11

THE FISH

Introduction Ninety species of fish have been recorded in the Reserve (table 2).

These are contained in 14 orders and 48 families. The largest order, the perciform or perch-like fishes consists of 60 species, 66% of the total number of fish. The largest families are the Tripterygiidae and Labridae, the former with 13 species and the latter with 7 species occurring in the Reserve. A few families, the Gobieosocidae, Gadidae, Syngnathidae, Serranidae, Carangidae, Kyphosidae and Pomacentridae contain between 3 and 5 species; however, the majority are represented by 1 or 2 species only.

The most abundant fish in the Reserve are the small benthic tripterygiids, Forsterygion varium, Notoclinops segmentation and Gilloblennius tripennis; the midwater plankitvore, Pempheris adspersa

(bigeyes) and the goatfish, Upeneichthys porosus. The other common fish, in descending order of abundance, are: sweep (Scorpis aequipinnis) , paketi (Pseudolabrus celidotus) , snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), leatherjackets (Parika scaber), blue maomao (Scorpis violaceus) , hiwihiwi (Chironemus marmoratus), red moki (Cheilodactylus spectabilis) , parore (Girella tricuspidata), blue cod (Parapercis colias) and banded wrasse (Pseudolabrus fucicola) .

Notes on classification and naming The fishes of the world are separated into three major divisions

or classes: The jawless fishes, class Agnatha, including the hagfish and lampreys; the cartilaginous fishes, class Chondrichthys and the bony fishes, class Osteichthys. Only the Agnatha are not represented in the Reserve. Within these divisions fish with similar anatomical characteristics are classified into orders ( -formes endings), which are then further divided into suborders and families ( -idae endings). The arrangement of orders and families used here follows those used by Midgalski & Fichter (1976) for the cartilaginous fishes and Greenwood et al. (1966) for the bony fishes.

12

Each species is then given a scientific name consisting of two parts. The first designates the genus to which the fish belongs. Fish with the same genus name have certain features in common. The second, the species name distinguishes one species from any other. The scientific name is important as many species have assorted common names which usually vary depending on the locality in which they were found. For example, the banded wrasse, Pseudolabrus fucioola is also known as the chinaman or kelpfish in other parts of New Zealand and as the„purple wrasse in Australia. The common name 1kelpfish1 can also refer to other species such as Chironemus marmoratus (hiwihiwi) and Odax pullus (butterfish).

Since several species.have been described more than once and under different names in the past, the author of the correct name, or the scientific name currently in use, is often indicated. Thus the 1 authority1

appears directly after the species name, unpunctuated if it retains the original genus and bracketed if the fish was originally described in another genus. Many fish in New Zealand are only relatively recent discoveries and have yet to be officially described. Usually these are nominally assigned to a genus but are given no species name, e.g. the lizardfish, Synodus sp. Where there are several undescribed species all belonging to the same genus the different species are distinguished by numbers or letters of the alphabet, e.g. the undescribed tripterygiids are listed here as Forsterygion sp. A.to F.sp.F . When listing several species of the same genus, or when mentioning the same species several times it is common practice to abbreviate the genus name to the first one or two letters.

Several structural characters are used : to classify fish into their various groupings. Neccessarily these are constant within a species but vary between species. They include the number, positioning and shape of the fins; the number of spiny and soft rays supporting each fin; the number and shape of the lateral line(s); the number of pored lateral line scales; the presence or absence of scales, their arrangements and the types of scales found on various parts of the fish's body; variations in the structure of skeletal components such as the jaws, vertebrae, gill arches and opercula; the number, structure and positioning of the teeth and gill rakers and the possession of species appendages such as sensory feelers and protective spines.

13

Format DESCRIPTIONS:

Each fish is introduced by its scientific name and accepted New Zealand common names. The scientific name, especially the species name is often selected to indicate some peculiarity of the structure, habit or habitat of .the fish designated. Its derivation is indicated where it is known.

The general appearance, body shape and colour is described for each fish. Other distinguishing features such as the number, structure, positioning, shape and size of the fins; the relative sizes of the head, mouth and eyes and the presence of any special protective or sensory structures are also described.

Detils of size are usually given as the maximum length recorded for the species and the average size range which would be observed if diving in north eastern New Zealand coastal waters. All length measurements refer to the total length of the fish, i.e. the distance from the tip of the snout to the tip of the tail. Lengths are presented in millimetres or metres. Average or maximum weights are also given as a measure of size where the information is available. These are indicated in grams or kilograms.

Each fish is illustrated with a black and white line drawing. The maximum size and a scale are also presented, the scale being adjusted to the average size of the fish. Along with the illustration the fin formula (the characteristic number of spines and rays in each fin) and the number of pored lateral line scales are presented for each fish where known. The notation used can be explained using the goatfish as an example: D.viii. i.8; A.ii.6; V.i.5; P.15-16; C.15; L.l. 28-30. The letters represent the fins: D = dorsal, A = anal, V = ventral, P = pectoral, C = caudal. Roman numerals are used to indicate the number of spines and arabic numerals to indicate the number of soft rays in each fin. L.l. refers to the number of lateral line scales. Therefore, goatfish have two dorsal fins, the first composed of 8 spines and the second of 1 spine and 8 soft rays. The anal fin consists of 2 spines and 6 rays. Each ventral fin has one spinous and five soft rays and each pelvic fin has 15 or 16 rays. The caudal fin is supported by 15 rays and the number of pored scales forming the lateral line may vary between 28 and 30.

