the effect of online social networking on employee
TRANSCRIPT
The effect of online social networking on employee productivity within a tertiary education institution
by
Andrea Ferreira
Thesis
submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
Magister Philosophiae
in
Information Management
in the
Faculty of Management
at the
University of Johannesburg
Supervisor: Dr Tanya du Plessis
October 2008
ii
Declaration
I, Andrea Ferreira, hereby declare that this research project is my
own original work and that all sources have been accurately reported
and acknowledged. I further declare that this document has not
previously, in its entirety or in part, been submitted at any university
in order to obtain an academic qualification.
Andrea Ferreira
31 October 2008
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Acknowledgements
Deo Optimo Maximo.
I wish to express my gratitude to the following individuals; without their support and guidance this
project would not have been possible:
- My study leader, Dr Tanya du Plessis for her unwavering support, encouragement and
guidance.
- My parents, Louis and Marie for paving the way to my education and instilling a sense
of pride in all that I do.
- My sister, Liezel and brother-in-law, Johan for their constant interest.
- My colleagues at the Department of Information and Knowledge Management for their
guidance and words of encouragement.
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Summary
The effect of online social networking on employee productivity within a tertiary education
institution
Since the establishment of the Internet, innovative technologies have evolved rapidly and 'social
networking' technologies specifically have gained value from the recent surge in popularity and
increased use of these networked technologies. The exposure and growth that social networking
technologies have experienced in recent history has created a phenomenal following by
individuals from diverse walks of life. However, the negative press that currently surrounds online
social networks is ardent and in some cases valid, overshadowing the opportunities that Online
Social Networking may present to organisations. The focus of this study fell on the possible effect
of employee participation in Online Social Networking on productivity.
In current workplaces that rely on intellectual capital to be successful in business, employees are
a key source of knowledge and mainly responsible for intellectual capital growth. It was therefore
argued in this study that organisations should critically investigate the relevance of collaborative
technology such as online social networking in order to support employees in the processes
required for knowledge creation. This study provided an overview of the literature review findings
as well as the relevant empirical research findings with regard to what Online Social Networking
entails; what the possible consequences could be if employees were allowed access to online
social networks without restriction; and how online social networks could contribute to the
productivity of an organisation.
This study aimed to serve as a foundation on which the University of Johannesburg could build a
strategy that aspired to incorporate online social networking within this institution, in order to
promote a knowledge sharing culture.
Key words
Online Social Networking; Employee Productivity; Social Web; Web 2.0; Virtual Communities of
Practice.
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................................... iii Summary ......................................................................................................................................................... iv List of appendices .......................................................................................................................................... viii List of figures ............................................................................................................................................... viiix List of tables ..................................................................................................................................................... x List of charts .................................................................................................................................................... x List of websites ................................................................................................................................................ x Abbreviations ................................................................................................................................................... xi Glossary ......................................................................................................................................................... xiii Chapter One: Introduction to the research problem and its context ....................................................... 1 1.1 Background to the research project ............................................................................ 1 1.2 Rationale of and benefits to be derived from the research study ................................... 4 1.3 Research problem and sub-problems ......................................................................... 5 1.4 Research methodology ............................................................................................. 6 1.4.1 Literature review and related chapter's outlines ........................................................... 6
1.4.1.1 Chapter One: Introduction to the research problem and its context ................................ 6 1.4.1.2 Chapter Two: Social Networks – Linking communities online ......................................... 6 1.4.1.3 Chapter Three: Social networks – A global perspective .................................................. 7 1.4.1.4 Chapter Four: The effects of Online Social Networking .................................................. 9
1.4.2 Empirical research and related chapter's outlines ............................................................................ 11
1.4.2.1 Chapter Five: Empirical research and discussion of findings ........................................ 11 1.4.2.2 Chapter Six: Conclusion and recommendations ........................................................... 13
1.5 Research findings .................................................................................................. 13 1.6 Conclusions and recommendations .......................................................................... 16 Chapter Two: Social Networks – Linking communities online ............................................................... 18
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2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 18 2.2 The knowledge economy ........................................................................................ 18 2.3 The rise of the Social Web ...................................................................................... 21 2.3.1 Wikis ................................................................................................................................................. 23
2.3.2 Blogs ................................................................................................................................................. 23
2.3.3 RSS ................................................................................................................................................... 24
2.3.4 Podcasts ........................................................................................................................................... 25
2.3.5 Folksonomies .................................................................................................................................... 26
2.3.6 Online Social Networks ..................................................................................................................... 27
2.3.6.1 Background .................................................................................................................... 27 2.3.6.2 The nature of effective social networks ......................................................................... 30
2.4 The importance of social networks in modern-day organisations ................................. 34 2.5 Corporate literacy – aiding social networks in modern-day organisations ..................... 36 2.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 38 Chapter Three: Social Networking – A global perspective ..................................................................... 40 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 40 3.2 Cyberspace – facilitating social networks .................................................................. 41 3.3 A global picture ...................................................................................................... 44 3.3.1 Global Internet use ........................................................................................................................... 44
3.3.2 Global social networking trends ........................................................................................................ 48
3.4 A local picture ........................................................................................................ 49 3.4.1 Internet use in South Africa .............................................................................................................. 49
3.4.2 Social networking trends in South Africa .......................................................................................... 52
3.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 55 Chapter Four: The effects of Online Social Networking .......................................................................... 57
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4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 57 4.2 Online Social Networking, productivity and Communities of Practice ........................... 59 4.2.1 Positive effects of virtual Communities of Practice on productivity .................................................. 61
4.2.2 Negative effects of Online Social Networking on productivity .......................................................... 65
4.3 Online Social Networks and information privacy ........................................................ 67 4.3.1 Secondary data collection ................................................................................................................. 68
4.3.2 Social networking spam .................................................................................................................... 70
4.3.3 Corporate espionage ........................................................................................................................ 72
4.4 Online Social Networking and social capital .............................................................. 73 4.4.1 Online Social Networking and intangible assets ............................................................................... 73
4.4.2 Social networks, marketing and the connected consumer ............................................................... 75
4.5 Technological implications of Online Social Networks ................................................ 79 4.5.1 Malware ............................................................................................................................................ 80
4.5.2 Bandwidth implications ..................................................................................................................... 81
4.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 82 Chapter Five: Empirical research and discussion of findings ............................................................... 85 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 85 5.2 Rationale of the study ............................................................................................. 85 5.3 Research methodology ........................................................................................... 86 5.3.1 Research problem ............................................................................................................................ 86
5.3.2 Research approach .......................................................................................................................... 87
5.3.2.1 A definition of research .................................................................................................. 87 5.3.2.2 Stokes' research paradigm ............................................................................................ 88 5.3.2.3 An action research approach ......................................................................................... 90
5.3.3 Sampling and research participants ................................................................................................. 93
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5.3.4 Data collection and data processing procedure ............................................................................... 94
5.4 Interpretation and discussion of results ..................................................................... 97 5.4.1 Statistical analysis of the formal online survey ................................................................................. 97
5.4.2 Interpretation of results – formal online survey, Facebook poll and e-mail interviews ..................... 99
5.5 Summary ............................................................................................................. 121 Chapter Six: Conclusions and recommendations ................................................................................. 124 6.1 Overview of research and conclusions ................................................................... 124 6.2 Recommendations ............................................................................................... 127 6.3 Areas for future research ...................................................................................... 128 Reference list ........................................................................................................................... 129
List of appendices Appendix 1: Formal Online Questionnaire ................................................................................. 139 Appendix 2: Informal Facebook Poll ......................................................................................... 143 Appendix 3: Message sent to Facebook friends ......................................................................... 144 Appendix 4: E-mail sent to the University of Johannesburg's Chief Technology Officer ................. 145 Appendix 5: E-mail sent to a member of the University of Johannesburg's Human Resource Department ............................................................................... 148 Appendix 6: E-mail sent to member of the University of Johannesburg's Centre for Technology Assisted Learning ............................................................... 150 Appendix 7: E-mail sent to member of the University of Johannesburg's Library and Information Centre .............................................................................. 152 Appendix 8: E-mail sent to an employee at a large South African telecommunications company .... 155 Appendix 9: E-mail with questionnaire URL sent to the employees of the Faculty of Management ................................................................................... 156 Appendix 10: E-mail reminder sent to the employees of the Faculty of Management ....................... 157
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Appendix 11: E-mail reminder sent to an individual employee at the Faculty of Management ........... 158 Appendix 12: E-mail reminder sent to an individual employee at the Faculty of Management .......... 159 Appendix 13: E-mail reminder sent to an individual employee at the Faculty of Management .......... 160 Appendix 14: Questionnaire data processed by Statcon ............................................................... 161
List of figures Figure 2.1: Shifting economy ......................................................................................................................... 20 Figure 2.2: A taxonomy of the Social Web in relation to the World Wide Web and Internet ......................... 22 Figure 2.3 The Absa bank RSS page ............................................................................................................ 25 Figure 2.4: Online Social Networking timeline ............................................................................................... 29 Figure 2.5: Managing the virtual team cycle of actions ................................................................................. 32 Figure 3.1: Internet access market segmentation ......................................................................................... 45 Figure 3.2: South Africa's population by language ........................................................................................ 51 Figure 4.1: A Facebook user's profile showing personal details ................................................................... 68 Figure 4.2: A Facebook user's profile showing less details of a personal nature ......................................... 69 Figure 4.3: The balance sheet of a knowledge organisation ......................................................................... 74 Figure 4.4: Absa's homepage with a link to their Facebook page ................................................................. 77 Figure 4.5: Example on an advertisement on a Facebook user's profile page ............................................. 78 Figure 5.1: Research classification quadrants .............................................................................................. 89 Figure 5.2: The action research cycle ........................................................................................................... 91 Figure 5.3: Types of sampling ....................................................................................................................... 93 Figure 5.4: Timeline of the 'Online Social Networking' online survey ............................................................ 96 Figure 5.5: Informal poll posted on Facebook ............................................................................................. 113 Figure 5.6: 'Site blocked' message .............................................................................................................. 116
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List of tables Table 3.1: Worldwide Internet users, 1990-2007 .......................................................................................... 44 Table 3.2: Growth in the number of Internet hosts – 1984-2006 ................................................................... 46 Table 3.3: Top 10 social networking sites among US Internet users ............................................................ 48 Table 4.1: Communities of Practice – A snapshot ........................................................................................ 64 Table 5.1: Rosenthal's guidelines to describe effect sizes ............................................................................ 97 Table 5.2: Questions 9.1 to 9.10 of the formal online questionnaire ........................................................... 109
List of charts Chart 5.1: Age distribution and gender break-up .......................................................................................... 99 Chart 5.2 Nature of appointment ................................................................................................................. 100 Chart 5.3 Recognised Online Social Networking sites ................................................................................ 102 Chart 5.4 Frequency of visits to Online Social Networking sites ................................................................. 103 Chart 5.5: Access to Online Social Networking sites .................................................................................. 106 Chart 5.6: The utilisation of Online Social Networking sites ........................................................................ 108 Chart 5.7: Attitude and perception regarding Online Social Networking related statements ...................... 111 Chart 5.8: US MySpace users, by age, June 2004 & February .................................................................. 119
List of websites
• Absa: http://www.absa.co.za
• Facebook: http://www.facebook.com
• Hippo Insurance Quotes: http://www.hippo.co.za
• Linked in: http://www.linkedin.com
• Muti: http://www.muti.co.za
• mySpot: http://myspot.co.za
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• Student Village: http://www.studentvillage.co.za
• UCT Blogs: http://blogs.uct.ac.za
• Vrinne: http://www.vrinne.com
Abbreviations B-web .......................... Business-web CD ............................... Compact Disc CenTal......................... Centre for Technology Assisted Learning CTO............................. Chief Technology Officer DVD............................. Digital Versatile Disc / Digital Video Disc E2.0 ............................. Enterprise 2.0 ENISA ......................... European Network and Information Security Agency H0................................ Nul Hypothesis H1................................ Alternative Hypothesis HEI .............................. Higher Education Institution I4CP ............................ Institute for Corporate Productivity ICT .............................. Information and Communication Technology IM ................................ Instant Messaging MEC ............................ Members of the Executive Council OSN ............................ Online Social Network P2P ............................. Peer-to-Peer PC ............................... Personal Computer
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PDA ............................. Personal Digital Assistant n .................................. Response Rate NMMU ......................... Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University OCLC .......................... Online Computer Library Centre RSS ............................. Real Simple Sindication / Rich Site Summaries Statcon ........................ Statistical Consultation Services UCT ............................. University of Cape Town UJ ................................ University of Johannesburg UK ............................... United Kingdom US ............................... United States
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Glossary
Bandwidth A social networking website founded in 2005.
Bebo Allows friends to communicate by posting pictures, writing blogs and sending messages to one another.
Blog A Web-based journal of sort, that dates entries in reverse chronological order. Most blogs focus on one subject area and are updated daily. Entries typically consist of links to external web-pages, summaries of or commentary on the content.
Blogspot A site facilitating blogs by allowing users to create their own blogging profile.
Chat The process of communicating with other Internet users in real time.
Collaboration Sharing and viewing a document or computer application simultaneously with both parties having the ability to make modifications.
Community of Practice (CoP) The process of social learning that occurs and shared socio-cultural
practices that emerge and evolve when people who have common goals interact as they strive towards those goals.
E-mail A form of electronic messaging where a user creates a text message (that may have a number of attachments) and sends it to a recipient.
Enterprise 2.0 Social software used in business context. This includes social and networked modifications to company intranets and other classic software platforms to organise organisational communication.
Facebook A free-access social networking website that allows users to create a personalised profile and to add and interact with 'friends' on the user's contact list.
Flickr A social media website for photo sharing and management.
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Folksonomy The aggregation of tags developed by the user community rather than taxonomy professionals.
Friendster A leading, global online social network.
Globalisation A process by which the people of the world are unified into a single society and function together. This process is a combination of economic, technological, socio-cultural and political forces.
Google A public corporation specialising in Internet search and advertising that indexes billions of websites.
Hacker Someone involved in computer security/insecurity.
Information Literacy The skills required to use the search-and-find technologies to locate and sift through information as well as the skills needed to use that information effectively.
Instant Messaging (IM) The generic name of a technology that enables private chat to take place.
With IM, messages are exchanged in real time between two or more people. When IM users log in, they are notified of which IM correspondents are online.
Internet A world-wide system of computer networks accessed by hundreds of millions of people.
LinkedIn A US-based social network site used primarily for business/professional networking.
Malware Malicious software designed to harm a computer or disrupt its normal functionality.
MySpace A social network site with unique user profiles that are linked together through networks of friends.
Online Social Network Websites primarily designed to fascilitate interaction between users who
share interests, attitudes and activities.
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Pay-per-click An Internet advertising model where advertisers only pay when a user actually clicks on an advertisement to visit the advertisers' website.
Phishing The criminally fraudulent process of attempting to acquire information such as usernames, passwords and credit card details by masquerading as a trustworthy entity in an electronic communication.
Podcast Distribution of streaming or downloadable audio content over the Internet via a RSS feed.
Privacy Depending on the context (legal, cultural, personal), the term has different denotations and connotations. One that is relevant in the arena of social networking is people's ability to control information that is released about them. Individuals may voluntarily waive their privacy as a trade-off for goods and services.
Real Simple Syndication (RSS) A Web format that allows users to receive the latest content from specific
websites, downloaded directly to their computers.
