BY W I L L I A M S T R U N K J R . A N D E . B . W H I T E

THE ELEMENTS OF STYLE

RULE 1: FORM THE POSSESSIVE OF SINGULAR NOUNS BY ADDING ’S.

• Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write:• Charles’s friend• Burns’s poems• The witch’s malice

• Exceptions are the possessives of ancient proper names ending in –es and –is, such as the possessive Jesus’.• Moses’ laws• Isis’ temple

RULE 1: FORM THE POSSESSIVE OF SINGULAR NOUNS BY ADDING ’S.

• The possessive pronouns hers, its, theirs, yours, and ours have no apostrophe.• Indefinite pronouns, however, use the apostrophe

to show possession.• One’s rights• Somebody else’s umbrella

• Its = possessive• It’s = it is

RULE 2: IN A SERIES OF THREE OR MORE TERMS WITH A SINGLE CONJUNCTION, USE A COMMA AFTER

EACH TERM EXCEPT THE LAST.

• Thus write,• red, white, and blue• gold, silver, or copper• He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its

comments.

RULE 3: ENCLOSE PARENTHETIC EXPRESSIONS BETWEEN COMMAS

• That is, when you include an expression, idea, definition, example, or other such information that is simply an addition, it can appear between commas or parentheses. They are called parenthetic expressions because they often appear in parentheses (or brackets).• A good way to think of this is if the information is

NOT ESSENTIAL to the basic meaning of the sentence, it should go in commas.

RULE 3: ENCLOSE PARENTHETIC EXPRESSIONS BETWEEN COMMAS

• The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and more interested.• Mr. Kerr, my favorite English teacher, seems to be

a little on edge today.• The Band Practice, Chase’s favorite band,

released a new song last week.

RULE 4: PLACE A COMMA BEFORE A CONJUNCTION INTRODUCING AN

INDEPENDENT CLAUSE. • The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of

escape. • I have heard the arguments, but I am still unconvinced.

• Remember• F• A• N• B• O• Y• S

RULE 5: DO NOT JOIN INDEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH A COMMA.

• “If two or more clauses grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction are to form a single sentence, the proper mark of punctuation is a semicolon.”• In other words, don’t send a comma to do a

semicolon’s job.

RULE 5: DO NOT JOIN INDEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH A COMMA.

• Mary Shelley’s works are entertaining, they are full of engaging ideas.

• Mary Shelley’s works are entertaining; they are full of engaging ideas.

• Mary Shelley’s works are entertaining. They are full of engaging ideas.

• It is nearly half past five, we cannot reach town before dark.

• It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark.

• It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark.

RULE 6: DO NOT BREAK SENTENCES IN TWO.

• “In other words, do not use periods for commas.”

• The same way that you wouldn’t use a comma when you need a period or a semicolon, you wouldn’t use a period when you need a comma.

• Periods are “stop” punctuation• Commas are “pause” punctuation

RULE 6: DO NOT BREAK SENTENCES IN TWO.

• I met them on a Cunard liner many years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to New York.• I met them on a Cunard liner many years ago,

coming home from Liverpool to New York.

• She was an interesting talker. A woman who had traveled all over the world and lived in a half a dozen countries.• She was an interesting talker, a woman who had

traveled all over the world and lived in a half a dozen countries.

RULE 7: USE A COLON AFTER AN INDEPENDENT CLAUSE TO INTRODUCE A LIST OF PARTICULARS , AN APPOSITIVE,

AMPLIFICATION, OR AN ILLUSTRATIVE QUOTATION.

• The real rule here is that if you are going to use a colon, if MUST follow an independent clause.

• WRONG• Your dedicated whittler requires: a knife, a piece of wood,

and a back porch.• CORRECT• Your dedicated whittler requires three props: a knife, a

piece of wood, and a back porch.

RULE 8: USE A DASH TO SET OFF AN ABRUPT BREAK OR INTERRUPTION AND TO ANNOUNCE A LONG

APPOSITIVE OR SUMMARY.

• A dash is a mark of separation stronger than a comma, less formal than a colon, and more relaxed than parenthesis.

• EX:• His first thought on getting out of bed – if he had any

thought at all – was to get back in again.

• The rear axle began to make a noise – a grinding, chattering, teeth-gripping rasp.

RULE 9: THE NUMBER OF THE SUBJECT DETERMINES THE NUMBER OF THE VERB.

• Do not let words that appear between the subject and the verb throw you off…• WRONG: The bittersweet flavor of youth – its trials, its joys, its

adventures, its challenges – are not soon forgotten.• RIGHT: The bittersweet flavor of youth – its trials, its joys, its

adventures, its challenges – is not soon forgotten.• “Or” and “nor”• When two subjects are separated by the words “or” or

“nor”, the verb follows the subject closest to it.• EX: Neither Hannah nor her sisters are going to the movies.• EX: Either the sisters or Hannah is going to pay for the tickets.

RULE 9: THE NUMBER OF THE SUBJECT DETERMINES THE NUMBER OF THE VERB.

• The following nouns are singular and should therefore use the singular verb case.• each• either• everyone• everybody• neither• nobody• someone

• EX: Although both clocks strike cheerfully, neither keeps good time.

RULE 10: USE THE PROPER CASE OF PRONOUN.

• I = subject (performs actions)• Me = object (receives actions)

• Mr. Wachala and I are in the teachers’ lounge.• Me and Mr. Wachala are in the teachers’ lounge.

• Mr. Wachala is a better writer than me.• Mr. Wachala is a better writer than I.

RULE 11: A PARTICIPIAL PHRASE AT THE BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE MUST REFER TO

THE GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT.• Otherwise your participle will be dangling…and that’s

just inappropriate.

• On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him at the station.

• On arriving in Chicago, he was met at the station by his friends.

• A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with the defense of the city.

• A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the defense of the city.