The Elements of StyleI.ElementaryRulesofUsage1.Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding si.Charless friendii.Burns poemsiii.Thewitchs maliceiv.theteachersclipboard-Exceptions: possessives of ancient proper names endings with esand is. (for example: Mosesslaws is changed to the laws of Moses-Pronominal possessives hers, its, theirs, yours and ours have noapostrophes. Indefinite pronouns useapostrophes to show possession.- Ones rights- Somebodyelses umbrella- Its means it is, not to confuse it with possession.2.In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use acomma after each tern except the lasti.Red, white, and blueii.Gold, silver, orcopperiii.He opened the letter, read it, and made notesof itscontent.iv.Little, Brown and Company(In names of business firms, the lastcomma is often omitted )3.Enclose parenthetic expressions between commasi.The best wayto see a country, unlessyou are pressed for time, is totravel by foot.ii.Never omit one comma and leavethe otheriii.Dates usuallycontainparenthetic words or figures: FebruarytoJuly, 1992iv.It is customary to omit the comma in: 6April1988v.The abbreviations etc., i.e., and e.g., the abbreviations foracademic degrees, and titled that follow a name are parenthetic:1.Letters, packages, etc., should go here.2.HoraceFulsome,Ph.D.,presided3.Rachel Simonds,Attorneyvi.No comma should separatea nounfroma restrictive term ofidentification:1.Billythekid2.The novelist Jane Austenvii.Junior(abbreviatedJr.) does not need a comma1.James Wright Jr.viii.Nonrestrictive relative clausesare parenthetic and isone thatdoesnot serve to identify or define the antecedent noun:1.The audience,whichhad atfirst been indifferent,becamemore and more interested2.NetherStowey, whereColeridge wroteThe Rime of theAncient Mariner, is a few miles fromBridgewater.ix.Restrictiveclauses are not parenthetic and arenot setoffbycommas1.People who live in glass houses shouldnt throw stones.4.Place a comma before a conjunction introducing an independentclause.i.The earlyrecords of the cityhave disappeared, and the storyof itsfirst years can no longer be reconstructed.ii.Two-part sentences ofwhich the second member is introduced byas, for, or, nor, or while require a comma before aconjunction1.The situation isperilous, but ifwe are prepared toactpromptly, there isstill one chanceof escape.iii.Omit the connection and when the relation of the two statements issimilar:1.He hashad severalyearsof experience and is thoroughlycompetent.5.Do not join independent clauses with a commai.Instead, use a semicolon:1.Marys works are entertaining; they are fullof engagingideas.ii.If a conjunction is inserted, use a comma.1.Marys works are entertaining,for they are full ofengagingideas.iii.If the second clause is preceded by anadverb( such asaccordingly, besides, then,therefore) the semicolon is required1.I haveneverbeen inthe place before;besides, itwas darkas a tomb.iv.Exception to semicolon rule: If the clauses are very short, use acomma1.Man proposes, God disposes2.Here today, gone tomorrow6.Do not break sentences in twoi.I met then ona Cunardlinermanyyearsago.CominghomefromLiverpool to New York.ii.The period must bea comma and the following letter lowercase7.Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list ofparticulars, an appositive, amplification, or an illustrative quotation.i.Your dedicated whittler requires three props: a knife, a piece ofwood, and a back porch.ii.Understanding is that penetrating quality of knowledge thatgrowsfrom theory, practice, conviction, assertion, error, and humiliation.iii.Join two independent clauseswith a colon ifthe second interpretsthe first:1.But even so, there was adirectnessand dispatchaboutanimal burial: there was no stopover in the undertakersfoul parlor, no wreath or spray.iv.Acolon canintroduce a quotation:1.The squalorof the streets reminded her of a line from OscarWilde: We are all in the gutterv.A colon follows a salutation of a formal letter, separated hour fromminute, and separates the title of work fromits subtitle or a Biblechapter from a verse1.DearMr. Montague:2.departs at 10:48 P.M3.Practical