Skype An Internet telephony service that also allows instant messaging in real time.
Social Capital The aggregate of the resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of institutionalised relationships.
Social Web An open worldwide data sharing network that links people, organisations and concepts.
Spam Unsolicited electronic mail that is sent indiscriminately to mailing list members or other large groups of e-mail recipients. Spam may also refer to other questionable methods used to direct web traffic and bolster search engine results, such as "comment spam", "track-back spam" and "forum spam".
Spyware Computer software that is installed surreptitiously on a PC to intercept or take partial control over the user's interaction with the computer, without the user's consent.
Tags Keywords that describe the content of a website, bookmark, photo or blogpost. A tag is metadata describing an object.
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Trust Confidence in or reliant on the honesty, goodness or character of someone or something.
Virtual Community A self-selecting, peer-to-peer group that connects people by interest, skills and practices. Virtual communities compliment, but do not supersede, teams and reporting structures.
Virtual Teams A project-orientated group of knowledge workers who are not required to work in the same location or time zone.
Web 2.0 A term describing the transition of the World Wide Web from, a collection of websites to a computing platform providing Web applications to end-users.
Wiki A website designed for collaborative use, allowing multiple users to contribute to the creation of documents or applications.
Wikipedia A free, online encyclopaedia written and edited by its members.
World Wide Web A system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet.
YouTube A popular video sharing website where users can upload, view and share video clips.
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Chapter One:
Introduction to the research problem and its context
"I'm a great believer that any tool that enhances communication has profound effects in terms of
how people can learn from each other." BILL GATES
1.1 Background to the research project
“No person can recognise or realise his or her own humanity except by
recognising it in others and so cooperating for its realisation by each and all”
(Bakunin, 1867). If one considers this statement made over a century ago, then it
is not difficult to include social networks in the normal interaction of human
beings. The question is, however, whether social networks should be seen as a
tool or a distraction and whether any benefit can be gained by encouraging
employees to participate in social networking at work.
According to Cross and Parker (2004:11), whom a person knows has a
significant impact on what a person comes to know. They argue that
relationships are a vital aspect when a person wants to obtain information, solve
a problem or learn how to function in the workplace. Social networks can thus be
used as a tool to be innovative and excel in the work environment.
However the typical use of social networking tools, of which social networking
websites are one example of a modern type of networking tool that will be
discussed further on in this chapter, is 'social' as the word implies and therefore
not necessarily in support of work enhancement. According to a survey
conducted by Entertainment Media Research (2007), 53% of people actively surf
social networking sites to find music. If one combines this with Facebook’s self
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generated statistics that its 31 million active users spend an average of 20
minutes per day socialising with friends, then the dangers of social networking
become apparent (IOL Technology, 2007).
According to Facebook statistics (Marketing Charts, 2007b), South Africa is sixth
on the list out of the top ten countries with active users – outside of the United
States of America, Canada and the United Kingdom. For South Africa to be
mentioned among technologically advanced countries such as the USA and UK,
proves that the phenomenon of social networking is just as much a timely issue
here as anywhere else.
When considering the trends set by the current knowledge-based economy, one
has to consider that the traditional business practices will be challenged. In their
research, Montano and Dillon (2005:236) found that technology that enables
members of a group to communicate effortlessly with each other and of which
social networks form part of, strengthens the individual’s feelings toward the
organisation and the different groups that the individual belongs to.
In a survey done by the Institute for Corporate Productivity (Vickers, 2007), it was
established that the use of social networking can contribute immensely towards
raising organisational and individual productivity. Surely this is a complete
paradox to the notion that social networks will decrease productivity once
introduced into an organisation?
Even with evidence that social networks have the ability to enrich organisational
culture and innovation, critics still promote the suggestion that social networking
can only do harm. However, some pro-social networking activists have been
enlightened by this online interaction tool. Graham Jones (2007), an Internet
psychologist, notes that social networking sites are more likely to lead to a rise in
productivity because of the important connections that might be made between
people. He also takes a very realistic look at the use of social networking by
stating that it may prove to be a distraction, but also mentions that face-to-face
networking also holds a threat. It is likely that if an employee is prone to
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distraction, websites such as Facebook or YouTube will not be the only
temptation or the solitary cause thereof (Jones, 2007).
Whether valid arguments have been made in favour or against employees' level
of productivity when participating in Online Social Networking, this social
technology is often viewed as a major contributor to the decline in productivity. In
a recent article (News24, 2007), Alan Levin – chairperson of the Internet Society
of South Africa – said that he fully understands why companies are blocking
access to social networking sites such as Facebook and YouTube because these
sites can be addictive and "in 99% of cases is not productive".
In the light of current applications of information and communication
technologies, the popularity of social networks cannot be denied or ignored. As
mentioned above, the social network known as Facebook hosts more than 31
million active users globally and more than half of these active users return to the
sight daily (Marketing Charts, 2007b). Whether employers want to acknowledge
this or not, people are logging in and spending a daily average of 20 minutes on
Facebook and other social networking sites (News24, 2007).
In stead of condemning this powerful networking tool, companies might benefit
by considering the possible advantages that can be drawn by incorporating social
networking into daily activities. Though not widely adopted, certain multinational
organisations are adopting pro-Online Social Networking policies. An example of
such an implementation is that of Procter and Gamble which has created a
"connect-and-develop" approach by tapping into numerous formal and informal
networks to assist innovation (Vickers, 2007).
With the rise of the knowledge-based economy, the role of management within
organisations has also changed. Geraci (2007:46) proposes that organisations
do away with a top-down management and communication style by using their
employees and partners as marketers, effectively weaving communities into their
products and services by using social networks as enablers. Social networks
facilitate organisations in having conversations with customers, building a lasting
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relationship with their market and ultimately fulfilling the exact needs expressed
by the customers.
The negative press that social networks have been receiving is based on fact.
However the opportunities that social networks can provide to an organisation
should be investigated and highlighted to enable organisations to make informed
decisions before simply discarding this valuable information resource and
communication tool which holds the potential to enhance productivity. this
chapter aims at explaining the focus of the current study, namely the effect of
Online Social Networking on employee productivity, by systematically indicating
why and how the study was conducted.
1.2 Rationale of and benefits to be derived from the research study
Although much evidence exists to the contrary, social networks have the
potential to be used to the advantage of an organisation. Vickers (2007) predicts
that, as with many technologies that have preceded Online Social Networks –
"from the electric engine to the computer" – it might take some time for
companies to realise how to fully leverage the commercial worth of social
networking technologies. One example of an organisation that can benefit from
encouraging the social networking of its employees is a tertiary education
institution.
This study aimed at investigating Online Social Networks in relation to its effect
on employee productivity. As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, active
Facebook users spend an average of 20 minutes per day socialising with friends.
It seems judicious to explore the dangers and benefits that this kind of behaviour
could have on the productivity of employees. As a tertiary education institution,
the University of Johannesburg could prove to be a pioneer in the concepts of
adopting Online Social Networking as a means to enhance productivity. This
study aimed at being a prologue to encourage the University of Johannesburg,
and other organisations in future, to consider the possible benefits of Online
Social Networking to employee productivity while being ardent to mention the
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possible risks associated with this technology. The following section of this
chapter will discuss the research problem raised in this study, as well as the sub-
problems derived from the research problem.
1.3 Research problem and sub-problems
The following research problem was formulated for this study:
What is the effect of social networking on employee productivity within
organisations, specifically tertiary educational institutions?
In order to address the research problem stated, the following sub-problems will
be considered:
• What are global Online Social Networks?
• Do Online Social Networks link communities online in a valid, useful
manner?
• How does South Africa compare regarding participation in Online Social
Networking?
• What are the possible consequences if employees are allowed to access
Online Social Networks without restriction?
• How can Online Social Networks contribute to the productivity of an
organisation, specifically tertiary education institutions?
• What are the possible advantages that social networking could have for
the University of Johannesburg?
Based on the research problem and sub-problems identified and bearing the
rationale of the study in mind, an appropriate research methodology was
identified and pursued. The research methodology and the chapter outline of this
study are consequently discussed.
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1.4 Research methodology
The rationale of the study and the research problem were used to determine the
research methodology that was implemented. The principal aim of the study was
to determine the extent to which Online Social Networking could affect employee
productivity within organisations, specifically within a tertiary educational
institution. For the purpose of achieving this, a detailed literature review was
undertaken, followed by an empirical research component, which consisted of a
quantitative survey, qualitative e-mail interviews and an informal poll on the
popular Online Social Network, Facebook.
1.4.1 Literature review and related chapter's outlines
1.4.1.1 Chapter One: Introduction to the research problem and its context
This chapter introduces the research problem and aligns each consecutive
chapter with the findings of the literature review. Based on the literature review, a
theoretical framework was established in Chapters Two, Three and Four as a
foundation from which to conduct the empirical research. In addition, these
chapters were dedicated to a discussion on the various components of the
research problem, as well as a discussion on the variables that may possibly
have influenced the outcome of the research.
1.4.1.2 Chapter Two: Social Networks – Linking communities online
In this chapter, a broad overview of social networks and the environment they
function in was explored. In order to supply a background to the study, the
knowledge-based economy and the rise of the Social Web was discussed,
explaining the trend of knowledge as a commodity, which encourages the trend
of online collaboration. A background on the evolvement of social networks was
also given emphasising the importance of social networks in modern day
organisations. In Chapter Two specific factors that contribute to effective social
networks was also discussed, in order to highlight that a difference does exist
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between a useful and arbitrary Online Social Network. The issue of corporate
literacy was also considered in Chapter Two and the skills needed by knowledge
workers that function in the knowledge-based economy, and who inadvertently
collaborate online, was examined.
The main focus of Chapter Two was centred on the following question: Do social
networks link people online in a valid way? Chapter Two discussed, inter alia, the
findings of Quan-Haase, Wellman, Witte and Hampton (2002:318) that suggest
that the Internet provides a sphere for social interaction; it encourages people to
interact with others that have similar interests and it is an instrument that creates
social unity. Within Chapter Two, it was argued that the sense of solidarity that
can be obtained through social networking may assist in creating a loyal
organisational culture, increasing morale and the general sense of unity among
employees.
Online Social Networking as a phenomenon was also discussed in Chapter Two.
The notion that the Internet has simply supported the transformation towards a
networked society was discussed in this chapter and it was highlighted that, in
this society, interaction is the norm and the Internet the platform for social
networks, which encourages the formation of online communities
(Haythornthwaite & Wellman, 2002:33). Chapter Two was concluded with the
unquestionable importance of organisational learning through knowledge sharing
– two notions encouraged by social networking.
1.4.1.3 Chapter Three: Social networks – A global perspective
Based on the discussion in Chapter Two, it was established that social networks
are not a recent phenomenon, as a shift towards individualised communities
were evident even before the rise of the Internet. In Chapter Three, the level of
online social interaction was explored and international trends, as well as local
South African trends, were examined and discussed. A number of evolutionary
elements and theories relating to the current networked society were presented
in this chapter. In order to establish an understanding of the evolution of
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technology, Metcalfe’s Law was used to explain the growth of numerous
technologies, alongside the laws that govern the development of modern
technology and rudiments of the so-called Web 2.0 which will receive attention
further on in this study.
Chapter Three also provided an overview of the trends prevalent on local and
international ground regarding Internet use and Online Social Networking
behaviour. However, Chapter Three did not provide a comparative analysis of the
South African and global arena regarding Online Social Networking. The reason
for the non-comparative approach in this chapter was the lack of scientific
research results regarding this trend in South Africa, and in certain instances, a
lack of research on a global level was also evident. Based on this limitation, this
chapter merely provided an investigation of the trends presented in these two
environments instantaneously, without direct correlation of specific data.
Various modern laws of technology were mentioned and discussed within
Chapter Three. It was revealed that a progression of truths recur in each of the
scenarios mentioned by the laws discussed within this chapter; viz. change
regarding technology is quick and inevitable, sharing information leads to an
enhancement of products and services and collaboration adds value to networks.
Chapter Three highlighted that these truths are no more accurate in any other
technology than that of Online Social Networks.
The fact that social networking sites such as MySpace and Facebook have made
an extremely large impression on the global Internet society was also
investigated in Chapter Three. Based on relevant statistics, it was evident that
the impression made by these and similar sites was undeniable and it was
possible to argue that the trend is definitely growing significantly. In South Africa,
the social networking trend was shown to be manifesting itself strongly within
tertiary institutions such as universities, much the same as it had in the USA.
Chapter Three concluded with an urgent suggestion that the opportunities
presented by this phenomenon should be harnessed and theoretical
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expectations should be practically applied to utilise these collaborative
technologies to their full potential.
1.4.1.4 Chapter Four: The effects of Online Social Networking
In Chapter Four, the focus fell on the positive and negative effects that may be
experienced by organisations if employees were to be granted unrestricted
access to Online Social Networks. Within this chapter, it was argued that Online
Social Networks were being recognised as more than tools that facilitate social
interaction. Although a number of positive implications were mentioned regarding
collaboration and knowledge sharing, it was apparent that unrestricted use of
Online Social Networks may pose detrimental if employees with a low locus of
control were appointed initially.
One of the notions discussed within this chapter is the concept that it is only
through "the fusion" of the Internet and the rapidly developing knowledge tools in
the knowledge-driven global economy that the implication of integrated electronic
business and knowledge management, will be realised (Clarke & Rollo,
2001:179). In reality "[t]he Internet is both an effect and a cause of the new
economy" (Clarke & Rollo, 2001:180). Based on this philosophy, it was argued in
Chapter Four that online networks are the new technological platforms that
knowledge management structures and tools are intended to exploit.
Taking the above statements into consideration, Chapter Four investigated the
implication of Online Social Networking within organisations that function within
the global knowledge-based economy.
The first area under discussion in Chapter Four was the possible effect that the
use of Online Social Networks may have on employee productivity. Concerns
surrounding 'social' tendency of popular Online Social Networks were discussed
and the assumption that Online Social Networking sites "run productivity into the
ground", as employees spend hours socialising on these sites were consequently
investigated (IBM, 2007:7). In contrast to the possible negative implications
10
associated with Online Social Networking, it was found that when Online Social
Networks are implemented by productive employees, various positive effects
may become evident. Within Chapter Four, it was suggested that Online Social
Networking can be used to the advantage of an organisation, but has to be
managed and channelled in a pro-active way.
Secondly, Chapter Four investigated Online Social Networking and its
implications regarding the issue of information privacy. It was noted that Online
Social Networks required a certain amount of information to be divulged by its
users and the risks related to this divulsion were discussed. Other possible risks
posed by Online Social Networks, such as secondary data collection, social
networking spam and corporate espionage, were also explored within this
chapter.
In addition, Chapter Four investigated the impact of Online Social Networking by
exploring the notion that Online Social Networking can contribute to the social
capital of organisations and that the value of social capital within organisations
can benefit the organisation as a whole.
Lastly, Chapter Four discussed the detrimental technological consequences that
might arise from employees' unrestrained use of Online Social Networks. This
included an investigation of issues akin to bandwidth overload and malware
threats such as viruses and spyware to ascertain whether employees'
participation in Online Social Networks may contribute to these technological
pitfalls. In conclusion, the effects of Online Social Networking were summarised
within this chapter and reference was made to the potential positive and negative
impact it may have on employee productivity.
Chapters Two, Three and Four thus presented the findings of the literature
review and established the basis for further empirical research on the effect of
Online Social Networking on employee productivity as outlined in the next
section.
