The Enlightenment

“Siecle de Lumiere”“The Century of Light”

An Overview of the 18c

► Political History Political History >>> >>> Reform

► Intellectual History Intellectual History Newtonian Physics Reason

► Cultural History Cultural History Individualism

► Social History Social History Increased Literacy “Age of Aristocracy”

► Economic History Economic History > > Mercantilism to Capitalism

18c Politics► BRITAIN – Constitutional Monarchy– Constitutional Monarchy

► FRANCE Royal Absolutism Royal Absolutism (cultural and religious (cultural and religious unity)unity)

► PRUSSIA, HABSBURG EMPIRE, RUSSIA ““Enlightened DespotismEnlightened Despotism””

► OTTOMAN EMPIRE – – traditional traditional empire empire

• "Enlightenment is mankind’s exit from its self-incurred immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to make use of one’s own understanding without the guidance of another"

• Motto of the Enlightenment Sapere aude!

– What does it mean?

What is Enlightenment? by I. Kant

The Enlightenment

• Enlightened thinkers believed that human reason could be used to combat ignorance, superstition, and tyranny and to build a better world.

• Principal targets: Religion and the domination of society by hereditary aristocracy. In other words, the church and the state, who often worked hand-in-hand.

Centers of the Enlightenment

I. What was the Enlightenment?

• Progressive, Rationalistic, Humanistic worldview

• Emerged out of the Scientific Revolution and culminated in the French Revolution

• Spokesmen = Rising Middle Class

• Paris = Center of Enlightenment

• Optimism about mankind’s abilities

The Enlightenment—17th Century• Enlightenment philosophers combined logic and reason• Logic: formal logic is the process(es) by which an

argument can be determined as valid or not. An argument is valid if the premises are all true, then the conclusion must also be true.– Example: All humans have heart. Tom is a human. Therefore,

Tom has a heart.

• Reason: Enlightenment thinkers stated that it consisted of common sense, observation, and their own unacknowledged prejudices in favor of skepticism and freedom.

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment1.1. Rationalism Rationalism reason is the arbiter of all things. reason is the arbiter of all things.

2.2. Cosmology Cosmology a new concept of man, his existence on earth, & a new concept of man, his existence on earth, & the place of the earth in the universe.the place of the earth in the universe.

3.3. Secularism Secularism application of the methods of science to religion application of the methods of science to religion &philosophy. &philosophy.

4.4. Scientific MethodScientific Method

Mathematical analysisMathematical analysis

ExperimentationExperimentation

Inductive reasoning.Inductive reasoning.

5.5. Utilitarianism Utilitarianism the greatest good for the greatest number. the greatest good for the greatest number.

6.6. Tolerance Tolerance No opinion is worth burning your neighbor forNo opinion is worth burning your neighbor for..

The Characteristics of the Enlightenment7.7. Optimism & Self-ConfidenceOptimism & Self-Confidence

The belief that man is intrinsically good.The belief that man is intrinsically good.

The belief in social progress.The belief in social progress.

8.8. FreedomFreedom

Of thought and expression.Of thought and expression.

Bring liberty to all men modern battle against absolutismBring liberty to all men modern battle against absolutism

9.9. Education of the MassesEducation of the Masses

10.10. Legal ReformsLegal Reforms

Justice, kindness, and charity Justice, kindness, and charity no torture or indiscriminant no torture or indiscriminant incarceration.incarceration.

Due process of law. Due process of law.

11.11. ConstitutionalismConstitutionalism

Written constitutions Written constitutions listing citizens, rights. listing citizens, rights.

12.12. Cosmopolitanism.Cosmopolitanism.

Enlightenment Attacks the Old Regime

The Enlightenment—17th Century

• The 17th century scene: Dogma & Fanaticism– Witch-hunts and wars of religion

– Protestants & Catholics denounced each other as followers of Satan

– People imprisoned for attending wrong church

– All publications censored by church and state

– Slavery widely practiced, defended by religious leaders

– Despotism of monarchs=“divine right of kings”– Any opposition was imprisoned or executed