14

Various aspects of the mode of life and behaviour of each species can aid in field identification. Thus, the characteristic activity period of each fish (i.e. whether the fish is active at night or day) and the typical mode of locomotion are described. An indication of where the fish are most likely to be found and their social organisation is also given, i.e. whether the fish are most likely to be found at the water surface, in midwater, close to the bottom or resting on the bottom and whether they form schools, aggregations or are solitary. Information is provided on the size of the group and whether the fish range widely over the reef or are site attached with a more restricted movement range.

DISTRIBUTION: The distribution of each species is described in a series of

progressively narrowing scales. Firstly distribution is described in general as to where the species has been recorded in the world, and then where it is found around New Zealand. An indication of the relative abundances around the New Zealand coast are given where possible. All New Zealand place names referred to in the text are indicated in figure 1.

Local distribution patterns describe where the fish is found in the Reserve. Again abundances are also indicated. For many of the reef associated species estimates of the numbers of fish found in the different subtidal habitat types are available. These were obtained by counting fish along five transect lines in each habitat. Moderate to

p large fish were counted in 50 x 10m transects, whereas 25 x 4m transects were used for the smaller benthic species. The numbers of each species in a habitat were averaged to obtain an estimate of the density present. These densities are expressed here as the average number of fish per hectare.

The distribution and abundance patterns around New Zealand and within the Reserve are illustrated. Seasonal differences are indicated where appropriate by a dashed line.

FEEDING: The diet and foraging habits of each fish are briefly described.

Structural adaptations for finding, catching and consuming prey are also noted. These include sensory feelers, lures and the structure of the teeth and jaws.

A more detailed composition of the diet is diagrammatically represented. This information was obtained mainly from fish taken from

15

from the Reserve and adjacent coastal waters. Samples of fish which are rare in the Reserve were obtained form the Poor Knights Islands.

LIFE HISTORY: Several aspects of the life cycle are considered:

(i) Age and growth - the maximum age recorded for a particular species is given along with an indication of their growth rate. The latter is best illustrated by the size reached at the end of the first year after settlement and/or the size and age at which the fish reach maturity. This allows for comparisons of growth rates between species and between different populations of the same species. (ii) Reproduction - the timing of the breeding season, the mode of reproduction and spawning behaviour are described where these are known. The occurrence of parental care is also noted. Where spawning observations are lacking the breeding season is estimated by the presence of ripe gonads, observations of courting behaviour, the presence of eggs and the timing of juvenile settlement. (iii) Eggs and development - the eggs are described with respect to size, structure and whether they are demersal or pelagic. Notes on embryonic and larval development are provided where these are available. (iv) Juvenile settlement - the recruitment period, the size of newly settles juveniles and the habitats in which they are found are described. Any differences from adult fish in colour, structure, behaviour or distribution are also discussed. •

The seasonal aspects of breeding, presence of eggs in the plankton and juvenile settlement are illustrated. Question marks are used to indicate that the extent of the breeding season is uncertain.

16

Table 2: A list of the fish species recorded in the Cape Rodney to Okakari Point Marine Reserve. The scientific name, authority and accepted common names of each fish are presented along with and indication of relative abundances and the quality of information available for each species.

KEY Relative abundance

Field guide • abundant >10 individuals or >2 schools on all dives O common 5-10 individuals or 2 schools on most dives O frequent 1-5 individuals or 1-2 schools on most dives v occasional 1-5 individuals or 1-2 schools on some dives R rare only a few sightings ever recorded s seasonally present

Quality of information available

*** good local knowledge - detailed studies in the Reserve or north east New Zealand

** good New Zealand knowledge or preliminary local knowledge * ' little New Zealand knowledge, some information from studies

elsewhere in the world - . little information available

Abbreviations

B & S = Bloch & Schneider C & V = Cuvier & Valenciennes M & P = McCulloch & Phillips

Class Chondrichthys Subclass Elasmobranchii ORDER: Squaliformes

Family Carcharhinidae Carcharinus hrachyurus (Gunther) bronze whaler shark R -

Family Sphyrnidae Sphyrna zygaena (Linnaeus) hammerhead shark R -

17

Family Isuridae Isurus oxyrinchus Rafinesque mako shark

ORDER: Rajiformes Family Dasyatidae

Dasyatis brevieaudatus (Hutton) short-tail stingray Dasyatis theditis (Waite) long-tail stingray

Family Myliobatidae Myliobatis tenuicaudatus (Hector) eagle ray

Family Torpedinidae Torpedo fairohildi (Hutton) electric ray

Class Osteichthys Subclass Actinopterygii Superorder Teleostei ORDER: Anguillliformes Suborder Anguilloidei