11
1.4.2 Empirical research and related chapter's outlines
This section of the project was dedicated to the empirical research component,
along with its findings. In addition, some recommendations were made for
implementing the findings by possibly encouraging the adoption of an Online
Social Network specifically aimed at the University of Johannesburg.
1.4.2.1 Chapter Five: Empirical research and discussion of findings
In this chapter the empirical research was discussed in terms of the rationale of
the study, the research methodology that was followed and the findings that were
made. Chapter Five discussed the research methodology deemed appropriate to
explore the research problem and sub-problems, as was stated in the above
section 1.3 of the current chapter.
The research approach that was followed for this study can be classified under
Pasteur’s quadrant of Stokes’ Research Classification Quadrants (1997), as
“use-inspired basic research”. This type of research is devoted to solving
problems in order to improve people’s lives and is, therefore, deemed the
ultimate research type, considered to be both inspired by the quest for
fundamental understanding and consideration of use. This research project falls
in Pasteur’s quadrant, as its main objective is to discover new facts, knowledge
and information about employees at the Faculty of Management of the University
of Johannesburg's Online Social Networking usage patterns and preferences.
Action research can also be classified under Pasteur’s quadrant, as it presumes
a powerful alliance between research and action, rendering the research
outcomes highly organisation-specific. This is an apt approach for the research
strategy formulation and implementation in especially dynamic environments,
such as that represented by the University of Johannesburg. The choice of
methodology for this study combined a qualitative and quantitative approach,
deeming it a 'mixed method' approach to research methodology.
12
The method by means of which the target group had been sampled as well as
the procedure followed for data collection and data processing was also
discussed in Chapter Five. The target population identified in this study was the
employees of the University of Johannesburg. The accessible population, to
which the findings were generalised, was the Faculty of Management within the
University of Johannesburg. As discussed in Chapter Five, a probability sample
was conducted by drawing a stratified random sample – so classified as the
population was grouped according to certain elements, viz. gender, age and
appointment type, and divided into clusters.
A formal questionnaire was made available online by the University of
Johannesburg Statistical Consultation Services (Statcon) by implementing the
software package 'Statpac'. The survey was accessible via a URL and an e-mail
was sent to the 183 employees of the Faculty of Management of the University of
Johannesburg (UJ). This was the total number of employees of the Faculty of
Management at the time this study was conducted.
The applicable questionnaire consisted of three sections:
A: Biographic information
B: Habits and preferences regarding Online Social Networking
C: Attitude and perceptions regarding Online Social Networking
Upon the closure of the questionnaire, the data was processed by Statcon and it
was concluded that 89 successful responses had been captured, rendering the
response rate (n) 48.6%. An e-mail interview was conducted with four University
of Johannesburg employees not employed by the Faculty of Management. These
employees represented the UJ Information Communications Systems depart-
ment, the UJ Human Resources department; the UJ Centre for Technology
Assisted Learning (CenTal) and the UJ Library and Information Centre. The
responses of these individuals contributed to the qualitative element of this study.
13
Chapter Five was devoted to a statistical analysis aimed at creating the
framework within which the initial frequencies could be interpreted. The
interpretation of the results had been done in accordance with the sections as set
out in the questionnaire with the aid of colour-coded charts and tables.
1.4.2.2 Chapter Six: Conclusion and recommendations
This chapter culminated in the final conclusions and recommendations with
regard to the research problem and sub-problems. Some suggestions were
made to possibly assist the University of Johannesburg should the need arise for
a decision to be made regarding the adoption of an Online Social Networking
policy and/or the development of UJ Online Social Networking technology. These
research findings could provide valuable guidelines to the University of
Johannesburg in formulating an interactive Online Social Networking strategy in
the near future. Finally, the possible areas for future research were uncovered to
ensure the continued relevance and applicability of the research outcomes of this
study to the Faculty of Management of the University of Johannesburg and its
target audience.
1.5 Research findings
The findings and suggestions made in the final two chapters as outlined above
may possibly assist the University of Johannesburg to formulate a strategy
regarding Online Social Networking technology. Some of the significant findings
of this study included the following:
1. Online Social Networks are currently more likely to be applied for social
interaction than for business purposes. For example, LinkedIn, a business-
focussed Online Social Network, was the least recognised site, whereas
Facebook, a characteristically social Online Social Network, proved to be
the most recognised site.
14
2. Although Online Social Networking technologies are generally recognised,
some confusion exists with regards to the distinction between Online
Social Networks and other types of Social Web technologies such as
Blogspot, Flickr and Skype.
3. Instances exist of incognisance and indifference regarding Online Social
Networking and the application of associated technologies in the work
place.
4. Interest exists in the application Online Social Networking technology
within the work place. It can be argued that, if employees are generally
interested in Online Social Networking technology, they might also be
encouraged to visit a similar virtual network aimed at networking within
their organisation in particular. This may encourage an organisation to
investigate the possibility of incorporating an organisation-specific Online
Social Network within its current information technology infrastructure.
5. The application of Online Social Networking technologies could possibly
influence various aspects of organisational functionality, with both positive
and negative effects on productivity and other implications such as
secondary data collection, social networking spam, and corporate
espionage. Of importance is the enhancement of social capital, as
discussed in Chapter Four.
6. The potential value that Online Social Networking sites may add on a
professional level yet needs to be recognised. The conclusion was drawn
that, at this point in time, the most value added by Online Social
Networking technologies to the daily lives of employees generally exists in
the social sphere of life.
7. A preference exists towards using e-mail as a means of professional
communication. However, it was found that although e-mail can be used
as a knowledge sharing tool, it does not encourage knowledge sharing to
15
the same extent as is done through a Community of Practice, which can
be supported effectively within an Online Social Network.
8. The value of social networks and shared knowledge by interacting with
others in the network is generally recognised. From the literature review
and the empirical research results it was surmised that the potential value
of Online Social Networking lies in its facilitation of interaction with others
in order to encourage knowledge sharing.
9. A generally positive attitude towards Online Social Networks exists and
proves beneficial should an organisation consider the development and
implementation of an organisation-specific Online Social Network.
However, certain misconceptions regarding Online Social Networking
technology exist which should be noticed.
10. Should there not exist a formal acceptable use policy regarding Online
Social Networking in an organisation, this issue needs to be addressed.
Such absence should be a significant concern to management, since the
threats posed by irresponsible use of Online Social Networking technology
include bandwidth constraints, social engineering, secondary data
collection and loss of information privacy.
11. Clear indication exists of the willingness of employees to apply
organisation-specific Online Social Networking technology to perform daily
work functions. Significant appreciation of Online Social Networking exists
in terms of its potential to foster innovation. Therefore organisations
should investigate how to optimally benefit from incorporating such a
technology specifically aimed at its employees.
The background information provided in this chapter together with the above
generalised findings provide the conditions for the detailed discussion of the
impact of Online Social Networking on employee productivity in the chapters that
follow.
16
1.6 Conclusions and recommendations
The research findings of this project are relevant as they give organisations in
general, and specifically the University of Johannesburg, a point of reference to
possibly consider the implementation of an Online Social Network. It is in the
interest of any organisation to realise that knowledge workers regard technology
such as Online Social Networking as an everyday part of their lives, especially
younger employees who naturally perceive the application of technology as the
norm. Research aimed at harnessing the potential benefits of Online Social
Networking within a business environment should therefore be at the forefront.
Members of industry should be consulted when new research projects
concerning Social Web applications are considered. Successful Social Web
technology applications within industry should be explored and research should
be centred on these success stories, allowing other organisations to benefit from
this success. Irrespective of the type of research undertaken, however, research
regarding Online Social Networking is lacking and the rapid growth and adoption
of this technology is not leaving any time for lagging behind.
It was identified that Online Social Networking technology has both negative and
positive implications to organisations. Positive implications, if successfully
harnessed, may include enhanced productivity, enhanced social capital and an
increased sharing of organisational knowledge. Negative implications that were
revealed included possible reduced productivity and various technologic
implications.
Based on the findings of this study, the general conclusion reached in this study
is summarised as:
Online Social Networks have the potential to positively affect the
productivity of employees if a locus of control is inherent to these
employees.
17
Organisations, generally, and the specifically the management at the University
of Johannesburg are encouraged to explore the research findings of this study
and to further investigate the possible advantages that may be achieved if an
organisation-specific Online Social Network is adopted and managed effectively
by the University of Johannesburg. One of the predominant advantages of Online
Social Networking, namely the linking of communities online, will be discussed
next.
18
Chapter Two:
Social Networks – Linking communities online
"I have always imagined the information space
as something to which everyone has immediate and intuitive access, and not just to browse, but to create."
TIM BERNERS‐LEE
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, a broad overview of social networks and the environment they
function in will be explored. The reigning knowledge-based economy and the rise
of the Social Web will be discussed, explaining the trend of knowledge as a
commodity, which encourages the trend of online collaboration. A background on
the evolvement of social networks will be given, leading into a discussion of the
importance of social networks in modern day organisations. In this chapter,
factors that contribute to effective social networks will be discussed. Due
consideration will be given to the issue of corporate literacy. This includes an
investigation of the necessary skills needed by knowledge workers functioning in
the knowledge-based economy, and who inadvertently collaborate online. The
chapter will conclude with the unquestionable importance of organisational
learning through knowledge sharing – two notions encouraged by social
networking.
2.2 The knowledge economy
Boase, Horrigan, Wellman and Rainie (2006:i) point out that the Internet was
seen as something extraordinary in the past; only available to a select few and
beyond the grasp of the general population. In the modern age, however, the
19
Internet has become a part of everyday life, "moving between phone, computer
and in-person encounters" (Boase, et al. 2006:i).
According to Gavigan, Ottitsch and Mahroum (1999:13), tacit forms of knowledge
and learning, promoted by the use of the Internet, have come to dominate in the
emerging post-industrial economy. They, together with Landman (2004:39) and
Gorelick, Milton and April (2004:44) identify three types of knowledge resources
in the new economy:
• The knowledge, skills and capabilities that people possess, i.e. human
capital;
• The relationships between people and the wealth contained therein, i.e.
social capital; and
• The knowledge acquired through learning, i.e. the organisation has a need
to adapt and learn simultaneously and continuously sustain performance.
Boase, et al (2006:26) mention another form of capital: network capital. Network
capital refers to the contacts individuals draw on as a source of trusted inform-
ation. This usually happens in an environment where people are confronted with
institutions and rules, typically in a work environment, which forms part of
problem-solving processes (Boase, et al. 2006:26).
Punie and Cabrera (2006:66) are of the opinion that the transformation towards
the knowledge society will have a profound impact as knowledge workers will use
information and communication technologies as natural extensions to their
cognition. They also highlight the fact that learning is the key factor that
distinguishes the knowledge society from the previous information society.
According to Kauhanen-Simanainen (2007:35), knowledge is the result of the
interaction between people and their environment.
Tapscott and Williams (2007:55) agree with the notion of collaboration playing a
significant role in the knowledge-based economy by suggesting that the
20
knowledge-based economy is a collaborative economy, where enterprises are
turning to collaborative self-organising business-web (B-web) models where
masses of consumers, employees and other stakeholders co-create value as a
result of the declining cost of collaboration.
Handzic (2004:5) explains that the change experienced in the world economy is
brought about by the "mega-trends" of globalisation, digitalisation and transform-
ation to a knowledge-based economy. The transformation from an information-
based economy to a knowledge-based economy is encouraged for the most part
by the acknowledgment that knowledge, rather than monetary capital, land or
labour are the major sources of sustainable economic growth (Handzic, 2004:5).
Figure 2.1 below illustrates the shifting economy by revealing that, while every
conventional economy relies on knowledge to some degree, in the knowledge-
based economy, knowledge itself is traded and ideas are the product of this
economy.
Figure 2.1: Shifting economy (Adapted from Handzic, 2004:6)
According to Gavigan, et al. (1999:iii), in the modern innovation-driven economy,
learning and the demand for knowledge have become vital components of
international competitiveness. They also claim that 70% to 80% of economic
growth can be attributed to better knowledge, while the stock market value of a
21
considerable number of organisations that exceed net fixed assets by a factor of
three to four, can be ascribed to the value of knowledge capital.
With regard to knowledge capital, people are at the centre of attention, as
knowledge exists mainly in individuals (Gavigan, et al. 1999:iii). People should be
the main focus of the knowledge-based economy, as they are the most valuable
resource it has (Gourova, Burgelman, Bogdanowicz & Herrmann, 2002:77).
Since the individual is the main focus of the knowledge-based economy, social
interaction between these ‘commodities’ are of great importance to stakeholders.
The Internet has aided such interaction since its inception, and the flexibility of
the World-Wide Web (the Web), one of the many applications that "run on top of
the Internet", has a unique capacity to "break down boundaries of distance,
language and domains of knowledge" (Berners-Lee, 2007:3). In the following
section, the rise of the Social Web and the applications associated with this
application of the Web will be discussed.
2.3 The rise of the Social Web
In 2004, a vice-president of O'Reilly Media Inc., Dale Dougherty coined the term
'Web 2.0' to describe the exciting new applications and sites that were rapidly
emerging after the disintegration of the dot-com bubble in 2001 (Anderson,
2007:5). Although Web 2.0 is a widely used term to describe these 'new'
technologies, the creator of the World-Wide Web, Tim Berners-Lee states that he
does not see these new technologies as different from the 'previous' Web. When
asked in a podcast interview whether he believed that Web 2.0 was different to
what might be called Web 1.0, Berners-Lee replied as follows:
"Totally not. Web 1.0 was all about connecting people. It was an interactive
space, and I think Web 2.0 is of course a piece of jargon, nobody even
knows what it means. If Web 2.0 for you is blogs and wikis, then that is
people to people. But that was what the Web was supposed to be all along.
And in fact, you know, this 'Web 2.0', it means using the standards which
22
have been produced by all these people working on Web 1.0." (IBM
Developerworks, 2006).
The term 'Web 2.0' is widely recognised and used to describe the accumulation
of collaboration technologies such as social networking sites, communication
tools and wikis (Mikroyannidis, 2007:113). However, to discourage the
misconception that these 'new' technologies are part of a separate Web than
Web 1.0, the term 'Social Web' will be used in this study to describe the
interactive technologies that form part of the current research topic.
The following section will describe the major technologies associated with the
Social Web, as illustrated in the taxonomy in Figure 2.2 below.
Figure 2.2: A taxonomy of the Social Web in relation to the World Wide Web and Internet
The above taxonomy was constructed based on the findings of the literature
review and was deemed necessary because a gap was identified in the existing
literature in terms of the relationship and differences between various so-called
23
Web 2.0 technologies such as blogs and wikis and other technologies which will
be discussed next.
2.3.1 Wikis
According to Kolbitsch and Maurer (2006:191), wikis are self-organising websites
in which the existing pages can be edited by anyone on the Internet and to which
anyone can add new documents at any time. Lamb (2004:38) notes that the term
'wiki' is derived from the Hawaiian word for 'quick' and explains that wikis are in
fact quick, since the processes of reading and editing are combined. He
continues by clarifying that the 'open' nature of this technology should not be a
concern, since it relies on the community, rather than technology, to enforce
order (Lamb, 2004:40). One should think of an open wiki space as a home with
the front door unlocked, but that does not get burgled since all the neighbours
are on their front steps keeping an eye on the street (Lamb 2004:40).
