~.~

·THE NEW

"" ~ NC YC LO PE D I A OF SOCIAL REFORM

\ " . ~ I

~ i I '

" .c:"

..~:: '~ :.

,.:\.,:,1,; :>,

:',

INCLUDING

ALL IMPORTANT SOCIAL-REFORM MOVEMENTS & ACTIVITIE S,

: AND THE ECONOMIC, INDUSTRIAL, AND SOCIOLOGICAL FACTS

'1& STATISTICS OF ALL COUNTRIES & ALL SOCIAL SUBJECTS.' ~ '

"''''' ~.:a-: .' .~ " , ,; t ,-;; , ~ -:: , ~ ..~ ~'~-':i

1'·...:'.. ;:-. :!' ..1.-. :.<.. - , : j ;'. , ," ~ rs ..

E MBR ACING QUOTA TION S F ROM THE PUBLIC UTTERANCES OF

HI S MAJE STY KIN G EDWARD VII . H.I.M . NIC HOLAS II. OF RUS SI A H.I. M. WI LLIA M II. OF GERMANY H.R .H. TIlE PRIN CE OF WALES H. U r. THE E MPRESS OF GERM ANY

HON. T HEODORE ROOSEVEL T, LL .D.

ENLAR GED AND R EYISED EDITION

JII , lWo,c:: . ~ • EDITED BY

.... ' ;,... . <

;;, ~. h \ · .::.' ' " . I ' W ILLI AM D. P. BLISS, D.D., RUDOLPH M . BINDER, Ph.D., AND.

(FOR BRITISHEDITION)EDWARD PAGE GASTON, F.R.G.S.

ILL US'1'RA'1'ED WI'1'H POR '1'RAl'1'S

.'

, . WI TH

F ROM

CON TRIB UTION S OR QUOT ATIONS

M AN Y SPEC IA LIST S, INCL UDIN G

. , {

"

PERCY ALDEN, M.P. CANONS. A. BARNETT RICHARD DELL, M.P. LoRD BUSSEY H ON. WILLIAM J . BRYAN .RT. HON. JOliN BURNS, M.P. RT. HON. SIR H. CAMPBELL­

BANNERMAN (THE LATE) EARL C.U RINGTON J oJIN CLIFFORD, D.D.

EARL CROMER CARDINALGIDDONS EARL GREY II . RIDER HAGGARD STEWARTD. HEADLAM MORRIS H ILLQUIT DENJAMIN Kmn PRINCE KROPOTKIN EDWARDR . PEASE RT. HON. HORACEPWNKErr

G. BERNARD SHAW UPTON SINCLAIR LADY HENRY SOMERSET J OSIAHSTRONG, D.O. COUNT LEO TOLSTOY GERTRUDE M. TUCKWELL BOOKERT. WASHINGTON, LL.D. SIDNEY WEBB, LoC.C. H. G. WELLS SIR T . P . WHITTAKER, M.P.

FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY

LONDON AND NEW YORK

1908

'!

__

THE ENCYCLOPEDIAg: )

DaMlu .ax:

Convicti ons of crime

IPer 100 , 00 0 of pop .

lm : : : : : ~ : : : : : : ~ : : : : : : : : : : 3 .52$

t~l~ . 3.863

' 76 185,6, ,.8

Showing a decrease of crime.

NORWAY

Co nvi cte d Per 100 ,000

of crimes

18gl . .• . . • •• • . .• • • • . . • . . . . 'I 2,548 1896 .. . .. .. .. 3.075

of po p. - - -'3',.6

19°2 ... . ... • .. . .. •. , ,. . 3,3 0" '5'

An incr ease of crime.

SWBDBN

' 5• 6

Per 100, 000 of po p .

2 , 224 2,393

Conv icted of crim es

.899· · · ·· · · · ·· · · · ·· · · · · · · · .19°4 . .. . . . .. • • .. ..

A slight increase .

SWIT ZBRLA ND

Conviction s Per 100 ,000 of po p .

.l!g3 • • ··

.89 8 1903

.. .4 26 3 .295 4.0 44

· · ·· .. · . .

" 7106 ,,8

A decrease of cr ime.

