningAssociative learning Generic learning mechanisms (not UG)Generic learning mechanisms (not UG) Emergentism (beyond generative grammar) systematicityEmergentism (beyond generative grammar) systematicity

emerges from associations and connectionsemerges from associations and connections Implicit learning in natural settingsImplicit learning in natural settings Natural Language Processing (NLP) and corpus linguisticsNatural Language Processing (NLP) and corpus linguistics ConnectionismConnectionism Data-driven processingData-driven processing

Prototypical representationsPrototypical representations Emphasis on acquisitionEmphasis on acquisition Incremental, context-sensitive, structure-sensitiveIncremental, context-sensitive, structure-sensitive Graded, distributedGraded, distributed


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Construction grammar: LanguageConstruction grammar: Language

acquisition is the acquisition ofacquisition is the acquisition of

constructions (sequence: formulaconstructions (sequence: formulalow-scope patternlow-scope pattern construction)construction)

Formulae = lexical chunks resultingFormulae = lexical chunks resulting

from memorizing the sequence offrom memorizing the sequence offrequent collocationsfrequent collocations


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Sinclair: Idioms = semi-preconstructed phrasesSinclair: Idioms = semi-preconstructed phrasesthat constitute single choices (appear to bethat constitute single choices (appear to beanalyzable into segments but are not) Sinclair,analyzable into segments but are not) Sinclair,

19911991 Collocations even more frequent in spoken thanCollocations even more frequent in spoken than

written language off the top of ones head andwritten language off the top of ones head andare made up of single clauses and are often highlyare made up of single clauses and are often highlypredictable in terms of sequencepredictable in terms of sequence

Pulling language from old memory and making it fitPulling language from old memory and making it fitthe current context = context shapingthe current context = context shaping


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RationaleRationale

Idiomatic phrases and formulaeIdiomatic phrases and formulae

acquisition are essential for obtainingacquisition are essential for obtaining

native-like competencenative-like competence


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The Original StudyThe Original Study

Giora & Fein 1999Giora & Fein 1999QuestionQuestion to see if irony (a form of figurativeto see if irony (a form of figurative

language) is as easy to understand as non-ironiclanguage) is as easy to understand as non-ironic(literal) language(literal) language

The study:The study: 60 4th-graders in Tel Aviv60 4th-graders in Tel Aviv used native language (Hebrew)used native language (Hebrew) 20 target sentences put into literal or figurative20 target sentences put into literal or figurative

(ironic) contexts(ironic) contexts on the page following the context story, thereon the page following the context story, there

were 2 fragmented words printed, 1 related towere 2 fragmented words printed, 1 related toliteral meaning and 1 related to ironicliteral meaning and 1 related to ironic


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TextsTexts

A. After he had finished eating pizza,A. After he had finished eating pizza,

falafel, ice-cream, wafers and half offalafel, ice-cream, wafers and half of

the ice cream cake his mother hadthe ice cream cake his mother hadbaked for his brother Benjaminsbaked for his brother Benjamins

birthday party, Moshe started eatingbirthday party, Moshe started eating

coated peanuts.coated peanuts. His mother saidHis mother saidto him, Moshe, I think youto him, Moshe, I think you

should eat something.should eat something.


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B. At two oclock in the afternoon,B. At two oclock in the afternoon,Moshe started doing his homework andMoshe started doing his homework and

getting prepared for his Bible test. Whengetting prepared for his Bible test. Whenhis mother came home from work athis mother came home from work ateight p.m., Moshe was still seated at hiseight p.m., Moshe was still seated at hisdesk, looking pale.desk, looking pale. His mother said toHis mother said to

him, Moshe, I think you should eathim, Moshe, I think you should eatsomething.something.


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Test WordsTest Words

l i __ __ l e (little)l i __ __ l e (little)

s __ __ p (stop)s __ __ p (stop)


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ResultsResults

Giora and Fein (1999) found that theGiora and Fein (1999) found that the

comprehension of ironic language involvedcomprehension of ironic language involvedboth ironic and literal meanings (slightly higherboth ironic and literal meanings (slightly higher

literal meanings were more salient in theliteral meanings were more salient in the

results than figurative for the ironic storiesresults than figurative for the ironic stories

However, for the literal stories, mainly onlyHowever, for the literal stories, mainly only

literal concepts were activatedliteral concepts were activated


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ConclusionConclusion

Giora and Fein (1999) concluded thatGiora and Fein (1999) concluded that

the graded salience hypothesis was athe graded salience hypothesis was a

good predictor of activation andgood predictor of activation andunderstanding of ironic language understanding of ironic language

refuting the prior researchs claimsrefuting the prior researchs claims

that the literal meaning does notthat the literal meaning does notneed to be processed when there is aneed to be processed when there is afigurative meaningfigurative meaning