A popular wiki and a very good example of the Social Web, is the open-source,
web-based encyclopaedia, Wikipedia. This site has more than three million
articles and allows users to edit and update entries (Skiba, Tamas & Robinson,
2006:36). Articles cover a vast array of topics, comparable and exceeding those
that may be found in any traditional encyclopaedia. Skiba et al. (2006:36) note
that Wikipedia receives approximately fifty million hits per day and that the sight
is ranked number 63 among the most visited English-language sites on the Web.
The veracity of the information found on Wikipedia is preserved by a committee
of Wikipedia members who monitor all new entries and updates (Skiba, et al.,
2006:36).
2.3.2 Blogs
Another Social Web development that has become increasingly popular within
the Social Web community, is the 'web-log' or in short, 'blog'. Blogs are web
pages that, in style and content, are a cross between diaries, newsgroups,
newspaper editorials and hotlists where blog owners regularly write about topics
24
that interest them (Kolbitsch & Maurer, 2006:189). These websites capture a
"moment-to-moment" glimpse of their creators' thoughts and opinions about
current events, thereby altering the Web's previous static nature "into a running
conversation", leading to blogs being described as "the biggest coffee house on
earth" (Tapscott & Williams, 2007:40). A technology that is increasingly being
used to aggregate blogs, and other forms of media, is RSS.
2.3.3 RSS
'Real Simple Syndication' or 'Rich Site Summaries', better known as RSS allows
an individual to subscribe to a selection of blogs. This has become necessary
because the rise of blogs resulted in a huge increase in published content
(Wenger, 2005:7). Anderson (2007:10) explains that RSS is a "family of formats"
which allows users to be informed about updates to RSS-enabled websites
without actually having to visit that specific site, since the number of published
sites has increased rapidly. Instead of visiting the updated site to peruse the new
information, the information from the updated site is collected within a feed that
applies the RSS format, and is "piped to the user" in a process known as
syndication (Anderson, 2007:10-11).
RSS is not only applied in the context of blogs, this technology is being applied in
various other areas as well. Tapscott and Williams (2007:160) mention that,
through applying RSS to scholarly journal sites, users can get RSS feeds that
alert them when new research is published in their field. Scientific laboratories
are considering using RSS feeds that stream results as they happen (Tapscott &
Williams, 2007:161). The application of RSS feeds is numerous as can be seen
in the media industry's pushing of solicited content from a variety of online
newspapers to an individual and the financial industry's streaming of stock results
according to a client's profile.
A South African example of the integrated use of RSS in websites other than
blogs is the Absa bank RSS page, as shown in Figure 2.2 (next page). On this
website, users can add RSS feeds pertaining to Absa media releases, JSE
25
indices and the latest financial news to their own websites or blogs. This allows
the users immediate access to updated content regarding Absa, without first
having to visit the page in order to seek new or relevant content.
Figure 2.3 The Absa bank RSS page (See: http://www.absa.co.za)
Another technology that forms part of the Social Web is podcasts which has a
similar intended goal to that of RSS feeds, namely the receiving of "personal on
demand" content (Jackson, 2006:24).
2.3.4 Podcasts
The term 'podcasting' is an amalgamation of the terms 'iPod' and 'broadcasting'
and describes the nature of a process that is basically the blogging of audio
content (Kolbitsch & Maurer, 2006:199). Users can listen to podcasts on their
computers or download the podcasts to a portable MP3 player, making it
possible to listen to it "on the move"; at any time they choose (Boulos, Maramba
and Wheeler, 2006). The most striking element of podcasting is the "simplicity of
distribution", as there are a wide variety of entities that can produce podcasts
26
and, as mentioned, there are many different ways of listening to podcasts,
(Sterne, Morris, Baker & Freire, 2008). Subscribers to podcasts also make use of
an RSS feed to receive information about new podcasts as they become
available (Anderson, 2007:10).
2.3.5 Folksonomies
The Social Web allows users to create their own sense of order within the vast
amounts of data. One such way is through 'tagging' and constructing
'folksonomies'. Gruber (2007) defines 'folksonomy' as the emergent labelling of
lots of things by people in a social context. He mentions that, in recent history, it
was noticed that 'ordinary' Web users, i.e. those who do not necessarily write
computer programmes, engaged in a process of "tagging" keywords to the
content they produced or came across. The interesting aspect about this use of
tagging, was that "these folks do their tagging in a public space", hence the term
'folksonomy' (Gruber, 2007). Folksonomies are therefore created when users add
tags to online items, viz. images, videos, bookmarks and text, which is then
shared and in some cases refined (Guy & Tonkin, 2006).
Terdiman (2005) mentions that no two folksonomies are the same, as this is an
informal system of organising large quantities of data that exists on the Web.
Stock (2007:99) argues that the reference to 'ontologies' within the term
'folksonomies' is misleading, since folksonomies do not work with notations and
relations as taxonomies do, rather a folksonomy is a "flat list of uncontrolled
terms". In a folksonomy there does not have to be a distinctive link between its
elements. If a person decides to link two seemingly unrelated elements for his or
her own purpose, then a folksonomy is created through the action of 'social
tagging' on the Social Web.
The last Social Web technology and the technology underpinning the current
study, is that of Online Social Networks which will be discussed in detail in the
following section.
27
2.3.6 Online Social Networks
2.3.6.1 Background
Lea, Yu and Maguluru (2006:121) describe a social network as being "a set of
people, organisations or other social entities connected by a set of socially
meaningful relationships, such as friendship, co-working or information exchange
and interactions to better achieve desired outcomes by sharing expertise,
resources and information".
The concept of social networking is not new. Human interaction inherently
promotes the formation of networks through social contact. According to Tapscott
and Williams (2007:10), collaboration used to take place on a much smaller scale
between relatives, friends and associates in households and communities.
The present situation has changed substantially, even before the turn of the
century Sumanth (1998:51) agreed that social changes in modern workplaces
increased dramatically. Today, one rarely finds an organisation that functions
without group collaboration. Landman (2004:40) notes that these changes are
becoming more important than the abundance of natural resources or monetary
capital that symbolised the industrial economy.
The first Online Social Networking site, SixDegrees.com, was launched in 1997
and allowed users to create profiles, list their 'Friends' and eventually browse or
surf Friends lists (Boyd & Ellison, 2007:214). According to Boyd and Ellison
(2007:214), each of the features combined by SixDegrees.com did exist in some
form before being combined on SixDegrees.com. Although SixDegrees.com
attracted millions of users, it did not evolve into a sustainable business and
closed down in 2000. The founder of SixDegrees.com believes that it was "ahead
of its time" as most people did not have extended networks of friends that were
functioning online at the time (Boyd & Ellison, 2007:214).
The combination of these features proved very popular, and the success thereof
became evident as soon as the concept was applied in existing sites. The
28
community site QQ, a Chinese instant messaging site, became the largest social
networking site as a result of adding profiles and making friends visible (Boyd &
Ellison, 2007:218). Boyd and Ellison (2007:218) also list the forum tool Cyworld
that dominated the Korean market by introducing homepages and 'Buddies'. As
illustrated by Boyd and Ellison (2007:212), a time line is shown in Figure 2.2
(below), reflecting the launch dates of many major Online Social Networking sites
and the dates when community sites re-launched, displaying social networking
features.
29
Figure 2.4: Online Social Networking timeline
(Boyd & Ellison, 2007:212)
Through the development of Online Social Networking technologies, it is now
possible to collaborate much quicker and reach a much larger expert audience.
Gourova, et al. (2002:61) emphasise the fact that the widely accepted need to
apply and use new technologies is regarded as a vital issue that is changing
patterns of work, life and learning.
30
Van Bavel, Punie, Burgelman, Tuomi, and Clements (2004:9) note that social
networking has become a part of everyday life, whether it is being used to initiate
romantic relationships, discuss work-related issues or connect people with
shared interests, these technologies have changed the way people communicate
online (Ellison, Steinfeld, & Lampe, 2006:3). Throughout the month of August
2007, the popular social network Facebook received 6.5 million unique visitors
(NetRatings, 2007:1). The networking survey shows that people are not only
using their personal computers (PCs) to process documents or send e-mails;
they are also increasingly, and to a large extent, using their PCs to interact
globally through social networks.
However, the rise in popularity of Online Social Networks has rendered many
managers apprehensive towards this collaborative technology. During August
2007 Britons spent an average of five and a half hours per person on Second
Life, which is another form of social network in the online environment
(NetRatings, 2007:2). To some extent, this validates the concern regarding the
productivity of employees who engage in social networking.
According to Punie and Cabrera (2006:43), technological change is rapid and
filled with opportunity, but it is also unpredictable and full of uncertainties. As with
many new inventions and trends, much scepticism surrounds the use of social
networks in work environments. It is almost ignorant to categorise the use of
social networking technologies as a choice that may be condemned. Rather it
has become as fundamental to modern business as the use of the Internet since
the 1990s (Wyatt, 2005:146). In this regard Wyatt (2005:146) views the use of
information and communication technologies (ICTs) and the Internet by
individuals and nations as the norm and "non-use is perceived as a sign of a
deficiency to be remedied or as a need to be fulfilled".
2.3.6.2 The nature of effective social networks
From the above background information it has been established that the use of
social networking technologies is important in modern day business. The
31
question remains: do social networks add value to organisations? According to
Frissen (2003:31), investments in human capital are seen as crucial for
increasing productivity in a knowledge society (see also the preceding section
2.2). Vestal and Lopez (2004:143) state that organisations have always
contained informal communities, but that the recognition of these communities as
valuable boundary-spanning mechanisms is changing the way networks are
viewed.
Therefore, it is established that a focus on human capital, i.e. what people know,
will contribute to an organisation’s productivity and that a focus on the interaction
of communities and networks will increase what people know. Social networks
encourage interaction between people and provide trust and confidence (Frissen,
2003:31). However, not all networks can be classified as successful. Therefore
specific criteria should be identified that social networks should meet before such
networks can be considered as effective in increasing what people know.
The criteria that summarise the many perceptions of 'effective' social networks
are leverage and collaboration. According to Ibarra and Hunter (2007:44),
leverage is the ability to collect resources, support and information from one
segment of a network to attain results in another. Cross and Parker (2004:115)
argue that a network can only be effective if it functions within a collaborative
organisational context. If these two criteria are combined, a holistic partnership
between organisational culture, human interaction and the use of networking
technologies is formed through the connectivity that exists.
There is no set formula to effectively promote connectivity and encourage
networking within an organisation. This is because the context of the work
environment is unique to each organisation and the distinctive elements within a
specific organisation should be considered (Cross & Parker, 2004:116). The very
element promoting interaction in one organisation may not be available or
effective in another.
32
Edwards and Wilson (2004:68) stress the fact that making collaboration virtual,
creates added difficulties for managers or leaders, since interaction between
team members in a virtual environment becomes less visible, making team spirit
more difficult to maintain. To overcome the difficulties associated with
understanding human and social processes of network dynamics, Edwards and
Wilson (2004:69) propose a virtual team working process to be approached as a
cycle of actions. As shown in Figure 2.3 below, each cycle of action represents
an emotion that should be questioned, understood and developed:
Figure 2.5: Managing the virtual team cycle of actions (Adapted from Edwards and Wilson, 2005:69)
In the first phase of this process, the cycle of actions is clear: the sharing of
information, experiences and success takes place. Team members have to
define how they will communicate with one another within this network, ground
rules for formal interaction are set, as are the means by which social exchanges
will be sustained. This creates trust and empathy (Edwards & Wilson, 2005:69).
According to Edwards and Wilson (2005:69), the communication tools that will be
used to create the network and sustain the team dialogue will be standard, like
the Internet; however the methods of communication that will be used will sustain
a dialogue that is crucial – one method that will promote sustained networking is
Online Social Networks.
Managing a virtual team
33
The next phase in the cycle is that of caring, where the leader assists in the
process of establishing team protocols to avoid misunderstandings (Edwards &
Wilson, 2005:70). Edwards and Wilson (2005:69) note that a virtual team or
social network faces greater challenges than a conventional team in initiating and
preserving a bond of trust between its members. They emphasise that the team
leader should notice when team morale fades and have a process in place to
address the origin and assist the absolution of conflicts within the team. Through
Online Social Networking solidarity may assist in increasing morale and foster
unanimity among members of a team (Quan-Haase, Wellman, Witte & Hampton,
2002:318).
The final phase in the virtual team cycle calls for action. Edwards and Wilson
(2005:70) explain how this phase should give rise to action being taken and
boundaries being broken. Here the team should also strive to be unique in their
approach to their specific task. In this phase, the team should be in a position to
produce the most inventive and resourceful solutions as they are functioning
within a team they created themselves to adhere to their specific needs. To this
extent Online Social Networks function as the collaborative space for this phase
to take place in as well as the resource for finding solutions through the network.
Another important element promoting network efficiency is leadership (Cross &
Parker, 2004:126), as some leaders have the ability to endorse affluent, highly
flexible networks beneath them by sharing information and managerial
responsibility, thereby linking the people around them and drawing divergent
people in. Coovert and Burke (2005:224) stress the importance of leadership in
virtual groups by stating that the leadership in a work-group can influence not
only whether an advanced technology, like Online Social Networking, is accepted
and implemented, but also how it alters and influences the existing dynamic of
the group.
It has been established that there are certain criteria that, if met, may enhance
the efficacy of a social network. These criteria include leverage, collaboration,
34
sensitivity to uniqueness, a holistic partnership between organisational culture
and human interaction, the use of networking technologies and finally,
leadership. If leadership can contribute to the success of a social network, then
the leaders of modern organisations should realise the benefit there is to gain
from using this technology to the advantage of their organisations.
2.4 The importance of social networks in modern-day organisations
According to Van Laere and Heene (2003:248), globalisation is making
participation to and participation in networks essential to organisations, as
networks have become the key to the success of companies in today’s highly
competitive global economy. Kauhanen-Simanainen (2007:25-26) states that our
idea of an organisation is changing along with networking, information flows and
globalisation and that the cognition of these network activities are diminishing our
traditional perception of what constitutes an organisation.
Horrigan and Rainie (2002:2) established that 44% of individuals with Internet
access at work say that their use of the Internet helps them perform in the work-
place. Ali (2001:342) explains that technological infrastructure has been widely
praised as a useful means to translate explicit knowledge between individuals, as
it "speeds up and facilitates the process of moving explicit knowledge from one
knowledge carrying entity to another". In accordance, Handzic (2004:144)
proposes that knowledge sharing technologies like the Internet and Online Social
Networks, can provide numerous benefits to modern organisations, such as the
enhanced sharing of knowledge by reducing the restrictions associated with
distance and time.
Klobas (2006:107) argues that - with the nature of work becoming more
knowledge intensive - there is a definite need for employees to be able to identify
and recycle information that already exists within the organisation. The
development of intranets was driven by the idea of a company-wide space where
employees can share their knowledge and expertise (Klobas, 2006:107).
However intranets generally do not address a specific need, but simply act as
35
repositories for information such as statistics, telephone numbers and company
forms (Edenius & Borgerson, 2003:124). The more recent emergence of social
networking technologies will enable employees to network on their own terms
and in a more interactive, social environment relevant to the individual as
opposed to intranets that often focus on document and content management,
rather than ensuring innovative collaboration between individuals.