JAP AN

, Per 10 0 ,00 0Tot .lSer;lou. ILesser I of pop .crimes

--' 3 , -129 - '1"75;6.8 3.893 · · · .. .-----, I H .,,89 '3 {••60 8_19 00 •• . • . -,675 J 28 .5 ~$ . . ,381463 ,873 ,866 84.$97 '19°4 . ... .

A mark ed diminuti on of crime, t ho serious crimes seem to have increased .

AU 8T JtALASIA

The following tables are compli ed from Cogh­lan's" Statis t ical Account of Australia and New Zealand," '9 04 . The figure s are for the year 19°0:

STAT . Pe rsons ch arged

Sum­marily 00 0 ­

victe d

- - -50 ,776 33,4 61 17,6'5 5.556

u. 753 " .9 75

125 , 146

22 ,12$

14 7 . 2 71

Com­mitt ed

--­1,' 71

6•• ,89 - 09 33 5

75

3 . 0 20

765

3 ,785

Person s charged

per 1 . 0 0 0 of pop .

- - -­4 2 . 8 9 37 ·49 41 . 0t 18 . 06 76 , 43 JS · 17

40 .13

34 ·7S

3 9 . 2 1

Ne.. South W.l ee. . Victoria . . . . ..• •. . ~eensland . . . . . ..

ut h Austra lia . . . . Western Austra lia . Tasmania . . .... .. .

Common weal th •.

Ne.w Zeal and . . .. . .

Austral asia .. . ..

60 ,313 45 , 19 8 21 , liS 6 ,608

16 ... ..3 6 ,u 8

155. 965

,8,07 6

184 .0 4 1

In New Zealancfeach char ge is coun ted as a sep ­arate person - a proceeding Which . of cour se, tells

OF SOCIAL REFORM

against the colon y ; a reduction of about 10 per cent should be made to get at the n umber of pe r:" oo~ . .

N ,\TU." OF Op,aN sas

PaR 1,000 O. POPULATION

Serious offende rs STAT. All

otrend-I Against Iera the

Agai nst prop- I Total

person erty

Comm on wealt h . New Zealan d . . .. .0 .,31

34 . 75 - · 5-1 .62

3 ·St 3 · 57

I 6 ,33

Austral asia ... 39 .21 1 .3 6 3 · 77

VB"R

PER 1,000 0' PO PULA 'tI ON

Comm ittal s Convi ct ions in supe rior courts

m r : : : 1 9 0 2 • •••

: : ~ : : : : : : • • • ••• • ••

: ~ : : : : • ••••.

: : : ••.

_.­,..I._ 1 .1

0 · 7

1. 3 0 .80., .0 . 0.'

Show ing a stead y d iminution of crim e.

C ANADA

I Per Convicted PerSummarily 10 0 .000 in higher 100 ,000convi ct ed of pop. cour ts of pop .

"I 737 3.7 4 73 3 ·9 ° 2' 888 .. .. .. 3 1 ,0 2 3 6. 6.893 . · . · . ... . ; :~~ ;1898 . . . . . . . . . 3 2 ,4 19 63 5 6 ,75419° 4 .. . .. .. • . 48 , 19 2 I ,,- I

Showing an incre ase of crime .

III. Genera l Concl usions

The general conclu sion from th ese sta t ist ics is that (excepti ng, perhap s, in th e U . S., Cana da , Germany , the Ne th erlands. and to a less ext ent the Scan dina via n count ries) seriou s crim e is on . the decr ease . and th at if commitm ent s for minor ' offenses are in many countries on the increase, it is in almos t every case due to the enactment of new law s, police regu lation s, etc ., with the st rict er enforcem ent of social and hygienic regul ati on s­an ind ication , therefore, of socia l pro gress rather , than of t he revers e .

Spea kin g broadl y, sta t ist ics the refor e un qu es­t iona bly show tha t t he world is growing be tt er . Comparing for a moment the pr esent wi th the re­mote pas t, this is clearly the case ,

Fo r social ev ils to -day , see PROSTITUTION; but compare these wit h classic day s, when the nob lest ph ilosophers pra cti sed and openly defended not only prost it ut ion , but unn atura l vrce ; when in the bath s of Rome t housands of men and women were abandoned e" masse to the lowest crimes . With out referring to Rome und er her degenerat e Csesars, under Augu stu s 10,000 gladi ator s fought, and th eir bloody games were appl aud ed by St oic phil osoph ers and by vestal Virgins. Naturally reckle ssnes s of life sp read everyw here. and philosophy defend ed th e right of the mast er to kill or t o torture his slaves.