Family Muraenidae Gymnothorax prasinus (Richardson) yellow moray eel

Family Congridae Conger wilsoni (B & S) conger eel

Family Ophichthidae Ophisurus serpens (Linnaeus) snake eel

ORDER: Clupeiformes Family Clupeidae

Sccrdinops neopilohardus (Steindacher) pilchard Family Engraulidae

Engraulis australis (White) anchovy

ORDER: S almoni formes Suborder Myctophoidei

Family Synodontidae Synodus sp. lizardfish

ORDER: Gobieosociformes Family Gobieosocidae

Diplocrepis puniceus (Richardson) suckerfish

18

Tracheloschismus pinnulatus (B & S) lumpfish Tracheloschismus melobesia(Phillips) barred clingfish dellichthys morelandi Briggs painted clingfish Gastrocyathus gracilis Briggs slender clingfish

ORDER: Gadiformes Suborder Gadoidei

Family Gadidae Physiculus bacjius (B & S) red cod Physiculus breviusculus(Richardson) bastard red cod Lotella rhacinus (Richardson) rock cod

ORDER: Antheriniformes Suborder Exocoetoidei

Family Exocoetidae Eeporhampus ihi(Phillips) piper

ORDER: Berycifoi Suborder Berycoidei

Family Trachichthidae Hoplosthethus elongatus(Gunther) slender roughy

Family Berycidae Trachichthodes affinis(Gunther) golden snapper

ORDER: Zeifoi Family Zeidae

Zeus faber Linnaeus john dory

ORDER: Gasterosteiformes Suborder Syngnathoidei

Family Syngnathidae Lissocampus filum (Gunther) short-snouted pipefish Stigmatopora macropterygia Dumeril long-snouted pipefish Hippocampus abdominalis(Lesson) seahorse

ORDER: Scorpaenifoi Suborder Scorpaenoidei N

Family Scorpaenidae Scorpaena cardinalis Richardson red scorpio.nfish

19

Family Trigilidae Chelodonichthys kumu (Lesson) red gurnard

redbanded perch butterfly perch

splendid perch

ORDER: Percifc Suborder Percoidei

Family Serranidae Ellerkeldia huntii (Hector) Caesioperca lepidoptera (B&S) Caprodon longimanus (Gunther) Callanthias allporti Gunther

Family Acanthoclinidae Acanthoclinus quadridactylus (B&S) rockfish

Family Carangidae Seriola grandis Castlenau kingfish Caranx geovgianus Cuvier trevally Decapterus koheru (Hector) koheru Trachurus novaezelandiae Richardson horse mackerel

Family. Arripidae Arripis trutta (B&S)

Family Sparidae Chrysophrys auratus (B&S)

Family Mullidae Upeneichthys porosus (C & v)

Family Pempheridae Pempheris adspersa Griffin

Family Kyphosidae Girella tricuspidata (Qiioy & Gaimard) parore Kyphosus sydneyanus (Gunther) Scorpis aequipinnis Richardson sweep Scorpis violaceus (Hutton) blue maomao

Family Pentacerotidae Paristiopterus labiosus (Gunther) giant boarfish

kahawai

snapper

goatfish

bigeye

v ** O * R -

• **

O * s O ** s # * s m * *

• ***

• **

• ***

• ** V -• **,* • *** R -

long-finned boarfish R -Zanclistius elevatus (Ramsay & Ogi'lby) Family Pomacentridae

Parma alboscapularis black angelfish Chromis dispilus Griffin two-spot demoiselle Chromis hypsilepis(Guenther) single-spot demoiselle

Family Chironemidae Chironemus marmoratus (Gunther) hiwihiwi •

R -o *** R -

20

Family Aplodactylidae Aplodactylus meandratus Richardson marblefish

Family Cheilodactylidae Cheilodactylus spectabilis Hutton red moki Cheilodactylus douglasi porae Cheilodactylus macropterus(B & S) tarakihi

Family Latridae Latridopsis ciliaris (B & S) blue moki

v -# **

v ** R **

R *

Suborder Mugiloidei Family Mugilidae

Aldrichetta forsteri(c & v) yellow-eyed mullet v **

Suborder Labroidei Family Labridae

Pseudolabrus oelidotus (B & s) Pseudolabrus fucicola (Richardson) Pseudolabrus miles (B & s) Pseudolabrus inscriptus(Richardson) green wrasse Pseudolabrus luculentus (Richardson) orange wrasse

paketi banded wrasse scarlet wrasse

Bodiccnus occycephalus (Bleeker) Coris sandageri (Hector)

Family Odacidae Odax pullus

red pigfish Sandager1s wrasse

butterfish

• *** O *** • **

v ** v ** v ** v **

o **

Suborder Trachinoidei Family Mugiloididae

Parapercis colias (B & s) Family Ura'noscopidae

Genyagnus monopterygius (B & S)

blue cod

spotted stargazer

O **

R -

Suborder Blennioidei Family Blenniidae

Blennius laticlavius Griffin Plagiotrerrrus tapeinosoma (Bleeker)