Another important issue that is raised by Gorelick, Milton and April (2004:67) is
globalisation. In multinational organisations, experts are often dispersed inter-
nationally and more often than not have never met each other face to face. New
tools, such as social networking technologies, need to replace traditional
collaboration methods to encourage knowledge sharing and learning between
dispersed employees within these multinational organisations. Handzic (2004:
144) notes that the application of these technologies can provide a forum for
employees to network and examine knowledge "via multiple perspectives" and
assist the distribution of knowledge throughout an organisation – whether
globally diffused or not.
Srikantaiah (2004:153-154) stresses the fact that content is no longer the
"product published on paper" and lists individual knowledge and expertise, as
well as individual interaction as tacit knowledge, that is, 'implicit content' of
foremost importance in modern organisations. He further states that this content
cannot be managed through manual processes in the modern environment and
that an electronic platform is needed to manage content effectively. In the case of
social networking, tacit knowledge is managed through an electronic platform.
But even more remarkable – collaboration between individuals adds value to the
knowledge by creating 'best practice', another tacit knowledge listed by
Srikantaiah (2004:153).
In the modern organisation, the emphasis is on self-organisation and on commu-
nities with a shared interest (such as communities of practice which will be
discussed in subsequent chapters), as interdisciplinary and inter-vocational
36
collaboration is progressively more valuable (Kauhanen-Simainen, 2007:29).
Surowiecki (2005:11) argues that humans have been trained to be 'collectively
smart' and that the average of most things guarantees mediocrity, but with
decision-making, the average of combined input delivers excellence. This
concurs with Coovert and Burke (2005:224) who consider modern leadership,
decision-making and the networked environment as indissoluble.
Tapscott and Williams (2007:245) note that what has in fact changed in the new
economy is that organisations have become networked to such an extent that
they build business networks with partners on an information technology
platform. Tapscott and Williams (2007:246) do raise the concern that although
the formation of these networks is a huge development, the internal structure and
management of organisations have been illusive. Does this effectively mean that
the technology is being applied but not utilised to its full potential, since
management has not yet acknowledged its potential? And what then will this
potential be?
In answer to these questions Tapscott and Williams (2007:247) rather eloquently
compared Social Web technologies to "weapons of mass collaboration". These
'weapons' include blogs, wikis and chat rooms, which enable employees to
engage and co-create with more people and with less difficulty. The existence of
co-creators in the networked environment indicate that a new demographic is
arriving in the workplace – one that cannot imagine a world without Google or
mobile phones (Tapscott & Williams, 2007:247). To this demographic belongs a
type of literacy that is distinctive to the social networked environment as will be
discussed next.
2.5 Corporate literacy – aiding social networks in modern-day organisations
Kauhanen-Simanainen (2007:26) argues that, the better network activities are
understood, the less suitable our current concept of an organisation becomes.
Furthermore, literacy is the skill we trigger to understand the context within which
37
we operate and 'corporate literacy' is the comprehensive set of skills and
information flows activated by an organisation for the implementation of its
strategic goals (Kauhanen-Simanainen, 2007:13-14).
Given this context, Kauhanen-Simanainen (2007:17) emphasises that the
establishment of networks within organisations requires profound literacy skills
that one should look beyond the overt and "move below" instantly accessible
information. Gourova, et al. (2002:72) argues that an organisation's response to
the needs of the rapidly changing technological environment, as well as the shift
towards the knowledge-based "requires as much the right skills and capabilities
as it requires the best infrastructure".
Kauhanen-Simanainen (2007:26) works from the premise that "no man is an
island". This 'new' vision contradicts the conventional vision that information flow
is hierarchic and rigid; in stead, people are viewed as active network operators in
an environment where all activities associated with collaboration and knowledge
sharing are respected and encouraged on all levels of the organisation.
The trend that the production and publication of information is the privilege of a
select few is something of the past; in this day and age almost anyone can
produce and use information (Kauhanen-Simanainen, 2007:114). However, in
order to take up the challenge of being both an information user and producer will
require both practical and technical skills; skills which are developed by the use
of the Internet in modern organisations (Kauhanen-Simanainen, 2007:114).
In modern organisations, it is becoming increasingly popular and expected that
all staff members have to be able to report, guide and communicate effectively
via the Internet (Kauhanen-Simanainen, 2007:119). Gourova, et al. (2002:62)
state that the competitive edge of modern organisations appears increasingly
dependent on "the ability to develop, recruit and retain a technologically sophisti-
cated workforce". Should employees however have insufficient skills, this lack of
skills could hamper the adoption of new technological solutions (Gourova, et al.
38
2002:76). Moreover, the lack of such skills would impact on an organisation's
participation in the globalised work environment.
As a result of globalisation, the dependency of people on each other increases.
This emphasises the need for individual skills and knowledge. In order to
strengthen the strategic position of an organisation, communal literacy, i.e. where
the information skills of different people complement each other, should be
strengthened (Kauhanen-Simanainen, 2007:116).
An organisation that manages the literacy of its staff members supports staff
development and it values the views of its members (Kauhanen-Simanainen,
2007:139). Through the encouragement of Online Social Networking an
organisation fosters its staff members' information skills, that is, by encouraging
them to use this technology corporate literacy is developed. Also, this
development is in touch with the views and opinions of its staff members who, as
previously mentioned, cannot imagine a world without wireless technologies,
personal digital assistants (PDAs), Google and mobile phones. For an
organisation functioning in the knowledge-based economy, addressing the
missing skills of its workforce is a question of setting the right culture; creating
the right mindset is just as important as providing the technology in the first place
(Gourova, et al . 2002:77).
2.6 Conclusion
Do social networks link people online in a valid way and does Online Social
Networking effectively facilitate knowledge sharing through social interaction?
The findings of Quan-Haase, et al. (2002:318) suggest that the Internet provides
a sphere for social interaction; it encourages people to interact with others that
have similar interests and creates social unity. This sense of camaraderie that
can be obtained through social networking may assist in creating a loyal
organisational culture, increasing morale and the general sense of unity among
employees.
39
According to Kauhanen-Simanainen (2007:156), networked organisations are
supported by human interaction and that organisational information is formed in a
process-type manner via joint construction. Ultimately, in the knowledge-based
economy with the emphasis on collaboration, the main benefit of global sourcing
is the incessant opportunities for growth, innovation and diversity (Tapscott &
Williams, 2007:62).
Social networks are not a new phenomenon, and according to Haythornthwaite
and Wellman (2002:32) even before the dawn of the Internet, there was a shift
towards individualised, personalised communities, as opposed to socially
controlling communities. The Internet has simply supported the transformation
towards an interactive networked society. In this society, interaction is the norm
and the Internet the platform for social networks, which encourages the formation
of online communities (Haythornthwaite & Wellman, 2002:33).
The question now arises as to the current state of networked societies globally as
well as in South Africa, especially regarding online interaction and collaboration.
40
Chapter Three:
Social Networking – A global perspective
"The value of a social network is defined not only by
who's on it, but by who's excluded." PAUL SAFFO
3.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, it was established that social networks are not a recent
phenomenon, as a shift towards individualised communities were evident even
before the rise of the Internet. In this chapter, the level of online social interaction
will be explored and international trends, as well as local South African trends,
will be examined and discussed. As an introduction to the trends dominating
cyberspace, a number of evolutionary elements and theories relating to the
networked society that we find ourselves in, will be presented. Metcalfe’s Law,
generally applied to explain the growth of numerous technologies, will be
explored alongside the laws that govern the development of modern technology
and rudiments of the Social Web.
Although this chapter provides an overview of the trends presented on local and
international ground regarding Internet use and Online Social Networking, it does
not provide a comparative analysis of the South African and global arena
regarding Online Social Networking. The reason for the non-comparative
analysis presented in this chapter is the lack of scientific research regarding this
trend in South Africa, and in certain instances, a lack of research on a global
level was also evident. Therefore, in stead of attempting to compare unrelated
elements, this chapter includes an investigation of the trends existing in these
two environments instantaneously, without direct correlation of specific data.
41
3.2 Cyberspace – facilitating social networks
For over a decade, the wide-spread adoption of Internet technologies has
directed the information society in remarkable proportions, altering perceptions
and traditions of various aspects of business (MIT Sloan, 2007:49). These
technologies also include Online Social Networking technology, which is the
focus of this study. It is evident that trends involving modern technologies move
with significant speed, such as search engine technology, e-commerce, blogging
et cetera – and once adopted, these trends seem to evolve into indispensable
mechanisms in the cyberspace machine.
The evolution of cyberspace is not a coincidence, as it has been successfully
argued that technology performs and adapts in patterns of advancement.
According to Moore’s Law the data storage capacity of a microchip doubles every
year or at least every 18 months (Yoon, Bock & Yang, 2007:218). This illustrates
that improving the capability of technology plays a significant role in managing
technology. Gilder's Law argues that the sharp increase in information traffic
facilitated by Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), brought
about the death of distance in the global business world (Yoon, et al, 2007:219).
Gilder argued that bandwidth triples every 12 months at the same cost allowing
people to exchange vast amounts of digital content in cyberspace, which could
only be done by utilising CD (compact disc) or DVD (digital versatile disc or
digital video disc) in the past (Yoon, et al, 2007:219). A vast number of users can
therefore utilise a greater number of services online.
In the 1980s, Robert Metcalfe hypothesised that the value of a service to a user
is proportional to the square of the number of users exploiting that service
(Hendler & Golbeck, 2007:14). Considering this hypothesis and taking the current
advancement of Online Social Networks into consideration, a seemingly obvious
conclusion could be that users are gaining value from these networks, hence
explaining the rapid growth in Online Social Networking. Hendler and Golbeck
(2007) argue that Metcalfe’s Law has also been applied to explain the growth of
42
many technologies, inter alia phones, cell phones, faxes and web applications,
but especially Online Social Networks.
The proportional growth of the users referred to by Metcalfe contributes to the
formation of Online Social Networks. Reed (2001:23) claims that the value of a
network grows exponentially in the number of connections, giving rise to the fact
that in a largely connected network, such as a social networking website, the
value is in the creation of subgroups and that the number of these subgroups
grows exponentially (Hendler & Golbeck, 2007:15). It can thus be argued that
Online Social Networks not only facilitate collaboration between members but
create value in doing so, encouraging even more participation from existing
members and encouraging new members to join in.
In considering some of the laws of technology as described above, it is evident
that the Internet and the technologies associated with it will continue to evolve at
a rapid speed. Through these advancements it can be expected that Online
Social Networks will gain more users and by gaining more users, it will contribute
double the amount of value to the existing online environment.
Yoon, et al. (2007:217) developed an evolutionary stage model of cyberspace,
hereafter referred to as ‘Yoon’s Model’. In this model, Yoon proposes that
cyberspace will develop in four stages. These stages include the first stage,
namely the node stage where an electronic container, such as a PC, exists in a
stand-alone mode and the focus of each node is improving its own information
and knowledge processing capability, relating to Moore's Law of increased
processing power.
The second stage of Yoon’s Model proposes a linking stage, diminishing
distance through the use of ICTs, as proposed by Gilder's Law. The notion of a
linking stage is also supported by a corollary of Metcalfe's Law, which argues
that, for a network effect to happen, linking must be present. It is as a result of
the linking between web pages that the Web has advanced as it has; it is widely
accepted that "hyperlinking is the foundation of the Web" (O’Reilly, 2005:5). If it
43
were not for these links, information would get "cut and pasted into larger and
larger individual pages" and instead of the Web we would have a vast number of
disconnected pages with no index (Hendler & Golbeck, 2007:15).
Metcalfe's Law forms the basis of the third stage of the cyberspace model
proposed by Yoon’s Model. In this stage, it is proposed that the links mentioned
in the second stage ultimately lead to a network of nodes and the formation of a
virtual community. Within this virtual community, users can create content – a
critical aspect of Social Web applications (Hendler & Golbeck, 2007:15). As
discussed in the preceding chapter, ‘Social Web’ is a concept brainstormed by
Tim O’Reilly, president and Chief Executive Officer of O’Reilly Media and O’Reilly
Media’s Vice President, Dale Dougherty (O’Reilly, 2005:1).
The essentials of the Social Web, as conceived by O'Reilly and Dougherty,
resonate in the third stage of Yoon’s Model. When discussing the technologies of
the Social Web, O’Reilly (2005:4) notes that every consumer "brings his own
resources to the party", illustrating an implicit "architecture of participation", and
an inherent ethic of cooperation in which the technology service acts as an
intelligent broker, harnessing the power of the users themselves.
When taking the theories mentioned above into consideration, it is clear that
increased collaboration will be at the order of the day in future, leading us into the
next realm of connectedness. Yoon, et al. (2007:220) define this fourth stage
Yoon's Model as the "final evolutionary stage" but indeed not the "ultimate stage"
of cyberspace. In this stage, networks pile up and synergy among networks will
occur in a meta-networked space; however, the law that will govern this next
stage of cyberspace is yet uncertain.
It has been established that the Internet has evolved from linked pages to virtual
communities, interacting on an individual and networked level. In the following
section, the use of the Internet and specifically Online Social Networking
technologies will be investigated on a global and local level. Internet use is
44
examined to provide a broad background to the use of Online Social Networking
technologies, pertaining to the third stage of Yoon’s Model.
3.3 A global picture
3.3.1 Global Internet use
There are an estimated 100 million websites in existence today, with about 16%
of the global population participating actively online (Paul Budde Communication,
2008:1). The growth of the Internet has been phenomenal during the past two
decades, as is evident in Table 3.1 below.
Year Approximate Internet users (billions)
1990 .010
1991 .011
1992 .012
1993 .015
1994 .017
1995 .020
1996 .040
1997 .060
1998 .100
1999 .250
2000 .350
2001 .450
2002 .606
2003 .725
2004 .840
2005 .940
2006 1.040
2007 1.100
Table 3.1: Worldwide Internet users, 1990-2007 (Adapted from Paul Budde Communication, 2008:2)
45
Europe generates 35.3% of the global Internet access market's value, while the
United States of America accounts for 32.1% of the global market's value
(Datamonitor, 2007:11). As shown in Figure 3.1 below, Asia-Pacific is the only
other major contributor to the global Internet access market, with a market
segmentation of 25.3%.
Figure 3.1: Internet access market segmentation, % share by value (Adapted from Datamonitor, 2007:11)
From these statistics, it is evident that Europe and the United States dominate
the global Internet access market. Showing a growth of 3.6% in 2006, the United
Kingdom's (UK) Internet access market, with a volume of 38.8 million users,
reached a value of $8.2 billion (Datamonitor, 2007:9-28). During the same year,
the United States' (US) Internet access market grew by 4.1%, reaching a volume
of 213 million users. The value of the US market at that time was $44.2 billion
(Datamonitor, 2007:9-29).
It is estimated that, by 2011, the Internet access market in the US will have a
value of $58.4 billion, showing an increase of 32.3% since 2006. At this time the
US Internet access market should host an estimated 249.6 million users
(Datamonitor, 2007:9-29). Estimates regarding the UK Internet access market
are expecting a growth of 20.1%, increasing the volume of users to 46.6 million
by 2011.
The above estimation of Internet access market growth is supported by the
theories of Moore and Metcalfe, proposing that processing power will continue to
46
increase substantially and that networks will continue to grow as value is
increased by the number of participants in the network. The growth of Internet
participation is also evident in the most recent collaborative Internet technology
developments and applications termed 'Social Web' (see preceding chapter for
Social Web discussions). The Internet now has more capabilities and possibilities
than ever before. Examples of Social Web developments include, inter alia
instant messaging (IM), peer-to-peer file sharing (P2P), wikis, real simple
syndication (RSS), blogs, social networks and technologies supporting new
business models such as pay-per-click advertising (Paul Budde Communication,
2008:3).