341 q'HE ENCYCLOPEDIA

The immorality of Rome and Greece cannot be credited, scarce ly described, in a mode m encyc lo­pedia . Take it in other lan ds. In England be­

fore the Norman Conquest it was the Former Agee custom to buy men and women in all

part s of En gland and carry them to I re land for sale, the buyers usually

making the women pre gn ant to insure a bette r price ("Li fe of Bisho p ' Wo lstan ") . The one aim of life was to 'escape being slain if a man, and being v iolated - if ' a -woman . T he violence and crime and bloodshed of the Middle Ages are well known . The "Peace of God , when for a few day s a week me n iLgtioed not to mur der , was instituted to l?~ese r'Ve' society from absolute dis­integration . m. urd~rs , trea son s , brawls, po ison ­ings were on ,every hand . A noblema n declared war again st l';riln!qpJ:1;. becau se a lady had hot danc ed with his cousin . Togeth er with good men the vile were also in the Church ; at times even in the cha ir of St ; Peter's; prie sts went from th eir mistresses to the altar, and th e nunner ies were like brot hel s. The Reformation and Puritanism check ed immorali ty with an unnatural condemna­tion of all joys, th at reacted in a carn ival of vice and crime .

Of modem times progr ess is less clear, only be­cause one of the characteristic marks of modern progress has been th e enactment of social and hu ­ma nitarian le~islat io'1 , tec hnically va st ly increas ­ing the possibtl ity of violating law ,

Another conclu sion that stan ds ou t is what Mr. Hall shows in his book , that crim e, at least of the lesser sort, is an almo st inevitable concomitant of social progress and of steps to a larg er gain .

Agam , the facts show that in tim es of war and politica l agita t ion, crime '5,0 far as it appears in stat isti cs is reduced , partly because t he restl ess find ot her out let and part ly becau se society is t oo mu ch otherwise occupied to arrest or prosecute petty crimes which would be not iced in t imes of peace .

Once more , it seems shown , that as count ries break away from former religious or governmen ­ta l p ate rnal form s , the first result in crime is an increase, but th at liberalizing insti t utions an d, above all, advance in educati on tend to the de­crease at least of serious crimes .

For the sources of inform ation used in this art icle , tho not for the tab les as here publi shed , we have largely used various editi ons of the Statesm an 's Year Book, except as stated . RBpBRENcas: A. C. Hall . Cri", • • 1Id SO<iaI Prorrn. (11/"_) ;

Mayo Smith,SliJtisti csOM SOfioloIY (J 8qs) ; W. D. Morn son.

~~trc:~: ~c~a:~n~~rlk.S~UF':f:n~T~'~fci:kFor~;:: k~ien~9OS~i~h.SN~~~p;C;,leA~:~rt~· ~~~i~&::; ('9 0') ,

CRIMINAL ANTH ROPOLOGY : This can h ard­Iy be considered a science, but it is a t erm wh ich represents system atic efforts made in recent years to app ly phy siological , and to some ext ent psy chological tests to the study of th e crimin al. Lombro so has work ed with great indust ry in the field , but his conclu sions are not generally ac­cepted . Mr. W . D . Morrison in h is "Crime and its Cau ses," chap ter vi i. , ha s brough t out the vari ety of opinions repr esented by crim inal an­thr opol ogists .

II,CRIMIl'f OLOGY tr eats of the natu re , cau ses,

and prevention of crime and th e tr eatment of the crimi nal , The word is often used synonymously

1.

CrimeOF SOCIA L REFO RM Crises

wi th PENOLOGY,under wh ich head it is treated in this volume.

CRISE S (COJ01ER CIAL AND J( Ol'fBTARY) : A time of general difficulty and pressure in com­mer cial and mo netary circl es, if acute , is called a crisis ; if pro longed it is usually calle d a pn-iodof deR!'ession: A crisis , too, must no t be confused WIth a panic . A panio start s with a group of speculators, perh aps occasioned by some disas­trou s event or report of a disastrous effect . The mark et is upset . Weaker firms fa il; 'yet there is no genera l cri sis and the mark et soon reco vers . A crisisI asts longer and is general , tho it is often connecte d with pani cs. Crises, whatev er be th eir cause, usua lly follow a certain course, which it is asserted by some wri te rs, Jevo ns promine ntly among th em, follows a certain cycle .