• Reason and Logic had no room for these matters

A. The World of the Old Regime

• Built on tradition• World of hierarchy, privilege

and inequality• Allied with the Church• Challenged by the reform

impulse of supporters of the Enlightenment

B. Conflict with the Capitalistic Middle Class

• Support for the Middle Class social order against the traditional social order

• Size and increasing power of the Middle Class

• New notion of wealth

• Tension and discord created by the Middle Class

The Enlightenment—17th Century• Political & Economic Background

– Wealth from Asia & Americas catapulted a new class of merchants into prominence, partially displacing the aristocracy whose power had been rooted in land ownership

– These bourgeoisie had there own ideas about the world—main agents of change in the arts, government, and the economy

– Naturally convinced that their earnings were result of their individual merit and hard work

– Absolutist kings and dogmatic churches were the biggest obstacle to change for the merchant class

C. Popularization of Science

• The popularity of science in the 17th and 18th centuries

• Conversations on the Plurality of the Worlds (1686)—Bernard de Fontenelle

• The Scientific Revolution looked at the workings of the universe

D. A New World of Uncertainties

• The Idea of Progress• The anti-religious implications of

the Enlightenment• The relativity of truth and morality• John Locke’s New Psychology

--Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)-- “Tabula Rasa”

William Blake’s Newton, 1795

Deism

• The word "Deism" is derived from the Latin word for God: "Deus." Deism involves the belief in the existence of God, on purely rational grounds, without any reliance on revealed religion or religious authority.

• Deists:– Do not accept the belief of most religions that God

revealed himself to humanity through the writings of the Bible, the Qur'an or other religious texts.

– Disagree with strong Atheists who assert that there is no evidence of the existence of God.

Deism

• Deists regard their faith as a natural religion, as contrasted with one that is revealed by a God or which is artificially created by humans. They reason that since everything that exists has had a creator, then the universe itself must have been created by God. Thomas Paine concluded a speech shortly after the French Revolution with: "God is the power of first cause, nature is the law, and matter is the subject acted upon.”

The Philosophes

• 18th century French intellectuals

• Paris was the “capital”

• Desire to change the world

• Interest in addressing a broad audience & committed to reform

• Call for a spirit of rational criticism

• Celebrated the scientific revolution

• The “Mystique of Newton”• They believed that that natural science should be used to

examine and understand ALL elements of life– Reason over and above faith – everything is critiqued

• …that the Scientific method can discover ALL laws of human society AND nature

• …in progress: it is POSSIBLE for man to create a better society (hope)

Literary figures, historians, economistsToday many are thought of philosophers

Not an organized group BUT agreed that religion, government/politics, economy and society needed to be reformed for the sake of human liberty

All applied skepticism and rules of reason when questioning the status quo

Followers = commercial class, professional urban class, forward thinking aristocracy

Supported: ; improvement in agriculture, transport and industry; itransformation of society and economy

Who were the philosophes?

The Problem of Censorship

• The attempt of the Old Regime to control new thinking

• Publishers and writers hounded by censors

• Over 1000 booksellers and authors imprisoned in the Bastille in the early 1700’s

• Battling censorship

The Role of the Salon

• Protection and encouragement offered by French aristocratic women in their private drawing rooms

• Feminine influence on the Enlightenment

A Parisian Salon

Madame Geoffrin’s Salon

The Salonnieres

Madame GeoffrinMadame Geoffrin(1699-1777)(1699-1777)

MademoiselleMademoiselleJulie de LespinasseJulie de Lespinasse

(1732*-1776)(1732*-1776)

MadameMadameSuzanne NeckerSuzanne Necker

(1739-1794)(1739-1794)

Female Philosophes► Emilie du Chatalet, Emilie du Chatalet,

a French noblewomana French noblewoman(1706-1749).(1706-1749).

► Wrote extensively aboutWrote extensively aboutthe mathematics andthe mathematics andphysics of Gottfriedphysics of GottfriedWilhelm von Lebnitz andWilhelm von Lebnitz andIsaac Newton.Isaac Newton.

► Her lover, Voltaire, learned much of his Her lover, Voltaire, learned much of his science from her.science from her.

The Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris

Diderot’s Encyclopedia• Ultimate strength of the

philosophes lay in their numbers, dedication and organization

• Written between 1751-1772

• Attempted to illustrate all human knowledge

• Problems with publication• Emphasis on practical

science

Diderot’s Encyclopedia (cont)

• Desire to change the “general way of thinking”

• Greater knowledge leads to human progress

• Emphasized moderation and tolerance

• Human nature can be molded

• Inalienable rights and the social contract

• Knowledge improves goodness

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Encyclopedia, 28 volumes

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Reading During the Enlightenment

►Literacy: 80%%% o/o for men; 60 o/o women.80%%% o/o for men; 60 o/o women.