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This studyThis study

Replicates Giora and Feins (1999) studyReplicates Giora and Feins (1999) study 8 idiomatic sentences embedded in story8 idiomatic sentences embedded in story

paragraphs,paragraphs,

Assessment by controlling reaction timeAssessment by controlling reaction time

Tested on NSs and NNSs (all adults) 8 perTested on NSs and NNSs (all adults) 8 pergroup (16 total)group (16 total)


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Changes in the currentChanges in the current

studystudy Instead of using irony, uses idiomsInstead of using irony, uses idioms

Rationale: idioms are more important,Rationale: idioms are more important,more often learned by language learners;more often learned by language learners;

Irony is not the same as idiomatic &Irony is not the same as idiomatic &metaphorical language it is very difficultmetaphorical language it is very difficultand only learned at high levels of fluencyand only learned at high levels of fluency

Uses both NSs and NNSsUses both NSs and NNSs

Uses EnglishUses English


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Other considerationsOther considerations

It is important to avoid theIt is important to avoid thecomparative fallacycomparative fallacy (comparing NSs(comparing NSs

and NNSs)and NNSs)

We also have evidence that mono-We also have evidence that mono-

linguals are different from multi-linguals are different from multi-linguals, cognitivelylinguals, cognitively


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HypothesesHypotheses

This study hypothesizes thatThis study hypothesizes that 1. NNSs will not select the figurative1. NNSs will not select the figurative

meanings, even when the stories aremeanings, even when the stories areusing the idioms figuratively as oftenusing the idioms figuratively as oftenas NSsas NSs

2. Figurative meanings may be more2. Figurative meanings may be moresalient to NSs, even when the idiomssalient to NSs, even when the idiomsare placed in a non-figurative contextare placed in a non-figurative context


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The SubjectsThe Subjects

n=16n=16

Male Female

NSs 5 3

NNSs 3 5

8 8


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Non-Native SpeakersNon-Native Speakers

L1s:L1s: 1 Polish1 Polish

1 Portuguese1 Portuguese 2 Chinese2 Chinese 4 Japanese4 Japanese

Years spent studying EnglishYears spent studying English A range of 8-22 yearsA range of 8-22 years


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LOR in USLOR in US Ranged from 8 months to 13 yearsRanged from 8 months to 13 years

EducationEducation All had BAs, many had MAs, some were currently MA orAll had BAs, many had MAs, some were currently MA or

doctoral studentsdoctoral students

AgeAge Ranged from 23 to 60Ranged from 23 to 60


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Other languages spokenOther languages spoken 5 spoke only English in addition to L15 spoke only English in addition to L1

3 spoke 2 or more additional languages3 spoke 2 or more additional languages multilingualmultilingual


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MethodMethod

Participants were told to read eachParticipants were told to read eachtext quickly, only once, and to turn thetext quickly, only once, and to turn the

page and fill in the first word thatpage and fill in the first word thatcame to mind, not going back to thecame to mind, not going back to thestorystory

After doing the task, the researcherAfter doing the task, the researchergenerally asked participants forgenerally asked participants forfeedback about the toolfeedback about the tool


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Text - LiteralText - Literal

While painting the walls of his house, anWhile painting the walls of his house, anold man suddenly felt tired. He climbedold man suddenly felt tired. He climbeddown from the ladder he was on anddown from the ladder he was on andtried to avoid stepping on the painttried to avoid stepping on the paintbucket and many brushes on the groundbucket and many brushes on the groundnear the ladder, but he couldnt avoid allnear the ladder, but he couldnt avoid allof the paint supply items. He stumbledof the paint supply items. He stumbledover some paint brushes. Then he madeover some paint brushes. Then he madea real mess.a real mess. The old man kicked theThe old man kicked thebucket.bucket.


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Text - FigurativeText - Figurative

While painting the walls of his house, anWhile painting the walls of his house, anold man suddenly felt tired. He climbedold man suddenly felt tired. He climbeddown from the ladder he was on anddown from the ladder he was on andstumbled over some paint brushes. Hestumbled over some paint brushes. Heclutched at his heart and suddenly fell toclutched at his heart and suddenly fell tothe ground. The mans neighbors calledthe ground. The mans neighbors called911 and the paramedics soon arrived,911 and the paramedics soon arrived,but they were too late.but they were too late. The old manThe old mankicked the bucket.kicked the bucket.