In 1634 there was a crisis over spe culati on in tulip s which became a furor in Ho llan d . and lasted four years befor e it burst . But the first crisis of the modem tYt;>eoccu rred in ' 720 ove r the specu­lat ive plans of John Law in forming his Mississippi Compan y " HIS company possest in 1719 over tw enty -one ships and nearly $1,00 0,000 . Sha res

went up to many times their value . Earl,. Cr!IeI Speculat ion developed like a fev er in

Franc e and England . About the sam e tim e, t oo , th e South Sea Bubble

was develope d in England . In 1763 and '799 th ere were crises in Hamburg . In Eng land t here wer e crises in 1783, '793, '795-97 , In connec­tion with t he Ame rican and Frenc h wars . In 18I 5 th ere was a sev ere crisis at the close of the Nap oleonic wars . After the peace Engla nd und erto ok to flood Europe witti manufactures , but th ere was OVBRPRODUCTION Inand a cris is. 1825 t here was anoth er crisis , which 'affect ed Ame rica also. In 1837 th ere was a mo st severe crisis in th e United States , renewed in 1839, when 959 bank s stopt paym ent . The re were 33,000 fail ­ur es with an aggregat e loss of $Ho,o oo,ooo . The crisis of 1847 affected Engl and more, being oc­ca sioned by t he failur e of th e 'pot at o crop of 1846. Th e crisis of 1857 began in Ame ric a, but affect ed England and all Eur ope more sever ely .

Th e crisis of 1866 was mainl y in En gland , once mor e ca using a suspension of th e Bank Act , an d was marked by the memorable "Black Friday " and of the failure of the alm ost historic house of , Ov erend, Gurney & Co. The 23d of Sept ember. 1869, saw a " Bla ck Friday" in New York , but it was mainly local and conne ct ed wit h gold spec ­ulat ion .

Durin g the first three qu art ers of 1873 the general prosper ity of the U. S. seemed undi­mini shed ; but on Sept . 18, 1873, the mo st extr aor ­

dinary pani c began which this coun­CrI.I. try has ever witn essed, and reached f 1873 its height about th e midd le of Oct o-

o ber. It prostra ted thousand s of comme rcial hou ses, cut off th e wages

of hundr eds of .thou sands of workmen, and ove r­thr ew the Stock Exchange . It swept down the entire banking system of the count ry. Ev en sav ings-banks closed their doors . It brok e off th e negot iatio n of Am erican securit ies in Europ e, and prost rat ed bu siness in eve ry way . Th e cau ses were inv olved .

Th e closing of th e War of the Rebelli on had seen th e comme ncement of great indus tr ial activi ty in the U. S. From 1869-73 enorm ous amount s of mone y were inv est ed in commercial ent erpr ises , T he cost of the railro ad constructi on

Cri,_ THE ENCYCLOPEDIA CUN- '

of those five :years is estimated at $',7°0,000,000, while municipalities and pri vate corporations borrowed money for vast undertakings. The land grant policy and cheap transportation de­veloped a new West . ' In Europe the opening of the ~uez Canal stimulated commerce '. Interest was based on the high prices of waf time . Thew was increased need of currency . Instead of this the policy of resumption and contraction (see CONTRA CT'ON AND EXPANSION 01' CURRBN CY) limited the amount of currency below the de­mand . On Sept . r Sth, the ~at house of Jay Cooke & Co. of New York failed , dragging other houses with it . Concerted action was taken, and the immed iate crisis was stayed; but in industrial lines ,874 was worse than ,873, and there was depression till ,877 . The great railroad strikes of that yea r made matters worse . In ,87.8 there was improvem ent, and this continued till ,883. In ,884 anoth er crisis occurred , tho of less serious charact er , and depression prevailed through the strikes and industrial troubles which continued till ,886 . Confidence wastiien .iri a- degree re­stored, with some depression .in "rSa"tillthe crisis of ,890 , That year promi nellt .English houses which had inve sted in AWl:'t jn<j Republican and African securities were distur1;lep, arid finally on Dec . 15th even the great house of Baring Brothers suspended . In France the great coffee syndicate failed . But the Bank of England stood firm, and a syndicate of strong hous ~s liquidated the debt of Baring Brothers. It affected the U . S. al­most as much, tho not so much in the form of a crisis as of adding to depression, continuing without much improvement to the great crisis of 1893. .