► Books were expensive (one dayBooks were expensive (one day’’s wages).s wages).

► Many readers for each book (20 : 1)Many readers for each book (20 : 1) novels, plays & other literature.novels, plays & other literature.

journals, memoirs, journals, memoirs, ““private lives.private lives.””

philosophy, history, theology.philosophy, history, theology.

newspapers, political pamphletsnewspapers, political pamphlets..

An Increase in Reading

Reading in the Enlightenment

• Birth of the Novel• Writing of History

– Inclusion of political, economic, social, intellectual, cultural happenings over time

• Monthly Journals and Magazines; daily newspapers

• What is “low literary culture” and what effect did it have on lower-class audiences?

VIII. Famous Enlightenment Thinkers

Timeline

THOMAS HOBBES • In nature, people were cruel, greedy and selfish. They

would fight, rob, and oppress one another.

• To escape this people would enter into a social contract: they would give up their freedom in return for the safety and order of an organized society.

• Therefore, Hobbes believed that a powerful government like an absolute monarchy was best for society – it would impose order and compel obedience. It would also be able to suppress rebellion.

Hobbes #2• His most famous work was

called Leviathan.

• Hobbes has been used to justify absolute power in government.

• His view of human nature was negative, or pessimistic. Life without laws and controls would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”

Hobbes #3 - Quotes

• A man's conscience and his judgment is the same thing; and as the judgment, so also the conscience, may be erroneous.

• Curiosity is the lust of the mind. • In the state of nature profit is the measure of

right. • Not believing in force is the same as not

believing in gravitation. • Leisure is the Mother of Philosophy.

Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)• The Spirit of the Laws (1748)• Despotism could be avoided if

political power were divided and shared by a diversity of classes

• Power must check power• Admires British government• French parliaments must be

defenders of liberty• Influence in the US• Attacks traditional religion,

advocacy of religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, use of reason

Voltaire (1694-1778)

• Enthusiasm for English institutions

• Reformer not a revolutionary

• Admirer of Louis XIV

• Relationship with Frederick the Great

• Criticism of Traditional Religion believed in diesm

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (I)

► Every man is guilty of all the good he Every man is guilty of all the good he didn didn’’t do.t do.► God is a comedian playing to an audience God is a comedian playing to an audience too afraid to laugh. too afraid to laugh.► If God did not exist, it would be necessary If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him. to invent him.► It is dangerous to be right when the It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong. government is wrong.► Love truth and pardon error.Love truth and pardon error.

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” (II)

► Judge of a man by his questions Judge of a man by his questions rather than by his answers.rather than by his answers.► Men are equal; it is not birth, but Men are equal; it is not birth, but virtuevirtue that makes the difference. that makes the difference.► Prejudice is opinion without Prejudice is opinion without judgment.judgment.► The way to become boring is to say The way to become boring is to say everything. everything.► I may not agree with what you have I may not agree with what you have to say, but I will defend to the death to say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.your right to say it.

Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723-1789)

• Deterministic view of human beings

• Free will, God and immortality of the soul are foolish myths

• His views dealt the unity of the Enlightenment a severe blow

• Other thinkers repelled by this inflexible atheism

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

• Turns his withering critique of the Old Regime increasingly on the Enlightenment itself

• Rather than liberation, rationalism and civilization destroys the individual

• Man by nature was solitary, good and free

Rousseau (cont)

• Civilization represents decay, not progress

• Emile—protect children from too many books

• The Social Contract (1762) and the “General Will”

• Civilized man is an alienated man

• Transitional intellectual figure

Rousseau’s Philosophy (II)

Virtue exists in the Virtue exists in the ””state of nature,state of nature,”” but lost but lost in in ““society.society.””

Government must preserve Government must preserve ““virtuevirtue”” and and ””liberty.liberty.””

Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in Man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains.chains.

The concept of the The concept of the ””Noble Savage.Noble Savage.”” Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.

Civil liberty Civil liberty invest ALL rights and invest ALL rights and liberties into a society.liberties into a society.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (III)► In The Social Contract:In The Social Contract:

The right kind of political order could make The right kind of political order could make people truly moral and free.people truly moral and free.