Family Tripterygiidae Forsterygion varium(B & S) Forsterygion capito (Jenyns)

crested blenny mimic blenny

mottled blenny cobble blenny

O ** R * • ***

m ***

21

Forsterygion sp.B

Forsterygion sp.C

Forsterygion sp.D

Forsterygion sp.E

Forsterygion sp.F

Gillohlennius tripennis

Gillohlennius deoemdigitatus

Eelcogramma sp.A

Eelcogramma sp.B

Notoclinops segmentation (M & P) hlotoclinus compressus (B & S)

Family Clinidae Ericentrus ruber{Button)

Cristiceps aurantiacus

yellow-black blenny v ** oblique-swimming blenny v Yaldwyn8 s blenny scaly-headed blenny chocolate blenny spectacled blenny threepenny • chequered blenny tiger blenny banded blenny red topknot

commmon weedfish crested weedfish

v ** v ** v ** • ** v ** V ** V ** v ** v **

V *

Suborder Scombroidei Family Gempylidae

Thrysites atun(Euphrasen) Family Scombridae

Scomber australasicus

snoek

common mackerel

R *

ORDER: Tetradontifoi Suborder Balistoidei

Family Monacanthidae Parika scaber(B & S) leatherjacket • ***

Suborder Tetradontoidei Family Diodontidae

Allomycterus whitleyi Phillips Family Molidae

Mo la mo la Linnaeus

porcupinefish

sunfish

V -

R *

22

CLASS CHONDRICHTHYS

the cartilaginous fishes The fish belonging to this group, the sharks, skates, rays and

chimaeras, exhibit many similarities in their general body structure. There is no true bone, the skeleton being composed entirely of cartilage. These fish lack typical scales. Instead, the skin is covered with tooth-like dermal denticles, closely set to form a sandpaper-like surface known as shagreen, which is extremely tough and difficult to penetrate. They do not possess gill covers. With few exceptions five gill slits open out on each side of the body. Most species have a spiracle near each eye, through which they can 'breathe' while feeding or, as in the case of the rays, when the mouth which is situated on the undersurface is covered in sand or mud. All these fish have a well developed lower jaw with numerous teeth arranged in several series. In some groups a nictating membrane, or third eyelid, is present. Dorsal fin spines, when present, are rigid and not erectile. Swim bladders are not found in this group of fishes.

This class contains about 550 present day species.

characters illustrated).

23

ORDER SQUALIFORMES - the sharks

In all there are about 225-250 species of sharks. They are predominantly marine fishes, although a few species run far upstream into brackish and freshwater. Most occur in the tropical and subtropical belt, but some species are found in temperate and even polar waters. Sharks usually dwell in shallow waters; however a few species prefer depths of several hundred metres 0

Sharks are typically cylindrical in form. Most are large, powerful and fast swimming; however, some species are extremely sluggish and rarely move. Size varies from 15-20m for the whale sharks down to about 0.5m for the smallest shark species„

Without exception sharks are carnivorous, feeding primarily on smaller fish. Fast swimming sharks pursue and catch their prey. The more sluggish species lie in wait for passing fish. These predaceous species have large sharp teeth adapted for tearing and cutting. Some of the smaller sharks, which feed mainly on hard-shelled crustacea, have pavement-like crushing teeth. The teeth are not fixed into sockets like most fish, but are attached to a band which is continually growing forwards. The teeth at the rear are in a recumbent position, moving forward and becoming upright and functional as those in the front are shed.

Reproduction in the sharks takes place through internal fertilisation. The males possess a pair of copulatory organs, the claspers, which are located on the inner edges of the pelvic fins. The claspers are used to transfer sperm to the female. In most sharks development is ovoviviparous, but in some species is oviparous or viviparous. Compared with the teleost fishes the number of young produced by sharks is small.

Three families of sharks are represented, each by one species, in the Reserve.

Family Carcharhinidae - requiem sharks

This is the largest shark family. Its members inhabit tropical and temperate seas throughout the world. Their chief cahracteristig:s are: There are two dorsal fins, the second of which is smaller and is situated directly opposite the anal fin; the upper lobe of the tail fin is sickle-shaped and 2-3 times larger than the lower lobe; the eyes possess a nictating membrane; the spiracles are either much reduced in size or are lacking; the teeth are

24 triangular and razor sharp. These sharks are usually coloured drab brown or grey. The majority of species are harmless.

Family Sphyrnidae - hammerhead sharks

The hammerhead sharks are easily distinguished from all other sharks by the flattened head which is extended into hammer-like lobes on each side. These swift swimming sharks occur in shallow, warm seas with some species wandering into cooler regions as seas warm over the summer.

Family Isuridae - mackerel sharks

These are medium to large, surface swimming sharks found in most seas of the world. Their bodies are torpedo-shaped and stoutly built, tapering to a slender, depressed caudal peduncle which usually has a strong keel on each side. This lateral keel extends onto a large lunate tail fin. The first dorsal fin is large. The second is small and is situated opposite the anal fin. The five gill slits are wide and are located in front of the pectoral fin.