Year (January) Approximate Hosts
1984 1,000
1991 376,000
1992 727,000
1993 1,300,000
1994 2,200,000
1995 5,000,000
1996 9,400,000
1997 16,000,000
1998 29,000,000
1999 43,000,000
2000 72,000,000
2001 109,000,000
2002 147,000,000
2003 171,000,000
2004 285,000,000
2005 353,000,000
2006 440,000,000 Table 3.2: Growth in the number of Internet hosts – 1984-2006
(Adapted from Paul Budde Communication, 2008:4)
47
As shown in Table 3.2 (previous page), the total number of Internet hosts,
described as computers that are permanent or temporarily interconnected, has
also increased considerably since 1991. It is, however, the concentration of
Internet hosts relative to population size that emphasises the difference between
connectivity in the developed and developing world (Paul Budde Communication,
2008:4).
Hunt (2008) foresees a much different online environment as a result of Social
Web applications. He predicts that search engines will return more relevant but
fewer results; spam will no longer occur and that users will be able to find their
contacts' details at any time and without effort. There is a good possibility that
these predictions will be realised through the use of Social Web technologies.
Hunt's predictions are already mirrored in the upcoming generation of Social Web
applications aptly named 'Enterprise 2.0' (E2.0). Matuszak (2007:1) describes
E2.0 as the use of a complete set of emergent technologies, viz. wikis, blogs,
tagging and social networking tools, both internally and beyond the borders of an
enterprise. The way we work is changing rapidly and competitive advantage is
offered to organisations that utilise the tools brought to us through Social Web.
Marouf (2007:111) states that organisations should conceptualise themselves as
social communities in which knowledge is structured, coordinated and shared.
Online Social Networks can assist in all three these elements.
Matuszak (2007:4) mentions that the success of large social networking sites,
such as Facebook and MySpace, has transferred attention to websites dedicated
to the same social networking principle for use by professionals. LinkedIn is an
example of such a professional Online Social Network, as a user’s profile is
aimed at including professional rather than personal information. Matuszak
(2007:4) states that social networking software exemplifies even more effectively
than wikis and blogs, the power of network effects in E2.0 software, where
"product value rises with the number of users".
48
Through the development of applications and trends such as E2.0, it is evident
that the value of social networking is gradually being recognised as a positive
contributor to organisational value and productivity.
3.3.2 Global social networking trends
Social networking as a trend is on the rise, as is evident in the statistics shown in
Table 3.3 below. This table lists the most popular social networking sites among
US Internet users, ranked by visits, indicating the percentage market share and
percentage change in the months December 2006 and December 2007. In this
table it is apparent that the major Online Social Networks received an increased
percentage of visits year over year by US visitors.
Network December 2006
% share December 2007
% share % Change
1. MySpace 78.89 72.32 -8
2. Facebook 10.59 16.03 51
3. Bebo .99 1.09 10
4. BlackPlanet.com 0.96 1.04 8
5. Club Penguin 0.54 0.80 48
6. Gaiaonline.com 0.58 0.76 31
7. myYearbook 0.14 0.73 407
8. hi5 0.64 0.63 -1
9. Classmates 0.58 0.55 -7
10. Yahoo! 360 0.91 0.54 -40 Table 3.3: Top 10 social networking sites among US Internet users
(Adapted from eMarketer, 2008)
In addition to the above table, eMarketer (2008), reveals that overall visits to a
sample of 53 leading social network sites increased by 4% in each consecutive
year and that visiting the top sites, namely, MySpace, Facebook and Bebo, are
becoming a fixed activity in user's online routines.
Globally, Facebook received 6.5 million unique visitors in Augusts 2007; this site
is now visited by one in every five Britons online (NetRatings, 2007:1-2). In mid-
49
2007, 48% of the UK's online population visited at least one of the ten most
popular social networking sites. In August 2007, Facebook accrued the most total
time spent by Britons with 991 million minutes, closely followed by Bebo and
MySpace with 600 million and 540 million minutes respectively (NetRatings,
2007:1-2).
In the US, Internet users spend on average more than seven hours per week on
social networking sites and 31% of Online Social Networkers spend more time on
the Internet on average since they started using a social networking site. US
Internet users listed various reasons to join and continuously use social
networks: 48% of these users claim that they are "having more fun in life in
general"; while 57% of the same group say they have found more people who
share their interests and hobbies (Marketing Charts, 2007b:1-2).
Large online portals are already joining the social networking trend. Yahoo!
launched a professional social networking service called Y!Kickstart, aimed at
college students and graduates to allow them to connect with alumni and
organisations to find employment, internships and career guidance (MarketLine,
2007). Google has launched an initiative by the name of OpenSocial, allowing
developers to create applications using a common mark-up language. The focus
of this initiative is to create a data portability reference design which will
document the best practices from different networking sites to "integrate open
standards and protocols for maximum interoperability" (Marketline, 2008). These
initiatives will undoubtedly set the standard which will ultimately guide Online
Social Networking to become as prevalent in everyday functions as e-mail has
become.
3.4 A local picture
3.4.1 Internet use in South Africa
According to mid-2007 estimates, South Africa's population stands at 47.9 million
people (Statistics South Africa, 2007). The South African Internet access market
50
has a volume of 4.9 million users, with an annual growth rate of 12.2% (Data-
monitor, 2007b:10). This shows that 10.2% of the South African population has
access to the Internet and implied access to Online Social Networks.
Internet access in South Africa is at present a comparative luxury that not every
individual can afford. The cost of having Internet access at home ranges from
R49 to R1500 per month (iBurst, 2007; MWeb, 2007; Polka, 2007), i.e. at the
current conversion rate $5 - $143 per month (as on 28 October 2008).
Perceptibly, with an unemployment rate of 25.5% in South Africa, Internet access
becomes an extravagant expenditure to the average South African (IndexMundi,
2007).
Telkom is to date the only fixed-line telecoms provider in South Africa, though
developments by another telecoms provider is currently in progress. This lack of
competition in the market has caused a backlog regarding the installation of
ADSL lines. The voice-only market segment in South Africa constitutes 77% of
the whole, while the non-voice segment constitutes the remaining 23%. The non-
voice segment includes ADSL Internet access (Datamonitor, 2007b:11).
Sub-Saharan Africa is the least urbanised region in the world and it is estimated
that 99% of all localities in Sub-Saharan Africa are villages that struggle to join
the new world of Internet and ICTs as a result of the high connectivity cost, lack
of electricity and low incomes (International Telecommunication Union, 2007:1-
4). The electricity crisis currently being experienced in South Africa is a major
hindrance to the advancement of Internet access countrywide. The source of the
problem, as described by Eskom (2007:54), is the lack of independent power
producers and private sector investments, which resulted in a shortfall of power
plants in the country.
Another obstacle facing the South African population with regards to Internet use
is the fact that English is not the most popular language of choice in South Africa.
The most popular language in South Africa is isiZulu, with 25% of the population
utilising it as a first language (Statistics South Africa, 2007). On the Internet
51
however, English is the most popular language according to Internet World Stats
(2007) and globally, two out of three Internet users are English-speaking. As
shown in Figure 3.2 below, only 8% of the South African population speak
English as their first language.
Figure 3.2: South Africa's population by language
(Adapted from Statistics South Africa, 2007)
According to Flammia and Saunders (2007:1899), the fact that the United States
played a pivotal role in the development of the Internet led to the effect of English
being initially used as the language of the Internet. It is evident that the
predominantly English nature of the online environment might add to the low
percentage of South Africans participating online, since the majority of South
Africans do not speak English as a first language.
Pimienta (2005:27) argues that the percentage of English speaking Internet
users has steadily declined since 1993; nonetheless, English is still the dominant
language of Internet users to date. It is expected that this situation of English-
speaking dominance will continue for at least another two to three years (Paul
Budde Communication, 2008:7), potentially alienating a vast majority of South
52
Africans from joining into online social communities as a result of this language
barrier.
Despite the abovementioned and other difficulties facing the South African
Internet access market, it is forecasted that, in 2011, this market will have a
volume of 7.3 million users; an increase of 48.7% since 2006 (Datamonitor,
2007b:3). In order to reach this target, the market will have to show an annual
growth of 8.3% in the period from 2006 to 2011 (Datamonitor, 2007b:21).
According to Nielsen Online (2007), News24.com is the most popular online
brand in South Africa with 21% of South African online users visiting this site
during November 2007. E-mail, instant messaging and online chat is ranked the
fifth most popular online activity by South Africans, with a total time of 545,838
hours dedicated to these activities during August 2007 (NetRatings, 2007b).
3.4.2 Social networking trends in South Africa
Mametse (2007) notes that South Africa is about two years behind in terms of
catching on to the popular social networking brands. According to Brink (2007), it
is not only students utilising social networks, rather "a growing number of South
African organisations [now] have their own communities on Facebook". These
online organisational communities can be applied to ensure that knowledge is
shared between employees. Clarke and Rollo (2001:184) mention that
knowledge only reaches its full potential to create economic value when it is
embodied in organisational routines. Online Social Networks can assist South
African companies in creating such organisational routines and converting crucial
individual knowledge into organisational knowledge.
Gagliardone (2008) acknowledges that blogs and wikis are still new to the African
context, but contests the implications of this fact by noting that motivation comes
before technology. In other words, students and employees have to first
understand that social networking technologies will extend their opportunities to
work for a better future before they attempt to familiarise themselves with the
53
technology. For South Africans, this could take some time as the obstacles faced
to simply access the Internet, as mentioned above, first have to be overcome.
Once this has been achieved, South Africans will be able to familiarise
themselves with the potential of social networking technologies, just as they have
done with cell phone technology.
Naidoo (2008) mentions that South African businesses have visibly bought into
the potential for improved online marketing campaigns in 2008, with 552,000
South Africans currently listed as members on the popular social networking site,
Facebook. According to Facebook statistics (Marketing Charts, 2007b), South
Africa is sixth on the list out of the top ten countries with active users – outside of
the US, Canada and the UK. For South Africa to be mentioned among
technologically advanced countries such as the US and UK, proves that the
phenomenon of social networking is just as much a timely issue locally as any
other place globally.
Mobile social networking is also set to rise in South Africa in 2008 as applications
such as 'Nok Nok' and 'Meep' earlier on this year set out to counteract the
monopoly that MXit currently has over the South African mobile market (Naidoo,
2008). She also discusses that mobile social networking is more popular than
other forms of technology-driven social networking in South Africa. This is
because, at this point in time, it is less expensive and faster than accessing the
Internet through a PC or laptop and there are more mobile handsets in circulation
in South Africa than there are PCs.
Examples of South African Online Social Networking sites include Vrinne2.0, a
website created to connect South Africans from all over the world
(http://www.vrinne.com); Student Village which a is a portal aimed at connecting
students from tertiary education institutions (http://www.studentvillage.co.za);
mySpot which has a very similar look and feel to Facebook, but covers South
African current affairs such as the load shedding crisis and the FIFA 2010 Soccer
World Cup (http://myspot.co.za); and Muti which is a social bookmarking site
54
where users can submit links to news stories, articles or content of interest
(http://www.muti.co.za). These examples are general, public or business-oriented
Online Social Networking initiatives, but examples of higher education
institution's (HEI) initiatives do also exist, albeit limited to a few HEIs in South
Africa.
The University of Cape Town (UCT) has taken initiative regarding its own
blogosphere and has a site dedicated to the bloggings of students and staff
(http://blogs.uct.ac.za). On this site, staff and students are blogging about a vast
array of topics, from helping each other with practicals, to explaining the function
of committees such as the 'Academic Planning Unit'. These blogs facilitate
discussion on academic matters, staff issues and general life on the UCT
campus.
The Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (NMMU) in the Eastern-Cape
Province is considerably active on Facebook (http://www.facebook.com), with
groups that include NMMU Law, NMMU Pharmacy, NMMU Alumni and various
other campus groups and societies. The main NMMU group on Facebook seems
the most popular with over 900 members. An interesting post on this homepage
was that of a Matric student, i.e. a student completing secondary education in
South Africa, who asked:
I am currently in Grade 12 at The Brandwag Highschool in Uithenhage. I have the following subjects: Afrikaans
English Home language Maths Life Orientation Geographie [sic] Tourism Hotel Management and catering
With these subjects I do not have matriculation exemption. I would like to maybe study Tourism management next year at NMMU. If my grades stay good, is there ANY WAY I could still be admitted at NMMU without Matriculation Exemption?
A week later, a current NMMU student replied by supplying a URL for the
appropriate website that this student could visit to gain information surrounding
55
his or her enquiry. This example supports the notion that social networking sites
could serve as an online marketing tool to universities and, if utilised for the
purpose, it could also enhance productivity. This student did not have to phone a
switchboard only to be put through to irrelevant departments.
The University of Johannesburg's (UJ) Facebook presence is manifested in a
group dedicated to students and alumni of this institution. The group has over
1500 members, who add scenic photo's of the campus, facts about the university
and upcoming events on the site. A trend noticed on the UJ homepage on
Facebook, was the number of recruiters offering job opportunities to graduates,
who can apply to these positions by clicking on a link provided. An element
lacking on the UJ Facebook page is the presence of UJ employees who do not
feature in any way on this site.
The opportunity therefore exists for HEIs to expand on and tap into the large
numbers of students and potential students who would willingly join and
participate in institution-specific social networks, developed by their universities
to encourage collaboration and facilitate typical HEI-related processes. For
example, Gagliardone (2008) mentions providing manuals to university students
through Online Social Networks, under creative commons licences which will
create a "common support or a technology-enhanced platform for continuing to
work together".
3.5 Conclusion
Van Laere and Heene (2003:255) argue that collaboration creates imperatives
for organisations to consider participating in networks and to "reflect upon the
strategic importance of social networks for the firm". Social networks provide the
platform for this type of collaboration, as members of these networks are given
authorship to publish what they feel as relevant.
56
In this chapter, various modern laws of technology were mentioned and
discussed. A series of truths recur in each of the scenarios mentioned by these
laws; change regarding technology is quick and inevitable, sharing information
leads to an enhancement of products and services and collaboration adds value
to networks. The culmination of these truths is no more accurate in any other
technology than that of Online Social Networks.
This chapter also investigated the fact that social networking sites such as
MySpace and Facebook have made an extremely large impression on the global
Internet society. Based on statistics as discussed and illustrated above, it is
evident that the impression made by these and similar sites is in fact more than
notable and the trend is definitely growing significantly. In South Africa, the social
networking trend is also manifesting itself strongly, not only in general terms, but
within tertiary institutions such as universities – much the same as it had in the
US. The opportunities presented by this phenomenon should be harnessed and
theoretical expectations should be practically applied to utilise these collaborative
technologies to their full potential.
However, a level of scepticism still exists regarding the value of Online Social
Networks in the workplace. In the following chapter, an analysis of the effect,
consequences and possible disadvantages of Online Social Networking will be
discussed.
57
Chapter Four:
The effects of Online Social Networking
"I'm a great believer that any tool that
enhances communication has profound effects in terms of how people can learn from each other, and how they can achieve
the kind of freedoms that they're interested in." BILL GATES
4.1 Introduction
In Chapter Three, a global perspective of Online Social Networking was given by
investigating the driving forces behind technology and a national perspective was
subsequently provided. It was established that, throughout the history of the
Internet, new technologies evolved quickly and that networked technologies gain
value from the individuals who apply these technologies. In this chapter, the
focus will fall on positive and negative effects that may be experienced by
organisations and individuals if employees are granted unrestricted access to
Online Social Networks.