Individual moral freedom could be achieved Individual moral freedom could be achieved only by learning to subject oneonly by learning to subject one’’s individual s individual interests to the interests to the ““General Will.General Will.””

Individuals did this by entering into a social Individuals did this by entering into a social contract not with their rulers, but with each contract not with their rulers, but with each other.other.

V This social contract was derived from This social contract was derived from human nature, not from history, tradition, human nature, not from history, tradition, or the Bible.or the Bible.

Rousseau’s Philosophy (IV)► People would be most free and moral under a People would be most free and moral under a

republican form of government with direct republican form of government with direct democracy.democracy.

► However, the individual could be However, the individual could be ““forced to be forced to be freefree”” by the terms of the social contract. by the terms of the social contract.

He provided no legal protections for individual He provided no legal protections for individual rights.rights.

► RousseauRousseau’’s thinking:s thinking: Had a great influence on the French revolutionaries Had a great influence on the French revolutionaries

of 1789.of 1789. His attacks on private property inspired the His attacks on private property inspired the

communists of the 19communists of the 19cc such as Karl Marx. such as Karl Marx.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

• One of few philosophes to live to see the French Revolution

• Enlightenment was a personal process—release from immaturity

• More optimistic than Rousseau

• “Dare to Know”—Enlightenment was an act of personal courage

Thomas Paine (1737-1809)

► The Rights The Rights of Manof Man, , 17911791

► Common Common SenseSense, 1776, 1776

John Locke (1632-1704)

► Letter on TolerationLetter on Toleration, , 1689 1689

► Two Treatises ofTwo Treatises ofGovernmentGovernment, 1690 , 1690

► Some ThoughtsSome ThoughtsConcerningConcerningEducationEducation, 1693, 1693

► The ReasonablenessThe Reasonablenessof Christianityof Christianity, 1695, 1695

John Locke’s Philosophy (I)

► The individual must become a The individual must become a ““rationalrationalcreature.creature.””

► Virtue can be learned and practiced.Virtue can be learned and practiced.► Human beings possess free will.Human beings possess free will.

they should be prepared for freedom.they should be prepared for freedom. obedience should be out of conviction,obedience should be out of conviction,

not out of fear.not out of fear.► Legislators owe their power to a contract Legislators owe their power to a contract

with the people.with the people.► Neither kings nor wealth are divinely ordained.Neither kings nor wealth are divinely ordained.

John Locke’s Philosophy (II)

► There are certain natural rights that are There are certain natural rights that are endowed by God to all human beings.endowed by God to all human beings.

life, liberty, property!life, liberty, property!

► The doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings The doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings was nonsense.was nonsense.

► He favored a republic as the best form of He favored a republic as the best form of government.government.

Locke #4 - Quotes• No man's knowledge here can go beyond his

experience. • All mankind... being all equal and independent, no

one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty or possessions.

• I have always thought the actions of men the best interpreters of their thoughts.

• The reason why men enter into society is the preservation of their property.

MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT

• She argued that women had not been included in the Enlightenment slogan “free and equal.” Women had been excluded from the social contract.

• Her arguments were often met with scorn, even from some ‘enlightened’ men.

• Wollstonecraft and Catherine Macaulay were British feminists. The most famous French feminist was Germaine de Stael.

Mary Wollstonecraft #2

• She wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women in 1792.

• Wollstonecraft believed in equal education for girls and boys. Only education could give women the knowledge to participate equally with men in public life.

• She did argue that a woman’s first duty was to be a good mother. But, a woman could also decide on her own what was in her interest without depending on her husband.

Mary Wollstonecraft #3 - Quotes• If women be educated for dependence; that is, to act

according to the will of another fallible being, and submit, right or wrong, to power, where are we to stop?

• The divine right of husbands, like the divine right of kings, may, it is hoped, in this enlightened age, be contested without danger.

• Let not men then in the pride of power, use the same arguments that tyrannic kings and venal ministers have used, and fallaciously assert that women ought to be subjected because she has always been so.

• Strengthen the female mind by enlarging it, and there will be an end to blind obedience. Virtue can only flourish among equals.

The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenment

• Most philosophes agreed that the nature of women make them inferior

• Mary Astell (1666-1731)– A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, 1697– Better education and equality in marriage