25

Familys Carcharhinidae

Carcharhirtus brachyurus - bronze whaler

(Carcharhinus = jagged snout brachyurus = short-tailed)

DESCRIPTION: This shark is distinguished by its flattened snout, metallic bronze colouration and the characteristic shape of the tail» The first dorsal fin is large and is situated in front of the ventral fins. The pectoral fins are relatively large» The mouth is large and the teeth small and blade-like» There are five gill slits, the last of which is situated above the base of the pectoral fin. Small spiracles are present»

These fish grow to about 4m in length; however those sighted in the Reserve are much smaller/ the largest being recorded at 2„75m.

Despite their large size, these sharks are generally shy. Only one unprovoked attack on man, by a bronze whaler, has been officially reported.

DISTRIBUTION s Generals C. brachyurus is found around Australia and in New

Zealand waters as far south as Cook Strait. In New Zealand the bronze whaler is only commonly seen during the summer when they appear to move into shallower water, even entering the breaker zone of surf beaches.

FEEDING: This species is an opportunistic predator, its food consisting mainly of octopus and fish. Little is known of its natural feeding habits. Studies on related species have indicated that members of this genus feed on healthy, free-moving animals and feeding is not limited to scavenging on the dead and dying.

Observations made, in the Reserve, of feeding on speared fish have shown that the bronze whaler is similar to other sharks in detection and taking of food. Initial attraction appeared to be in response to the vibrations set up in the water by the struggling fisho Usually, the shark approached the bait slowly and would 'sniff1 at it several times before • eating. Sometimes it would attack the fish with a fast rush and take it immediately. The prey was bitten and ripped apart with a sideways shaking of the head.

LIFE HISTORY: Little is known of the life history of these sharks. Like the other members of its family, this species is viviparous, i.e. the young are born alive.

27

Family: Isuridae

Isyrus ox^rmelhys - mako, blue pointer

(Isurus = equal-tailed)

DESCRIPTIONS This sreamlined, active shark is blue or blue-grey above and white underneath= The two colours are sharply separated„ The body is torpedo-shaped, with a pointed snout and a slender tail stalk which is flattened from above and below„ There is a strong keel on either side of the tail stalk* The first of the two dorsal fins is large and the second is small and situated opposite a similar sized anal fin*

Mako sharks can grow to lengths of 4o5m and weigh as much as 485kg= The largest caught on rod and reel was taken off Mayor Island, New Zealand, and weighed 482.5kg„

These are wide-ranging, solitary sharks usually found in surface waters. They are not generally regarded as being dangerous to man,

DISTRIBUTIONS Generals The mako occurs in Australian, South African and New

Zealand seas. It is found around the entire New Zealand coastline but is most common north of Cook Strait.

Locals These fish are infrequent visitors to shallow coastal waters and have only occasionally been reported in the.Reserve„

FEEDINGs Io oxyrinchus is a voracious carnivore, feeding mainly on small schooling fishes» The teeth are small and awl-like and are well adapted for seizing prey.

LIFE HISTORYs Little information is available on age, growth and reproduction in this species» Sexual maturity is attained when individuals have grown to about 2m long*

Mew Zealand distr ibution

29

Family: Sphyrinidae

jiplh^ma zyganea - hammerhead shark

(Sphyrna = a hammer zygaena = a yoke)

DESCRIPTION: The peculiar shape of the head immediately distinguishes this species from other sharks which frequent New Zealand waters . The front portion of the head is flattened and extended into lobes, one on each side. The eyes, situated at the end of each lobe are bluish and possess a brown nictating membrane» There are two dorsal fins. The second, the smaller of the two, is situated opposite the anal fin„ The upper lobe of the tail is distinctly notched and is much longer than the lower lobe* There are five gill slits and the fourth and fifth sit over the base of the pectoral fine The triangular and pointed teeth are serrated in juvenile hammerheads but have a smooth edge in' the adult fish*

Colouration ranges from pale grey to a dark brown dorsal surface which fades to pale yellow on the belly.

Individuals can grow to 6.5m in length, with the 'hammer8 measuring 2m in. width. Specimens up to 1«, 25m have been observed in the Reserve.

These sharks are usually considered dangerous«

DISTRIBUTION: General: Sozygaena ranges along the east coast of Australia

to Tasmania, the coast of Western Australia and in New Zealand as far south as Cook Strait. It frequents both open oceans and shallow coastal bays. Juveniles often ascend rivers to the end of their tidal influence.

Local: The hammerhead shark is only an occasional visitor to rocky reefs. Small individuals have been sighted in the Reserve, usually during the summer months.

FEEDING: Members of this species feed predominantly on fish. Mackerel (Scaustralasieus) and other schooling fishes are taken by the younger, more active hammerheads, while cruising in surface waters. The older sharks live mainly on stingrays„

LIFE HISTORY: The life history features of this species are poorly known. The young are born alive. A female about 3m long can produce up to 30 pups.