Online Social Networks are being recognised as more than tools that facilitate
social interaction. According to Clarke and Rollo (2001:179), the current
revolutions experienced in the global economy, namely the information and
communication technology (ICT) revolution and knowledge revolution, stimulate
one another. It is only through "the fusion" of the Internet and the rapidly
developing knowledge tools in the knowledge-driven global economy that the
implication of integrated electronic business and knowledge management, will be
realised (Clarke & Rollo, 2001:179).
58
Clarke and Rollo (2001:179-180) further state that the new economy, as
discussed in Chapter Two, is being shaped by these revolutions – and electronic
networks, such as Online Social Networks, are one of the tools that may aid
these revolutions. This view can be summarised in the words: "The Internet is
both an effect and a cause of the new economy" (Clarke & Rollo, 2001:180).
They also state that electronic networks are the new technological platforms that
knowledge management structures and tools are intended to exploit (Clarke &
Rollo, 2001:181).
Taking the above statements into consideration, this chapter will investigate the
implication of Online Social Networking within organisations that function within
the global knowledge-based economy.
The first subject receiving attention in this chapter is the effect that the use of
Online Social Networks may have on employee productivity. Online Social
Networks such as MySpace and Facebook are not widely regarded as business
tools, as the 'social' aspect tends to portray an image of socialising with friends
and family on a personal level. Discussion in Chapter One (see section 1.4.1.4)
and in Chapter Two (see section 2.3.6) is reiterated here, namely that Online
Social Networking sites "run productivity into the ground", as employees spend
hours socialising on these sites (IBM, 2007:7).
Secondly, this chapter will investigate Online Social Networking and the issue of
information privacy. According to Gross and Acquisti (2005:2), the participation
rates to Online Social Networking are staggering and the amount and type of
information participants freely reveal is equally shocking. Taking into account that
Online Social Networks require a certain amount of information to be divulged by
its users, certain issues and the possible risks posed by Online Social Networks,
such as secondary data collection, social networking spam and corporate
espionage, will be explored.
Also in this chapter, the value of social capital within organisations receives
attention, which can benefit the organisation as a whole. Hazleton and Kennan
59
(2000:85-86) note that modern-day organisations take every aspect of their daily
activities into consideration when determining which functions add value to the
organisation. 'Social capital' provides an explanation of how intangible assets can
contribute to these activities and be transformed into other forms of 'capital'. In
this chapter, the contribution that Online Social Networks may make towards the
social capital of an organisation will be investigated.
Finally, the detrimental technological consequences that might arise from
employees' unrestrained use of Online Social Networks will be discussed. This
includes an investigation of issues akin to bandwidth overload and malware
threats such as viruses and spyware to ascertain whether participation in Online
Social Networks may contribute to these technological pitfalls. In conclusion, the
effects of Online Social Networking will be summarised with reference to the
potential positive and negative impact it may have on employee productivity.
4.2 Online Social Networking, productivity and Communities of Practice
Before the impact of Online Social Networking on employee productivity can be
investigated in this chapter, a definition of 'productivity' should be discussed.
According to the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (2008), productivity can be
defined as "…having the quality or power of producing, especially in abundance".
Bernolak (1997:204) defines productivity as follows:
"Productivity means how much and how well we produce from the
resources used. If we produce more or better goods from the same
resources, we increase productivity. Or if we produce the same goods from
lesser resources, we also increase productivity. By 'resources' we mean all
human and physical resources, i.e. the people who produce the goods or
provide the services, and the assets with which the people can produce the
goods or provide the services."
60
A definition by the JPC, i.e. the eminent Japan Productivity Centre, (Tangen,
2005:36), describes productivity as:
"What man can accomplish with material, capital and technology.
Productivity is mainly an issue of personal manner. It is an attitude that we
must continuously improve ourselves."
For the purpose of this study, 'productivity' will include the time spent by an
employee actively executing the job he or she has been hired to do, in order to
produce the desired outcomes expected from the employee's job description.
How Online Social Networking potentially impacts on an employee's productivity
is subsequently discussed by looking into how people who share the same
interest tend to form groups and tend to 'connect' and interact with others.
Boothby (2006:1) is of the opinion that today's average graduate is not simply a
knowledge worker, but an interactive knowledge worker capable of being a highly
networked internal entrepreneur and innovation creator. The reason why
knowledge workers are showing an inclination towards 'connectedness' is not
simply knowledge of technologies such as e-mail, BlackBerries and text
messaging, but the ability to work efficiently and interactively within large virtual
teams (Boothby, 2006:1).
These large virtual teams can be described as 'Communities of Practice', also
known as CoPs or Communities of Interest, viz. "[g]roups of people who share a
passion for something that they know how to do, and who interact regularly in
order to learn how to do it better" (Wenger, 2004:2). Boothby (2006:1) argues
that today's knowledge worker can work efficiently in large virtual teams and
Online Social Networking creates such an electronic platform. Wenger (2004:2)
concurs and adds that groups of people, who interact regularly, such as virtual
teams, are bound to improve their skills through knowledge sharing. Therefore,
notice should be taken to knowledge workers of today who not only function
efficiently in large virtual teams, but thrive in such an environment to an extent
61
where they advance their knowledge sharing skills which could enhance
productivity.
If a virtual Community of Practice can increase knowledge sharing, then Online
Social Networks may prove to be the catalyst to promote interaction. Boyd and
Ellison (2007:211) describe social networking sites as web-based services that
allow individuals to:
(a) construct a profile within a bounded system,
(b) articulate a list of users with whom they share a connection, and
(c) view and navigate their list of connections and those made by others within
the system.
If the concept of virtual teams interacting within a Community of Practice by
utilising the platform provided by an Online Social Network is considered, the
effect may be an increase in productivity of employees actively searching the list
of contacts in other user's profiles and updating and growing their own list of
users or contacts. If these 'connected individuals' spend time interacting with
other individuals who possess knowledge about the relevant working
environment, increased knowledge sharing is likely to take place. With this in
mind, the potential positive effects of virtual Communities of Practice will be
further investigated.
4.2.1 Positive effects of virtual Communities of Practice on productivity
In an organisational context, value can be found in attracting and developing
individuals who hold specialised knowledge, but value can also be found in
promoting and encouraging the social networks that enable the sharing of
knowledge between these individuals (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 2002:38). By
connecting these individuals, a 'Community of Practice' is formed. Lesser and
Storck (2001:832) argue that, as organisations grow, Community of Practice
62
allow members to engage in sharing and learning, based on their common
interests.
In addition, the findings of a recent KPMG survey (2007:9) support the notion that
Online Social Networks may stimulate knowledge sharing in virtual Communities
of Practice. In the KPMG survey, 47% of employees acknowledged that they use
social or professional networking sites on a daily basis. A further 75% of
respondents agreed or strongly agreed that Social Web technologies, such as
Online Social Networking technologies, will foster innovation at their organisation
as employees "use it to communicate and share ideas" (KPMG, 2007:2).
Lesser and Storck (2001:834-839) also link Communities of Practice and
organisational performance by highlighting the following areas that were
impacted positively by the formation of Communities of Practice:
• Decreasing the learning curve of new employees. By encouraging a
social networking culture within an organisation, the formation of Commu-
nities of Practice will decrease the time it takes new employees to
familiarise themselves with the company's customs and activities.
• Responding more rapidly to customer needs and inquiries. Communi-
ties of Practice can enable the speedy and effective transfer of knowledge
needed to address customer issues.
• Reducing rework and preventing "reinvention of the wheel". The
availability of a common, virtual workspace such as an Online Social
Network enhances the ability of employees to locate, access and apply
existing intellectual capital to new situations.
• Spawning new ideas for products and services. Communities of
Practice create a safe environment where people feel comfortable in
sharing challenges and possible solutions. By combining the dynamic of a
Community of Practice with the collaboration opportunity offered by Online
63
Social Networks, divergent points of view will spark innovation within the
Community of Practice, leading to new ideas and better products.
Wasko and Faraj (2005:37) contrast traditional Communities of Practice and
electronic networks, since the participants in an electronic network environment
are typically strangers who will often never meet. In the electronic network
environment, knowledge seekers have no control or assurances that their inputs
or ideas will be reciprocated with useful, valuable responses. "Lurkers may draw
upon the knowledge of others without contributing anything in return" (Wasko &
Faraj, 2005:37). Participation in Communities of Practice therefore does not
necessarily guaranty the mutual sharing of resources between members.
However, if the option of an organisation-specific Online Social Network is
considered, the risk of free-loaders abusing the intellectual capital within the
Community of Practice can be decreased. An organisation-specific Online Social
Network, aimed at facilitating virtual Communities of Practice, will provide its
members with a secure platform where interaction will exist only between users
who know each other or who are introduced through a mutual contact.
Wenger and Snyder (2000:142) provide a comparison of Communities of
Practice, formal work groups, project teams and informal networks in their
"Snapshot Comparison" in Table 4.1 that follows on the next page. For the
purpose of this study, the comparison between a Community of Practice and an
informal network, being linked to an Online Social Network, will be discussed.
These two concepts are indicated in grey in Table 4.1. In the comparison by
Wenger and Snyder (2000:142), it is noted that the purpose of a Community of
Practice is to develop members' capabilities. The purpose of an informal network
in the business environment, like an Online Social Network, is to collect and pass
on business information. If the purposes of these groups are combined within a
virtual team, the members may experience capacity building whilst sharing
business information, adding value in two areas simultaneously.
64
What is the purpose?
Who belongs?
What holds it together?
How long does it last?
Community of Practice
To develop member's
capabilities; to build and exchange knowledge
Members who select
themselves
Passion, commitment
and identification
with the group's
expertise
As long as there is
interest in maintaining the group
Formal work group
To deliver a product or
service
Everyone who reports to the
group's manager
Job requirements and common
goals
Until the next reorganisation
Project team
To accomplish a specified
task
Employees assigned by
senior management
The project's milestones and goals
Until the project has
been completed
Informal network
To collect and pass on business
information
Friends and business
acquaintances Mutual needs
As long as people have a
reason to connect
Table 4.1: Communities of Practice – A snapshot comparison (Adapted from Wenger & Snyder, 2000:142)
The same principle is valid when the question "What holds them together?" is
considered. When an informal network and a Community of Practice are
combined, the group is held together by passion, commitment and identification
with expertise, but also by mutual needs. Members share interests, and for good
measure gain knowledge by interacting with one another (Wenger & Snyder,
2000:142).
By considering the above "Snapshot Comparison" proposed by Wenger and
Snyder (2000:142), it may become clear that the combination of a Community of
Practice within an informal network such as an Online Social Network could
prove advantageous. By combining these two forms of organisational structures,
the purpose of both of these structures will be executed simultaneously and the
needs that justify the formation of these structures are met concurrently.
The purpose of the Community of Practice to build capacity will be met while the
purpose of the informal network, namely to collect and distribute business
65
information, will also be met. The two groups will be held together by the needs
that drive them initially; the Community of Practice by the need to interact with
individuals who share their passion and commitment, and the informal network
will be held together by the recognition of mutual needs.
4.2.2 Negative effects of Online Social Networking on productivity
Perkins (2008:44) believes that social networking for personal purposes can
affect corporate productivity negatively if employees spend work hours indulging
in this activity. Supporting Perkins' concern, Sophos (2008a:13) found that social
networking can become extremely addictive, leading one in seven users to be
logged into their Facebook profile virtually all the time during office hours.
According to Condon (2007:3), social networking is faced with the same suspici-
ous reception that e-mail was initially faced with, but has the potential to deliver
the same and other benefits.
However, alarmingly, some users openly boast about logging in to their accounts
on Facebook instead of continuing with daily tasks at work (Sophos, 2008a:13).
Condon (2007:3) states that the problem in these cases is not necessarily the
technologies available to employees, but rather whether the most suitable
individuals were recruited in the first place and if these people were motivated by
being given the freedom to exploit the available technologies. "Time-wasters will
always find a way to waste time" (Condon, 2007:3). People with an internal locus
of control should therefore be able to not waste time to the detriment of the
company.
If one refers to the definition of productivity by the Japan Productivity Centre as
mentioned earlier in this chapter, it is suggested that employees, and not the
technologies available to them, should be held accountable for their actions. In
their definition, productivity is argued to be "an issue of personal manner" and
that it is a mind-set that should be altered within each individual (Tangen, 2005:
36). If an individual has a productive personal manner, the availability of certain
66
technologies should not deter the individual from being as productive as he or
she might have been had this technology been absent.
The danger of an employee 'multi-tasking' by continuing with the daily tasks at
hand as well as participating in an Online Social Network is highlighted by a
study done by Aral, Brynjolfsson and Van Alstyne (2008:17). They found that
multi-tasking, such as the continuation of work activities combined with Online
Social Networking, does initially yield productivity benefits, but as the level of
multi-tasking increases, the marginal benefits of multi-tasking eventually decline.
These findings do not reflect positively on Online Social Networking, as most
employees are logged into Online Social Networking sites throughout the day
(i.e. according to Sophos, 2008a:13), implying that they are multi-tasking their
daily work activities with activities associated with Online Social Networking.
An organisation can support its employees' productive utilisation of technology,
and decrease the dilapidating effect of multi-tasking by incorporating continuous
learning programmes. Condon (2007:1) notes that Social Web technologies,
such as Online Social Networks, have the potential to boost performance if a
company's workforce is well-trained. Employees should be trained to use
technologies to make a real difference in the way they function, rather than being
prohibited to use certain technologies by policies and other measures. Younger
employees will probably be technologically skilled to the extent of finding a way
around an information policy blocking social networking sites. If faced with
constricting policies, these young knowledge workers will leave a restrictive
company to work in an environment that "more closely matches the way they run
the rest of their lives" (Condon, 2007:3).
In summary, if an employee is spending any amount of time at work socialising
with friends and family on an Online Social Network, then an organisation
certainly has a right to question the productivity of that employee. However,
social networking can also allow individuals' knowledge to be distributed more
effectively among a company's workforce (Liebowitz, 2007:18). The key reason
67
why organisations are interested in social networking is the possibility of
knowledge creation, as "knowledge creation, through knowledge capture, sharing
and application, leads to the innovation of new products and services" (Liebowitz,
2007:19).
Knowledge creation is typical of Communities of Practice in general and the
above discussion focussed on virtual Communities of Practice and the impact of
Online Social Networking on productivity. The next discussion will investigate
Online Social Networks and information privacy.
4.3 Online Social Networks and information privacy
From the previous discussions, it has been seen that the computer and computer
networks per se have evolved into an instrument characterised by social contact
in 'virtual worlds', where like-minded individuals can interact. However, these
online communities are also tantamount to threats such as a loss of privacy, the
risk of exploitation and the loss of identity (Kerbs, 2005:545).
Users of Online Social Network technologies are able to access these networks
by using numerous devices, viz. PCs, cell phones, and laptop computers.
Gritzalis (2004:255) notes that the ability for users to access these services from
practically anywhere has expanded the scope of ineligible individuals that foster
vindictive intensions. The European Network and Information Security Agency
(see ENISA, 2007:3) mentions that the commercial success of an Online Social
Network rests on the number of users it attracts, placing pressure on these
networks to increase their number of users. This aspect in turn entices these
networks to allow users to add 'friends' or 'contacts' without much effort. This,
together with the fact that humans have a natural desire to connect with others,
can make users less discriminating in accepting 'friend requests', which may
have certain negative consequences (ENISA, 2007:3).