Calligraphy:An Introduction to Italic Script4.Nehemiah11:78.Use a dash to set off an abrupt break or interruption and to announcea long appositive or summary.i.Adash isa stronger mark of separation than a comma, but lessformal than a colon and more relaxed than a parenthesis.ii.His first thought ongetting out ofbed-if he had any thought at all-was to get back in again.9.The number of the subject determines the number of the verb.i.Words that intervene b/w the subjectand verb do not affect thenumber of the verb1.Incorrect:The bittersweet flavorsof youth-its trials, itsjoys, its adventures, its challenges-are not soon forgotten.2.Correct: The bittersweet flavorsof youth- its trials, its joys,its adventures, its challenges- is not soon forgotten.ii.Use asingular verb form after eacheither, everyone,everybody,neither, nobody, someone1.Everybody thinkshe hasa unique sense of humor.iii.Use singularverb when nonemeans no one ornot one1.Noneofusisperfectiv.Compoundsubject=plural verb1.The walrusand the carpenterwerewalking close athandv.Clichs takea singular verb:1.Bread and butter was all she served2.Thelong and the short of it isvi.Singular subject remains singulareven ifothernounsareconnected by with, as well as, in addition to, except, together with,no less than1.Hisspeechas well ashis manneris objectionable.vii.Nounsthat may appear tobe plural areusually singular:1.Politicsisan art,nota science.10.Use the proper case of pronoun.i.Personal pronounschange form asthey function as subjectorobject1.Will Jane or he be hired, do you think?2.Theculprit, it turned out,washe.ii.Virgil Soamesis the candidate who we think will win [We think hewill win]iii.A pronoun in a comparison is nominative.1.Sandywrites better than Iiv.Avoidunderstood verbs bysupplying them1.[incorrect] IthinkHoraceadmires Jessica more than I2.[correct] IthinkHoraceadmired Jessica more than Idov.Use the simple personal pronoun as the subject1.Blake and myself[I]stayedhome.vi.The possessive case- adjectival: your hat;noun form:a hat ofyours.vii.Gerunds require the possessive case1.Mother objected to our driving on the icy roadsviii.Present participle asa verbal takes theobjective case1.Theyheard him singingin the showerix.Gerund vs. Verbal participle:1.Do you mindme asking aquestion?2.Do you mindmyaskinga question?11.A participle phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to thegrammatical subject.i.Walkingslowly down the road, hesaw awoman accompanied bytwo children.ii.[incorrect] On arriving in Chicago,his friendsmet him at thestation.iii.[correct] Onarriving in Chicago,he was met at the station byhisfriends.II. Elementary Principles ofComparison12.Choose a suitable design and hold to it.i.In some cases, thebest design is no designii.1stprinciple of composition: to determine the shapeof what is tocome and pursue the shape13.Make the paragraph the unit of compositioni.Paragraph servesallformsofliteraryworks.ii.Can be of anylength- from a sentenceto a long passageiii.Division of paragraphs isnt always necessary, especially if yourtopic is briefiv.Single sentences should notbe written orprinted as paragraphs-except sentences of transitionsv.Each speech indialogue isa paragraph with the change of thespeakervi.Use topic sentences to introduce your topic; animated narrativesometimes has not topic sentencevii.Tryto cut really long paragraphs shorter, but dont have too manyshort paragraphs14.Use the active voicei.Active voice is more direct than passive1.I shall always remembermy first visit toBoston. Isbetterthan My first visit to Boston will always be rememberedby me.2.There was a great number of dead leaves lying on theground or Dead leaves covered the ground15.Put statements in positive formsi.Make definiteassertions; avoidcolorless, noncommittal language;use not only as a means of denial1.[incorrect] He was not very often on time.2.[correct]Heusuallycamelate.ii.It isbetterto express anegative inpositive form1.not honestdishonestiii.if a sentence admits a doubt,it lacks authorityavoid this16.Use definite, specific, concrete, language.i.Forexample:1.[vague]A period of unfavorable weather set in.2.