The crisis of 1893 was in many ways differ ent from all other crises . It was ,only very slightly due to overspeculation, almost purely to monetary conditions, yet it affected nut only , ftnan cial cir­

cles, ,b",t.illdilSt ll)\~\I~Qver t he U. S. In llrIal. Congress t here ", as djscussion over the

of 1893 repeal of t lj~ silye r. pur ch, asing act of ,8lio . (Sj!eCURR,llNl!v.).OnJune 26th

, it wat;ali rio~e~ . , tljat India had stopp ed the free coinag e,of -silver, ' T./tis at once sent the price of silver ' bullion do wn to the lowest point eve r recorded, and all stQCje,.\Vel\tdown ; The mines of Colorado and othc'I!'lll!vt!r states were at

.once stopt , and theirwoi'l c;men· left, ,4,!emplqyed . There was a panic . Western arid Southern -bank s began to fail. Hoarding set ii i" '1,vlfn.in tile Ea~t. Currency became scarce . Many ,ri).anufactqnes shut down . Wealthy men with unquestioned credit could not get check s cashed . Ali the banking centers except Chicago began to have recourse to clearing-house certificates . There was a money dearth . The president called an extra session of Congress which opened Aug. 7th . There was a heated struggle over the mon ey ques­t ion , and not until October 30th was a bill , intro­duced by Senator Voorhees, repealing the silver­purchase law , but declaring for the parity of gold and silver, pa ssed by the Senate, accepted by the House , and signed by the president .

Meanwhile the crisis was already che cked . Foreign investors began sending in mon ey, taking advantage of the low price of stocks . Only one private banking firm in New York City had failed, and only one national bank . Of the 301 bank suspensions from May rst to July 22d , 93 per cent were in the South and West . Yet the busin ess failures from April 1St to Octob er rst were 8,'05 against 4,'7' for thos e months in 1892, with lia-

OF SOCIAL REFORM

bilities of $284,663,624 against $41,110,3.2 .lor '; ,892 . Thus the number of failures had doubled ~ ':. and the liabilities had increased nearly sevenfolii i ' . Three great railway systems were sent into tAe' . hands of receivers : the Northern Pacific, th e ; Union Pacific,and the Erie: Since 1893, :w~ii l e . there have been money stringencies, and whi evi the elections of 1896 and 1900 caused some dll; :. pression of business, there has ' been ' no r,ut ~ panic, tho there was a severe depre;;sion of Stoc~; ",. In 1907, when some tru ~t companies and !lanles, " temporarily closed . . ~

R~P.Jl.NC.S : F ittGtteial CNUS artd Pniods of IrtdtUtri41 ow: ~, ~,::,:e1f~i:I':/sl;::' , ~,\, ~~ ~~:r;;, ~'O,~ 1J1:;~,!f ~ Cris.s t!! tM pnsml CnrlMr)', 1907; Articles in the Pol" ieql) ~ . ScU1JC.OMaTtrrl".March, 1901, and September . JP03: Ja~ ~

• d

" .: \ CRITTEIqON, CHARLES NELSON: Found e~ . .'

of the Florence Crittenton MisSion ; born ·m. Adams, Jefferson County, N . Y ., Feb. 20, 1833~ ' : Beginning in the drug business he became beaQ' of the Charles N . Crittenton Company . B\!f · after the death of a daughter, Florence , he felt ' . that God was calling him to a work in beh alf - , of homeless, ;friendleSs , and unfort.una~ gi rls. ~, ' ~; -lP From that time he has devoted hIS time and ..J'r.'.' energy to establishing homes and schools where .. homeless, friendless, or unfortunate girls can be:. cared for. '

In 1895 a corporation, known as the National ' , Florence Crittenton Mission, was chartered to ,

take charge of the work . " At the present time t1Jere are sixty-eight ?.f..­

these homes and schools m the U. S. and five IR ' foreign lands. .­

The Charles N . Crittenton Company was one, of the original profit-sharing companies in th~; U. S.