Sphyroa zygaen^

31

OlRDER RAJFORMIES - rays aod skates

This order includes the sawfishes, guitarfishes, electric rays, skates, stingrays, eagle rays and mantas. Members of this group are easily recognised by their body form which is adapted to life on the sea floor. The body is flattened dorso-ventrally and the large pectoral fins are joined to the sides of the head and body,.. The five pairs of gill openings are situated beneath the body disc and not on the sides of the head, as seen in the sharks. The spiracles, placed close behind the head, are very large to enable the ray to 'breathe1 while lying on sand or mud. The dorsal fins are situated well back, or may be lacking altogether. There is no anal fin. In many species the tail is reduced to a whip-like appendage, without a tail fin and often with one or more serrated spines at its base.

Species range in size from a few centimetres long to the giant manta rays with a breadth of about 7m and weight of around 1500kg.

The Raj iformes are widely distributed fish in both latitude and depth. They occur in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. They are primarily marine temperate fish, but several species have colonized freshwater rivers. Most live on or near the bottom. They usually swim slowly, staying close to the bottom, although they are capable of rapid propulsion when neccessary. Movement is usually achieved by undulations of the pectoral fins; however, some species also use the tail and body muscles.

Skates and rays eat a variety of foods. Some species prefer the hard-shelled molluscs while others feed mainly on fish. The large mantas feed on planktonic organisms and small fish.

In this group reproduction occurs with internal fertilisation. The males possess a pair of claspers along the inner edges of their pelvic fins in the same manner as the sharks. The inner edges of the claspers have grooves with overlapping edges, thus aiding transport of the sperm into the female. Development may be oviparous - the eggs are laid encased in a horny capsule, or ovoviviparous - the embryos develop within the female and are extruded at the larval stage.

Three families of this group are represented in the Reserve.

32

Family Dasyatidae - stingrays

The stingrays are best known for; their long, whip-like tails which are armed with spines near the base. The body disc is flat and wide.

Nearly 100 species of stingrays are distributed in warm shallow seas throughout the world. Stingrays generally lie on the bottom, buried in sand or soft sediment. They are usually mottled grey and brown on the dorsal surface and are pale yellow on the ventral surface. These fish range in size from 0.3m to 2m in breadth.

The venomous spines present at the base of the tail can inflict a severe wound. The venom may have a paralyzing effect on humans, but is rarely fatal.

Two species of stingray, Dasyatis brevicaudata and D,theditis are found in New Zealand and in the Reserve. Dotheditis r the long-tailed stingray, is distinguished by possessing a much longer tail than the former species. However, little information is available on this species, hence it is not considered here in detail.

Family Mlyiiobafadae - eagle rays

The eagle rays are more pelagic than the stingrays, although they still feed on the bottom. Unlike the typical bottom-dwe11ing stingrays, members of this group have a distinct head region. The eyes and spiracles are situated on each side rather than on the top of the head. Most species have one or more venomous spines at the base of the tail.

Eagle rays occur in warm seas throughout the world. Only one species is known in New Zealand and in the Reserve.

Family Torpedioidae - electric rays

The body and pectoral fins of these rays form an almost circular disc. The electric rays are characterized by a smooth, scaleless skin and by the presence of two large electric organs, one on each side of the head. They can reach up to 1.5m in length and weigh around 100kg.

These fish are poor swimmers and spend most of their time partially buried in sand and mud. Some species live in shallow inshore waters while others are blind and live at great depths.

Only one species occurs in the Reserve.

33

Family: Dasyatidae

Das^atis bre^gcaydafos - short-tailed stingray

(brevicaudatus = short-tailed)

DESCRIPTION: The disc in this species is almost quadrangular. The tail is long and whip-like and is-fairly thick at, the base. This fish was originally described from a mutilated specimen without a tail, hence the species and common names. There are no dorsal or caudal fins. Towards the base of the tail there are two serrated spines. These spines have a groove along which venom is conducted, from the venom glands at the base, to the tip of the spine. Colouration varies fron slate grey to brownish grey on the back and is white on the underside.

This is the largest of our. common rays. Short-tailed stingrays caught in New Zealand waters have been recorded at 4.2m long and 2.1m wide.

These fish are usually found resting on the substratum. They are poor swimmers. Movement is achieved by undulations of the large pectoral fins. Both fins move in phase.

DISTRIBUTIONs Generals This species occurs around Australia and New Zealand.

In New Zealand they are found as far south as Otago, but are most common around the North Island. They usually inhabit sandy coastal areas to depths of 100m, but often also venture into harbours and estuaries.

Locals Dobrevicaudatus is occasionally found over rocky reefs such as the Reserve.

FEEDINGs Any available animal food is taken by these fish. Their diet consists mainly of shellfish and crabs, taken while foraging over open sandy bottoms.

LIFE HISTORYs Little information is available on the life history of the short-tailed stingray. Like other members of its family this species is an ovoviviparous breeder.

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Family: Myliobatidae

6¥ifliobatyS feoyocaudatys - eagle ray, whiptail

(tenuicoudatus = slender-tailed)

DESCRIPTION: This ray is easily distinguished from the stingrays by the snout which is distinct from the pectoral fins forward of the level of the eyeso The body disc is diamond-shaped and wider than it is long. The tail is long and slender with two venomous spines present at the base. Colour varies in this species from a mottled greenish-grey to almost black.