[specific] It rained every dayfor a week.17.Omit needless words.i.Asentence shouldnotcontain unnecessarywords1.[incorrect]Her story was a strange one.2.[correct]Herstory was strange.3.[incorrect] there is no doubt but that4.[correct]no doubt (or doubtless)ii.The factthat is debilitating expression and should always berevised.1.I was unaware of the fact thatI was unaware that/ I didnot know2.the fact thatI had arrivedmy arrivaliii.the words Who is, which was, and the like are often superfluous1.Hiscousin,who is a memberof the same firmHiscousin, a member of the samefirm2.Trafalgar,whichwasNelsons last battleTrafalgar,Nelsons lastbattle18.Avoid a succession of loose sentences.i.Rule refers to sentences of aparticular type: those consisting oftwo clauses, the second introduced by a conjunction or a relative.ii.Use which, who, when, where, while instead ofso much and,but.19.Express coordinate ideas in similar form.i.Formerly, science was taught bythe textbook method, while nowthe laboratory method is employedFormerly, sciencewastaught by the textbook method;now it is taught by the laboratorymethodii.The French,theItalians,Spanish,andPortugueseThe French,the Italians, the Spanish, and thePortugueseiii.His speech was marked bydisagreement and scorn for hisopponents positionHis speech was marked by disagreementwith and scornfor his opponents positioniv.It was both a long ceremony and very tediousThe ceremony wasboth long and tediousv.A time not for words but [for] action20.Keep related words together.i.He noticed a large stain in the rug that was right in the centerHenoticed a large stain in the centerof the rugii.The subject of a sentenceand theprincipal verb should not beseparated1.Toni Morrison, inBeloved, writes about characters whohave escaped from slavery but arehaunted by its heritageIn Beloved, Toni Morrison writes about characters whohave escaped from slavery but arehaunted by its heritage2.Adog, if youfailto discipline him, becomes a householdpestUnless disciplined, a dog becomes a household pestiii.Interposing aphrase or a clause interrupts the flow of the mainclause. The relative pronoun should come immediately after itsantecedent.1.Therewas astirin theaudience thatsuggested disapprovalA stir that suggested disapproval swept the audienceiv.If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes atthe end of the group1.The Superintendent of the Chicago Division, whov.Anoun inapposition may come between theantecedent andrelative1.The Duke ofYork, his brother, who wasregarded withthehostility by the Whigsvi.Modifiers should come, ifpossible, nextto the word they modify1.Allthemembers werenotpresentNot all the memberswere present2.She only found two mistakesShe found only twomistakes21.In summaries, keep to one tense.i.Summarizing theactionofdramapresent tenseii.Poems, stories, or novelpresent tense, you may use past tense ifit seems more naturaliii.Keep same tense throughout your writing22.Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the endi.The proper place inthe sentencefor the word or group ofwordsthat the writer desired to make most prominentis usually the end1.humanity has hardly advanced in fortitudesincethat time,though it has advanced in many other waysSince thattime, humanity has advanced in many ways, but it hashardly advanced in fortitude2.Thissteelis principallyused for making razors,becauseofits hardnessBecause of its hardness, this steel is usedprincipally for making razorsii.Asubject coming first in its sentence maybe emphatic, but hardlyby its position alone.1.Great kingsworshippedat his shrineIII.A Few Matters of Forma.Colloquialisms:if a colloquialism, slang word, or phrase is used, donotdraw attention to it by enclosing it in quotation marksb.Exclamations:do not attempt to emphasizesimple statements by usingexclamation pointsi.Itwas awonderfulshow!It was a wonderfulshow.c.Headings:If a manuscripts is to be submitted for publication, leaveplentyof space at the topof the page 1. The editor will use the space to writedirections to the compositor. Place the heading at least a fourth way downthe page. Leave a blank line after the heading. Omit the