Mr. Crittenton is a pronounced prohibitionis t' and at one time was a candidate for the mayor- , alty of New York on the Prohibit ion ticket, " Address : 213 Third Street, N . W ., Washington ; D .C .

CROOKS, WILLIAM: One of England's lead­ing trade-union ists, and member of Parliament; born, in Poplar, ,85" Part of his early life was spent in the workhouse . Apprenti ced to a cooper, he early found difficulty In securing work because of his trade-union principles . In 1882 he was elected trustee of the parish and library comm issioner foi: Poplar; ,892, elected to th e, , London County Council ; chairman of the Poplar ' Board of Guardians since ,877. He has also been mayor of his borough . In '903 he was elected to Parliament from Woolwich, his elec­tion bringing consternation to Conservatives and Liberals . In '9°6 he was reelected, under the auspices of the Labor Representation Committee, by 9,026 votes again st Adams, Conservative, 6,9'4 votes . Address : 8, Gough Street, Poplar, Lon­ ' ..don E .

­

CROSBY ERNEST HOWARD: American au thor and lecturer ; born in New York City, ,856; was gradu ated from New York University, '876, and from Columbia Law School, 1878 ; prac­tised law in New York till ,889. He was a mem­ber of th e New York Legislature in ,887 and in ,889 , being in charge of high -license legisl atiop , and chairm an of the com mit te e on cities . In 1889, being nomin at ed by President Harris on , he twas appo int ed judge of the mixt tribun al of Alex­

343 Il'HE ENCYCLOPEDIA

andria, Egypt, by the Khedive. He resigned this position in 1894, and returned to America . Mr . Crosby was long president of the New York Social Reform Club, of the People's Club, of the Civic Council, N , ·Y ., of the AI\t i-Imperialist League, and of the New York Vegetarian Society . He was an ardent admirer and stl1dent of Tolstoi, a believer in the system of SIngle taxation, an ad­vocate of peace, and an oppe !ient of all kinds ' of monopoly . He has written :' . "Plain Talk in Psalm and .Parab le "; "Captain Jinka, Hero" : "Broadcast" ; "'I'Rl~toi and His Message" : "1'01­atoi as a Schoolmaster" ; "Garrison, the Non­Resistant," etc. Mr. Crosby died in 1907.

CRUGER liMts:Member of the Prussian House of Oeputle~ : born ,859 in KOnigsberg ; studied law and Political sciences at KOOlgsberg and Gettingen: Dr.]., ,883 . He followed the law till ,887, when he became secretary' of the General German Cooperative Society t.lI ,896 . His literary activity has been quite extensive . Besides annotating and digesting the laws of Germany, as to cooperative societies, he has edited the year books of the society, and written numerous pamphlets about cooperative savings­banks and related subject s. He is a collaborator of the H anduJ6rterbueh der Staatswissens chaften. Address : Nussbaum Allee 17, Westend , Berlin.

CUBA !UtPUBLIC OF: Till 1898 in the pos­se~sion?l Spa4t, the incessant guerrilla wars main­tamed In the mountainous portions of the Island against the Spanish, the injustice and inefficiency in many way,s of the Spanish Government, the cruelties practised by General Weyler, the blowing up of the United States warship the Maim in the harbor of Havana, whether by the Spaniards or not, all combined to make most people in the U. S. favor the armed freeing of Cuba and war of the U. S. against Spain was declared April 22, ,898 . After a brief but brilliant campaign Spain was compelled to yield and relinquished sovereignty over the island in the treaty of Paris, Dec . '0,

1898. For three years the U. S., elaUetl8 through its War Department , con-

K with trolled the island, doing much for lJDitedlltatee education, justice, hygiene, and

the establishment of republican institutions. On May 20, 1902, how­

ever, the U. S. turned the complete control of the island over to the Cuban Republic, General Palma having been elected president . Mter ap­parent success , however, dissensions arose in the ISland (1906) . The government being unable to re­store order, the U. S. Government was appealed to and 6,000 troops were sent and order restored. The U. S. Government has appointed Secretary Taft as provisional governor, but as soon as orderly government is established the U. S. Government will retire.