Eagle rays can grow to 1.2m in width. They are solitary fish and are usually seen resting on the bottom or swimming close to the substratum. They swim like the stingrays, by beating the pectoral fins. However, the pectoral fins move in opposite phase whereas the stingrays beat their fins simultaneously.

DISTRIBUTION: General? This species is found in New Zealand and southern

Australia. In New Zealand, they wander as far south as Otago but are most abundant north of Cook Strait, especially in the Hauraki Gulf where they are frequently seen in shallow waters over the summer.

Local: This is the most common ray of the Reserve.' Individuals range over the whole reef and are not found in any particular habitat.

FEEDING: Af. tenuicaudatus appears to be restricted to foraging over rocky bottoms. They move slowly over the bottom, wrenching their prey from the rockc Hard-shelled prey are crushed with pavement-like, heavily denticulated teeth plates. Food consists mainly of crabs, gastropods and hermit crabs. Observations on feeding behaviour suggest the eagle ray crushes its prey and expels the shell fragments from its mouth. No shell fragments have been found in the stomach.

LIFE HISTORY: The life history features of this species are poorly known. Reproduction is ovoviviparous0

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Family : Torpedinidae

Torpedo fairchaldio - elect he ray, torpedo ray

DESCRIPTION; Several features distinguish this species from the other rays found in the Reserve» The head and pectoral fins form a distinct disc which is well separated from the thick rounded tail. There is a caudal fin and two dorsal fins „ Scales are absent0 Colouration is a mottled grey or greyish-brown o The torpedo ray can reach up to 1« 2m in length«,

This fish is able to deliver an electric shock if touched* There is an electric organ on either side of the head, between the upper and lower surfaces of the skin. These are kidney-shaped groups of hexagonal cells which are filled with a clear jelly-like substance» The electric charge is generated here* The discharge is of sufficient strength to knock out a grown man for an hour or so* The ray is capable of delivering 40-50 consecutive shocks, each one becoming weaker. A period of rest is then required for the fish to recover .

Torpedo rays are poor swimmers and are usually encountered buried in sand^ with only their eyes and spiracles protruding,,

DISTRIBUTIONi General: This species is found in south-east Australian seas

and around New Zealand. They are widely distributed around the entire New Zealand coastline to depths of 200m»

Locals Although T.foivohitdi tend to prefer deep waters they are occasionally seen inshore and have been reported in the Reserve at depths of about 14m0

FEEDING^ Small fish are the major prey for this species„ Shellfish, crabs and shrimps are also eaten. Fish are caught by the ray enveloping them from above, with their pectoral fins„ and stunning the prey with an electric shocko

LIFE HISTORY: Little is known of age^ growth .or reproductive habits of this specieso

Diet

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This class incorporates the vast majority of living fishes, both freshwater and marine. The presence of bone is the major character distinguishing them from the jawless fishes (class Agnatha) and the cartilaginous fishes (class Chondrichthys).

The bony fishes can be separated into four divisions . The first three; the lobef ins,, the lungfishes, or coelocanths, and the birchirs are primitive groups of fishes with large numbers of species known from the fossil record, but with few living representatives. The fourth group, the teleosts, includes the majority of present day fishes and consists of about 20,000 species. The teleosts are charcterised by the following features: (1) A well developed, bony vertebral column and skull; (2) Fins which are supported by soft or spiny rays; (3) A single gill cover, or operculum, which covers the cavity containing the gills„ Scales may be present or absent.

The general features of a teleost fish. (No one species exhibits all

the characters illustrated)0

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©FIDER AMGUILUFORMIES - the eels

This is a specialised group of species which have become adapted to living in narrow holes and crevices, The body has become long and slendero The pelvic fins are reduced and a continuous dorsal-anal fin has developed. All fins are spineless * The gill openings have been reduced to small slits on either side of the head and are without gill covers. Scales, when present, are minute and deeply embedded into the skin. The swim bladder retains its primitive condition in these bottom dwellers» Many species are nocturnal and have a well developed sense of smell for tracking prey. The nasal tubes are pronounced and set well apart „

The eels® eyes differ from other fish as the iris is able to contract and expand, thus controlling the amount of light reaching the retina. The eyes are covered with a protective skine

Because the eels lack gill cover with which to set up a bellows motion and keep water flowing over the gills, they must always keep their mouths open, forcing water toward the gills with a swallowing motion.

These fish achieve their snake-like movement along the bottom by a series of transverse waves travelling the length of the body and increasing in magnitude from nose to tail (anguilliform locomotion) .