period of theheadline, but use a question mark or exclamation point it necessaryd.Hyphen:when two or more words are combined to form a compoundadjective, a hyphen is requiredi.Do notuse ahyphenon words that arebettercombined asone.1.bed-chamberbedchamber2.wild-lifewildlifee.Margins:keep right-hand and left-hand margins roughly the same widthf.Numerals:do not spell out dated or other serial numbers. Write them infigures or in Roman notation. The only exception is if you write it out indialogueg.Parentheses:A sentence containing an expression in parenthesis ispunctuated outside the last mark of parenthesis exactly as if theparenthetical expression were absenti.I went to her house yesterday(my third attempt to see her), but shehad left town.h.Quotations:Formal quotations cited as documentary evidence areintroduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks.i.The US Coast Pilot has thisto sayof the place: BracyCoveii.Aquotation grammatically in apposition orthe direct object of averb is proceeded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marksiii.When a quotation is followed by an attributive phrase,the commais enclosed within the quotation marksiv.Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary originrequire no quotationsi.References:i.In scholarlywork requiring exactreference, abbreviate titles thatappear frequentlyii.Give the full forms inan alphabetical list atthe endiii.Give reference in parenthesis and footnotesiv.Omitthe words: act, scene, line, book, volume, pagej.Syllabicationi.When aword must be divided atthe end of aline,consult adictionary to learn the syllablesk.Titlesi.Use italicsfor titleswithcapitalizedinitialsIV.Approach to Stylea.Placeyourselfinthebackgroundi.Draw readers attention to the sense and substance of writingii.If writing issolidand good, the mood an temperof the writerwilbe revealediii.Acarefuland honest writer doesnot need to worryabout thebackgroundb.Write in a way that comes naturallyi.Write naturallyusingwordsand phrases thatcome readilyto handii.Do not be afraidto imitate, for it is almost impossible not toc.Work from a suitable designi.Beforecomposing something, gaugethe nature anextentof theenterprise and work from a suitable designii.Do your best to anticipatewhatyou are gettingintoiii.Sometimesemotions are more compelling than designsd.Write with nouns and verbsi.Write with nouns andverbs, not adjectives and adverbsii.Its nouns and verbs that gives good writing its toughnesse.Reviseand rewritei.Always checkover your work because itis never perfecton thefirst tryii.Do notbe afraid to experimentwith what you have writtenf.Donotoverwritei.Always avoidwriting excessively and remember to reread yourwritingg.Donotoverstatei.When you overstate, your readers will be on guardii.Asingle overstatementdiminishedthewholeh.Avoid the useofqualifiersi.Rather, very, little ,prettyarequalifiersi.Donotaffecta brezzymanneri.Often thework of an egocentricii.Avoid slang and dullnessj.Use orthodox spellingi.Do not write nite for night orthru for through, pleez forpleasek.Donotexplaintoo muchi.Sparethe use of adverbsafterspeech,like he said, etcii.Dialogue itselfshould disclosethe speakers mannerl.Do not constructawkward adverbsi.Forexample Tiredly is not an adverbm.Make sure the reader knows who is speakingi.Make sure you letthe reader understand whois speakingin thedialoguen.Avoidfancy wordsi.Avoid the elaborate, thepretentious, the coy, and the cuteo.Do not use dialect unlessyour ear is goodi.Do not attemptto use dialectunless you are a devoted student ofthe tonguep.Be cleari.Clarity can onlybe virtueii.Dontbe toovague, but clear enough soit isunderstoodq.Do not inject opinioni.Unless there is a good reasonii.Trytokeepthingsstraightr.Use figuresofspeechi.The simile isthe mostcommon and usefulii.When using a metaphor, do not mix it ups.Do not take shortcuts at the cost of clarityi.Do not use abbreviationsunless youre sure it will be understoodby everyonet.Avoid foreign languagesi.It is a bad habit, writein Englishu.Preferthestandard to the offbeati.Dontuse wordslike:psyched, nerd, rip-off, dude, geekii.These words willsomedayfade