The area of the island is 43,000 sq. 10. , of which only 3 per cent till 1899 and now little more than 4 per cent is under cultivation; population, ('905), ,1,786 ,207, of whom less than one third are mulattoes or negroes.

Capital, Havana, with a population of 275,000 . Revenue, 1905. $29,6°9,000 ; ex­

Stall.tics penditures, $'8,9 97:°00 ; exports,1905, '112 ,000,000; Imports, $1°3,­000,000 . In '906 the debt was

$47,693 ,000 . The government of the republic is patterned

OF SOCIAL REFORM Crisea Cuba

upon the American Constitution, with a president . senate ' and House of Representatives . There are six provinces, each having four senators . The representatives are elected one for every '5;000 : i~lia1;i itants . Every male Cuban who has reaehed .the ;lge oftwenty-one has the right to, vote' , ;exceRt )1~': be ,a criminal ·.or of t!nsound mlnq , ~:,~~I4.e'!ce ·9.fij1{e re.am; l8 _req~lI'Cd be­fore a 'foreign er ,m (l.y, becom e-,3:' CItizen. Educa­tion is "free lind. c;oll1pulS9TY. 'Ii1)e,. schools are organized after the ' 'A:men~', s~te i1I l' there is a university at Ha ir.anllo;'ilUl<r :r.Sso,SQhQOls, tl\rough the island, with 'an ,at teii dati ceo"t.aPo~t ,,~o , ooo . About two thirds ' of- t he '!DPpul at ii'in..is: ilhterate, b!,~ the schools,ar~ .rap~~if.ilPP:o"in g t his con­dition, Tlie !?reva.hng"r.ehglo!t. IS'of"th li!' R9man Catholic Church, the whole iSllltid being th e dio­cese of an archbiShop . Tije ~i~!ts ian t Churches, ~otably the Episcopal Churcq·,h. av~ acti ve mis-SIOns . . .: ,J , ..... , ~ -, .

Morals are somewhat loose, '1:>uir th~ IS' partly due to defective laws . T.he i?rdP."r't jQ g 'of~tI\Q!'C over fifteen legally married IS 10 .t he .tt. S" m Cuba 30, in Havana 25, among the c(ilored in Cuba , 6. Over 8 per cent Of th e peo p.le are living together without legal marriage. " '

The island is noted for its sugar and tobacco. The most famous tobacco lands are found inthe far west . The climate is mild, with -nor theas t trade winds . There is considerable rain dUring the summer . The dreaded yellow fevet 'Y4IIIatge­Iy due to carelessness and unnecessary exposure . The whole country is like a ,Park, with vegetation mainly tropical. It is believed that sugarwas first planted in the year 1523. In 1905 the sugar exported was worth $71,249,055 (to the U . S .$64,­$66,,69) ' Tobacco seems to have been grown first 10 the year, 580. Com, rice, wheat , oats, barley, all thrive well. The banana , or plantain, grows 10 great quantities, and forms very largely the food of the poorer classes. Manufacturing consists mainly 10 the making of cilfars and cigarettes . Such skilled labor as there IS, is largely in the building trades . Nominal wages have fallen since the Spanish rule, owing to trade uncertain­ties . B.ut prices have also fallen . Labor gener­ally is rather in bad shape, whether in the agricultural or the industrial lines, many feeling that the result of the freeing of the slaves hali been to retard development of ' the country. The freedmen are not industrious, either in Cuba or in any of the West Indian islands ; and there have been many Chinamen brought in . , Great numbers of these people are cooks and house ­servants . Many Gallegos and people of the Canary Islands have also been brought there lately. The tobacco trade is generally in the hands of the white people.

A trade-union movement began in Cuba in ,87 8 and since its relations with the U. S. the American Federation of Labor has made efforts to organize the workers . But results are not large , tho in Havana and in a few other places the nominal membership of some unions is con­siderable . The building of the Cuban Central Railroad has developed some work at fair wages . There has been considerable immigration from Spain. Currency trou51es have caused un­certainties and depreciation . The two economic needs of Cuba are by some said to be immigra­tion and capital.

RZ1'ER !N'C ltS : Labor Conditions in Cuba: BulJetin o( U. S. Department o( Labor , J uly , 1902; Port er , Indus'rial C'Uba, (IS9 S); Halst • • d, TM Swry of Cuba (,S9S) .