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Test WordsTest Words

d __ __ d (died)d __ __ d (died)

s p i ___ l e __ (spilled)s p i ___ l e __ (spilled)


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Tool VariationTool Variation

8 of each set of idioms was used8 of each set of idioms was used

(each set differed on whether it was(each set differed on whether it was

the figurative of literal use of thethe figurative of literal use of theidiom phrase and these wereidiom phrase and these were

randomly orderedrandomly ordered

The researcher created the tool andThe researcher created the tool andbriefly trialed it with native speakersbriefly trialed it with native speakers


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ResultsResults

Native SpeakersNative Speakers 1 thrown out (filled in both words)1 thrown out (filled in both words)

Mainly correctly chose figurativeMainly correctly chose figurative

word when figurative context, butword when figurative context, but

often also chose figurative word evenoften also chose figurative word even

with literal contextwith literal context


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ResultsResults

Native SpeakersNative Speakers

Matching Non matching

Figurative29 items

2483%

517%

Literal27 items

1037%

1763%


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ResultsResults


NNSs, like NSs, matched more of theNNSs, like NSs, matched more of the

figurative words with the figurativefigurative words with the figurative

stories and with the literal storiesstories and with the literal stories

Results are essentially the same forResults are essentially the same for

NNSs as for NSsNNSs as for NSs


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ResultsResults


Matching Non matching

Figurative30 items

2583%

517%

Literal34 items

1338%

2162%


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Revisiting the HypothesesRevisiting the Hypotheses

This study hypothesized thatThis study hypothesized that 1. NNSs will not select the figurative1. NNSs will not select the figurative

meanings, even when the stories aremeanings, even when the stories areusing the idioms figuratively as often asusing the idioms figuratively as often asNSsNSs

The results do not support this NNSsThe results do not support this NNSsperformed nearly the same as NSsperformed nearly the same as NSs


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Revisiting the HypothesesRevisiting the Hypotheses

The second hypothesis was thatThe second hypothesis was that 2. Figurative meanings may be more salient2. Figurative meanings may be more salient

to NSs, even when the idioms are placed into NSs, even when the idioms are placed in

a non-figurative contexta non-figurative context

This seems to be true for both NSs andThis seems to be true for both NSs andNNSs, figurative meanings were moreNNSs, figurative meanings were more

salient for not only the figurative uses (83%salient for not only the figurative uses (83%for both groups) but also for the non-for both groups) but also for the non-figurative uses (63% and 62%)figurative uses (63% and 62%)


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ImplicationsImplications

It seems that the graded salienceIt seems that the graded salience

hypothesis works in the same way for bothhypothesis works in the same way for both

NSs and for NNSsNSs and for NNSs

Figurative meanings seem to be moreFigurative meanings seem to be more

salient in the case of idiomatic phrases,salient in the case of idiomatic phrases,

perhaps due to the fact that the figurativeperhaps due to the fact that the figurativeuses are more frequent (thus more salient)uses are more frequent (thus more salient)

than literal uses for idiomsthan literal uses for idioms


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A caveatA caveat

There are limitations to this study, however:There are limitations to this study, however: The main limitation is the data collection tool.The main limitation is the data collection tool.

There are many possible explanations for resultsThere are many possible explanations for resultsand the tool should be re-formatted and re-trialedand the tool should be re-formatted and re-trialedto overcome these issuesto overcome these issues

The NNSs in the study are highly educated, oftenThe NNSs in the study are highly educated, oftengraduate students, with long exposures to Englishgraduate students, with long exposures to Englishand may not be representative of NNSs in generaland may not be representative of NNSs in general

A small sample was used and a small number ofA small sample was used and a small number oftext examples were usedtext examples were used


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Tool TroubleTool Trouble

Feedback from participants noted:Feedback from participants noted:

The shortest word was often easiest to seeThe shortest word was often easiest to see

first (results favor shorter words)first (results favor shorter words) The first word was the most noticeable (alsoThe first word was the most noticeable (also

reflected as more often filled in)reflected as more often filled in)

The stories sometimes seemed contrivedThe stories sometimes seemed contrived

Some of the stories were ambiguous (couldSome of the stories were ambiguous (couldhave been a literal or figurative sense)have been a literal or figurative sense)


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Future ResearchFuture Research

Future research shouldFuture research should Use more varied NNSs with different educationalUse more varied NNSs with different educational

backgrounds and more diverse exposure to Englishbackgrounds and more diverse exposure to English

Use a larger sample population and more texts in the dataUse a larger sample population and more texts in the datacollection toolcollection tool Re-design the tool to avoid issues discussed in feedbackRe-design the tool to avoid issues discussed in feedback

sessionssessions Do a longitudinal study, testing NNSs at different intervalsDo a longitudinal study, testing NNSs at different intervals

to see if prolonged exposure to English or longer LORs into see if prolonged exposure to English or longer LORs inthe U.S. changes the saliency of idiomsthe U.S. changes the saliency of idioms


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Thats all, folks!Thats all, folks!

Rebekah JohnsonRebekah Johnson

[email protected]@yahoo.com

the graded salience hypothesis in inter language

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