This order is comprised of 20 families. Several species are found in New Zealand» Few are of any commercial value as most are uncommon and infrequently caught» Only three families are represented in tbe Reserve»

Family IMyrasniitiia© - morays

These are usually large, powerful eels, some reaching lengths of 3mo They have no pectoral fins, the gill openings are small and the mouth is large with strong, sharp teethe The body is typically flattened -from side to side and the scaleless skin is thick and leathery» The dorsal fin always begins on the head. Individuals are usually brightly coloured»

The morays constitute a family of more the 80 species occurring in their greatest abundances in tropical and subtropical waters, with a few species straying into temperate regions. They live in shallow coastal waters and most species are nocturnal»

Several species occur in north-eastern New Zealand waters. Only one, Gymnothovox prasinus, the yellow moray, is common. This is the only moray species found in the Reserve. The other species are rare on the coast, but are more abundant in the warmer waters around offshore island groups

42

such as the Poor Knights Islands and the Moko Hinau Islands. These-are: the grey moray, Gymnothorax nubilus; the speckled moray, G. obesus-, the mottled moray. Goprionodon and the mosaic moray^ GoVamosus.

This is a small family of marine eels. They are distinguished from the morays by possessing pectoral fins and a black margin on the dorso-anal finc The dorsal fin begins above the pectoral fin *

These are large powerful eels which can grow up to 3m long and weigh up to 80kgo They are found at moderate depths in most tropical and temperate seas of the world.

Several conger eels are found in New Zealand waters„ Only two are found around the rocky coasts? the southern species, Conger verrauxi and the northern species, C.wiZsoni• The others occur in deep, offshore waters; Gnathophis habenatus3 G«ymbvettabia3 Bassanago bulbiceps and B.hivsutus.

Snake eels are known throughout the world in tropical and subtropical seaso A few species range into temperate waters» They are typically

Only a few of the many species reach lengths exceeding lm; most of them are less than 300mm long,» They dwell in shallow waters on coral and rocky reefs and also sandy and muddy bottoms» Some species are burrowing»

They body is elongate, cylindrical and scaleless. The dorsal and anal fins are not confluent, leaving the tip of the tail free0 Pectoral fins are small or lacking and there is no caudal fin» The tail is stiff and sharp rather than broad and flat as in the morays» The snout may be short or long but usually projects beyond the lower jaw» The nostrils are located on two short stout barbels on top of the nose, which the eels use to probe into crevices and cavities in their search for food»

conger eels

snake eels

brightly coloured and are often strikingly marked with bands or spots»

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Family: Muraenidae

Gfmsnothorais prasinus - yellow moray

DESCRIPTION: This large, powerful eel grows to about 1m in length0 The average size ranges between 500 and 600mm. This species is easily recognised by its yellow or yellow-green uniformly coloured body* Other distinguishing features are-the absence of pectoral fins, the reduced gill openings and the long slender jaws. Several rows of sharp, prominent teeth are present in each jaw.

The yellow morays are nocturnal, sheltering in cracks and crevices during the day. Individuals are solitary and home ranging and may return to use the smae shelter site each day. Although they will share a shelter hole with another individual belonging to a different species of moray, these fish may defend territories from other members of their species. Highly intensive aggressive encounters have been observed between yellow morays»

DISTRIBUTION : Generals This species is widely distributed throughout the

Indo-=Pacific region. In New Zealand they are found around the entire North Island coastline» They prefer areas of rocky coasts, especially around headlands.

Local: In the Reserve, the yellow moray can be found on the rocky reef wherever there is suitable shelter. They are most abundant in broken, rocky areas.

FEEDING: Morays forage actively at night, moving from cover to seek prey. Some feeding may occur during the day; however, foraging is probably confined to shelter holes. The diet consists mainly of crabs and small nocturnal fishes such as the scorpion fish, Scorpaena cardinaUs.

LIFE HISTORY: No information is available on the life history of this species.

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Family: Congridae

Conger WBflSOra - conger eel

DESCRIPTION: The conger eel can be distinguished from the moray by its body form and colouration. It possesses small pectoral fins, the dorsal fin begins further along the back, the eyes are oval and much larger than the moray's and the dorso-anal fin is edged with black* Body colouration varies in these fish from a dark grey-blue black with a pale ventral surface to a pale brown back with a brown and white mottled undersurface.

The average size is 750-900mm in length, but these fish can grow to reach 2m in length, weighing up to 18kg„ The males tend to be smaller than the females and have relatively larger head and eyes »

Conger eels are solitary fisho They are nocturnal and inhabit narrow holes and crevices during the day»

DISTRIBUTION: General: This species has been recorded from Australia, New

Zealand and Lord Howe Island„ It is moderately common around the rocky coasts of the North Island but its southern extent is poorly known»

Locals Conger eels have been seen at all depths in the waters of the Reserve» They are usually found in areas where the rock is broken and there are plenty of the deep holes and crevices which are required for sheltero

FEEDING: CoWilsoni forages in the open at night» It is an opportunistic predator, taking any mobile animal of suitable size» Small conger eels eat mainly crabs and hermit crabs» The larger eels also take small reef fish, e.g. marblefish, A»meandratus; kelpfish, C.marmoratus and blennioid fishes o

LIFE HISTORY: Little is known of age, growth or breeding habits of the conger eel» Females kept in aquaria have been known to produce as many as 3 million eggs»

Cooger wilsoni

to 2m

New Zealand distr ibut ion Diet

\ Hermit crabs 5 %