The less discerning culture fostered by these technologies as described above,
may lead to Online Social Networking users making disclosures within a virtual
68
community environment that are not appropriate to a public forum, and that could
give rise to privacy risks for both Online Social Networking users and their
organisations associated (ENISA, 2007:3). The following section of this chapter
will investigate some of the risks related to Online Social Networking, including
social networking spam, corporate espionage and secondary data collection.
4.3.1 Secondary data collection
ENISA (2007:3) mentions the threat of secondary data collection in addition to
data that is knowingly disclosed in an Online Social Network user's profile as
depicted in Figure 4.1 below.
Figure 4.1: A Facebook user's profile showing personal details (http://www.facebook.com)
69
Online Social Networks function on the principle of a user creating a personalised
profile by providing accurate, personal information and displaying this information
on a profile page. As shown in the preceding Figure 4.1, a Facebook user's
profile offers a fair amount of personal detail at first glance, without having to
search for the information, such as the user's name; the user's marital status,
and the name of his/her spouse; the user's birthday; and a profile picture, which
more often than not shows a current head-shot photo of the user.
This information is knowingly provided by the user and a user may choose not to
display the information on their profile page. In Figure 4.2 that follows, the user's
profile was edited to 'hide' certain information. Compared to Figure 4.1, the
profile displayed below now portrays less details of a personal nature.
Figure 4.2: A Facebook user's profile showing less details of a personal nature
(http://www.facebook.com)
The ability to hide certain information on a profile may act as a security measure
to limit the amount of information divulged by an individual. However, many
70
Online Social Networking users do not realise that they have the option to hide
this information or they simply want to reveal the information by choice (Gross &
Acquisti, 2005:4).
ENISA (2007:9) explains that, although information disclosed on social network-
ing sites is presumably only used by the network administrators, it can also be
used for target marketing, price discrimination or the conveying of data to third
parties through resale. These covert uses of social networking sites tend to have
an 'anti'-social effect. 'Anti-social networking' is listed as one of the top eleven
technological threats to be concerned about in 2008, according to CMP Media
Inc. (Claburn, 2008).
The term 'anti-social networking' refers to the predictions that cyber criminals will
"step up efforts to pillage personal information from the likes of Facebook,
MySpace…" as the plots to steal social networking data will become increasingly
common (Claburn, 2008). Sophos (2008a:13) also mentions the popularity that
social networking sites such as Facebook and MySpace have with hackers
interested in stealing information from individuals and companies. It is therefore
suggested that employees receive training in the responsible use of Online
Social Networking tools to avoid secondary data collection and other potential
risks such as corporate espionage and social networking spam.
4.3.2 Social networking spam
Another threat mentioned by the European Network and Information Security
Agency is that of social networking spam. Social networking spam is "unsolicited
messages propagated using Online Social Networks" (ENISA, 2007:11). In a
recent survey for the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC), it was found that
advertising and spam are some of the highest privacy concerns among the
general public (De Rosa, Cantrell, Havens, Hawk & Jenkins, 2007:3-7). Van
Bavel, et al. (2004:63), also agree that Communities of Practice that publish
members' e-mail addresses risk having these addresses reaped by spammers.
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According to ENISA (2007:11), the very serious issue of social networking spam
is executed by spammers who use the following techniques which lead to the
following risks:
• Using specialised social networking spamming software to automate
'friend' invitations;
• Sending notes with embedded links to pornographic or other commercial
sites, designed to sell something;
• Posting spam comments on public notice boards, thereby overloading the
notice board;
• Stealing member's passwords to introduce and endorse their offers on
other profiles; and
• Sending 'friend' invitations using a fake but attractive profile, the profile
then contains links to external sites or even phishing for passwords.
Phishing refers to the covert tracing of personal identification numbers and other
personal details such as bank account numbers (Antiphishing Working Group,
2007). Phishing and diversion to pornographic websites and the risk of the Online
Social Network becoming 'diluted' by forged profiles, causing a reduced value to
users, are among the threats mentioned by ENISA (2007:12). In addition, ENISA
(2007:12) states that the risks further involved with spamming include the loss of
trust of the user in the application which allowed the spamming to take place.
The user feels violated by the application and may decide not to continue its
usage.
Employers should be aware of the potential threats that exist when employees
have access to Online Social Networking tools. OSN spam and secondary data
collection are only some of the threats that are related to Online Social
Networking – another threat associated with this technology that can have an
even more direct impact on the competitive edge of an organisation, is that of
corporate espionage.
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4.3.3 Corporate espionage
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary (2008) describes 'espionage' as "the
practice of spying or using spies to obtain information about the plans and
activities especially of a foreign government or a competing company". ENISA
(2007:16) regards corporate espionage as one of the major threats associated
with Online Social Networking. As with phishing, 'social engineering' is an attack
method frequently used by hackers to evade a company's security systems in
order to access sensitive organisational data (ENISA, 2007:16). Granger (2001)
describes social engineering as "a hacker's clever manipulation of the natural
human tendency to trust". A hacker's objective is to attain information that will
allow unauthorised access to a protected system and the information that resides
on that system (Granger, 2001).
ENISA (2007:16) notes that Online Social Networks can be a principal tool in a
social engineering attack where the main goal is espionage, as a certain degree
of information is necessary to join an online community. An example of a
potential vulnerability created by Online Social Networks is the fact that certain
Online Social Network sites list search results that divulge an individual current
and previous employer. This could be useful to an attacker who is collecting
information on a specific enterprise (ENISA, 2007:16).
It is evident from this discussion that Online Social Networking poses some
potential risks that should be considered by organisations before this technology
is implemented as a knowledge sharing instrument. The potential threats
associated with Online Social Network technologies include secondary data
collection, social networking spam and corporate espionage. However, Online
Social Networking can make an invaluable contribution to an organisation's
intangible assets in the form of social capital, which was previously briefly
elucidated and consequently receives attention in terms of the benefits of Online
Social Networking technologies.
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4.4 Online Social Networking and social capital
From the literature review a strong link between Online Social Networking and
social capital is evident. Bourdieu (1985:248) portrays 'social capital' as "the
aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of
durable network or more or less institutionalised relationships of mutual
acquaintance or recognition". Social networks exist through connections and
associations and therefore, Online Social Networks intrinsically promote these
valuable networks and relationships that constitute an organisation's social
capital. Online Social Networks can be regarded as a vital part of an organisat-
ion's social capital.
Portes (1998:2) is of the opinion that social capital is based upon the assumption
that connection and participation in groups can have positive consequences for
both the individual and the community. As discussed in Chapter Three, the
sharing of information leads to an enhancement of products and services, and
the sharing of information and knowledge within a collaborative context adds
value to networks. Online Social Networks not only act as tools for sharing
information and knowledge, but these networks gain value from each and every
member that joins the network. Potential value can therefore be added to an
organisation if employees join an organisation-specific Online Social Network as
a means of potentially enhancing its intangible assets, which receives a brief
overview in the next section.
4.4.1 Online Social Networking and intangible assets
As discussed in earlier chapters, the global economy has evolved into that of a
knowledge-based economy, where the tangible assets of an organisation are not
the only resource of value. Sveiby (1997:8) explains that when a company's
market price is higher than its 'book value', traditional stock market theory would
regard it as the market's assessment of the company's future earning potential, a
potential being converted into goodwill. This indicates that, among the company's
tangible assets, there must be factors that will yield higher than bank interest in
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the future (Sveiby, 1997:8). He continues by describing the factors that contribute
to the market's goodwill, as 'intangible assets'. These intangible assets, that form
part of a company's social capital, can be classified into three types of assets that
together form a balance sheet of intangible assets (Sveiby, 1997:8). As illustrated
in Figure 4.3 below, the balance sheet of an organisation functioning within the
knowledge-based economy delves deeper than the traditional, tangible assets.
Figure 4.3: The balance sheet of a knowledge organisation (Adapted from Sveiby, 1997:11)
The three types of assets referred to by Sveiby (1997:8-11), are:
• Employee competence: It is impossible to conceive of an organisation
without people and people tend to be loyal if they are treated justly and
have a sense of shared responsibility within a company. Sveiby (1997:10)
regards employee competence as an intangible asset within a company,
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because in a knowledge organisation the employees are the "minders of
the machines and the machines themselves".
• Internal structure: According to Sveiby (1997:10), the internal structure of
a company includes its patents, concepts, models and technology such as
computer and administrative systems. The internal structure, combined
with the people within the organisation, constitutes the organisation itself.
Sveiby (1997:10) notes that the organisational culture is an internal
structure.
• External structure: Sveiby (1997:11) describes the external structure of a
company as the relationship the company holds with its customers and
suppliers. External structure also includes brand names, trademarks and
the company's reputation and image. The value of these assets rests
primarily on how well a company can resolve customer's queries.
These three types of assets, namely employee competence, internal structure
and external structure, thus go beyond the tangible boundaries of a company's
assets. In addition to other positive effects potentially being offered by Online
Social Networks, an Online Social Network thus has the potential to contribute to
an organisation's social capital by adding value to the external structure. For
example, the marketing endeavours undertaken by a company enriches both its
relationship with its customers and the organisation's brand. Next, the
relationship between social networks and marketing will be investigated.
4.4.2 Social networks, marketing and the connected consumer
Noting the above discussion of intangible assets, organisations can therefore
seemingly benefit from accessing external knowledge. This can be done through
electronic networks of practise such as Online Social Networks, since valuable
expertise flows between the stakeholders of the organisation at relatively little
cost (Wasko & Faraj, 2005:52). In this regards, Ellison, Steinfield and Lampe
(2007:1161) state that "there is a positive relationship between certain kinds of
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Facebook use and the maintenance and creation of social capital". Concurrently,
the findings of a survey by SelectMinds (2008:6) supports this statement by
revealing that, if employees were motivated and given freedom to experiment
with social networking technologies, the advantages can include inter alia
enhanced internal branding, better internal brand ambassadorship, enhanced
external branding, enhanced corporate culture, enhanced productivity, increased
employee productivity, increased motivation, new business opportunities and
increased goodwill.
A further opportunity created when implementing an Online Social Network, or a
group on an existing Online Social Network, in other words a group aimed at a
specific organisation, is the prospect to use consumers as innovators. With the
evolvement of Social Web technologies, consumers increasingly want to engage
online with one another and with the organisations that impact their lives.
Companies can "tap this new mood" of consumer engagement to boost their
productivity and enhance their economic benefit (Manyika, Roberts & Sprague,
2007:2). This 'new mood' is distinctive to the purported 'connected generation' in
which consumers are connected by electronic networks.
The term 'connected consumer' refers to a "new breed of borderless consumer
communities" (MarketTools, 2008:2). These consumers, who are connected
through the Internet and Social Web technologies, hold unprecedented power to
organisations. Organisations should not limit themselves to the ideas and
concepts that arise from their own researchers or product development
specialists. Rather, organisations should exploit the opportunity this new
generation of consumers presents, by tapping into their natural conversations as
they discuss their problems and opinions (MarketTools, 2008:4-5). By doing this,
the organisation is given the opportunity to collaborate directly with their market
to find solutions and innovations.
The potential opportunities posed by Online Social Networking sites are further
confirmed in an interview with the Vice President of one such social network.
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Konstantin Guericke, Vice President of marketing at LinkedIn, indicated that 97%
of the members of LinkedIn have joined because someone had invited them to
join (Bardon, 2004). This highlights the possible marketing potential a company
may experience if it creates a presence within an already existing, popular Online
Social Network. In this way, by incorporating a simple virtual word-of-mouth
strategy, a company can augment its existing, traditional marketing efforts.
A South African example of such a presence on Facebook would be the banking
conglomerate Absa. Absa has added a link to their Facebook page on their
personal banking homepage, encouraging customers to visit the bank's
Facebook group page. Figure 4.4 below, shows Absa's homepage with a link to
Facebook in the bottom right hand corner.
Figure 4.4: Absa's homepage with a link to their Facebook page (http://www.absa.co.za/)
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Once an existing or potential Absa client has joined the Absa Facebook group,
he or she can pose questions to Absa; give suggestions; air a concern or
complaint; and enter competitions.
Embedded in the above listed activities is enhanced productivity which could
result by acting upon the kindled interaction between the client and the bank and
getting to know the client's individual needs, concerns and preferences. Another
example of a South African company advertising on Facebook is the insurance
quote broker company, Hippo (http://www.hippo.co.za). As shown in Figure 4.5
below, an advertisement appears in the left hand pane on a user's Facebook
profile. The Facebook user has the option to click on the advertisement, which
will then link the user to the advertising organisation's website.
Figure 4.5: Example on an advertisement on a Facebook user's profile page
(http://www.facebook.com)
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By giving consumers control, companies will realise that consumers are not only
willing, but eager to participate in creating the products that they want
(MarketTools, 2007:5). By using the technologies available through the Social
Web, organisations can interact with connected consumers and initiate dialogue,
explore concepts as well as collaborate and co-create new ideas which may lead
to better products (MarketTools, 2007:7). The new generation of connected
consumers is connecting with one another on a daily basis. Organisations should
therefore tap into this potential for collaboration to ensure that the products and
services created are exactly, and in fact tailor made, to what the consumers
want.
Apart from the various issues discussed up to this point, there are a number of
technological implications that may be associated with the use of Online Social
Networks. These technological corollaries, of which some will be discussed in
more detail in the next section, include malware and bandwidth implications,
which should be noted by organisations when the implementation of an
organisation-specific OSN is considered.
4.5 Technological implications of Online Social Networks
The web-based threats faced by organisations pose enormous security and
productivity challenges which may include system infection, legal liability and
violation of corporate or regulatory compliance rules (Sophos, 2007:2). There are
many concerns surrounding Social Web technology and one of the major
concerns involving this technology – especially the unrestricted use of Online
Social Networks – is the threat of malware which will receive due attention in the
following section. Lawton (2007:17) warns that Social Web sites, such as
Facebook, innately holds more risk than traditional websites because they allow
users to upload content. In the following section, technological issues that
organisations may face when participating in Online Social Networking will be
discussed.
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4.5.1 Malware
'Malware' refers to malicious software which "exploits vulnerabilities in computing
systems" (Pulkkis, Grahn & Aström, 2003:2). Pulkkis, et al. (2003:3) argue that
viruses are the most common malicious programmes as they use different ways
to conceal their presence or complicate antivirus functions in other ways such as
using self-encryption to hide themselves or being embedded in file attachments.
Online Social Networks require users to spend more time online, thereby
increasing the risk of infection.
In order to function properly, Social Web sites also require scripting capabilities
which can run code or carry malware (Lawton, 2007:17). In February 2008, a
flaw was reported to MySpace, informing the social network that an ActiveX
control used in MySpace to upload images is leaving users open to attack by
hackers (Leyden, 2008). Broucek and Turner (2003:46) note that web browsers,
such as Internet Explorer, exhibit many security weaknesses that merge with
users' online behaviour to compound information systems security management
problems.
Spyware, another malware threat, may include 'drive-by installers' that can
secretly open a backdoor through a web browser and install a key logger that
covertly records confidential information such as banking details and passwords
by capturing keyboard strokes made by the user. This information is then relayed
to whoever initially created the malicious software (Sophos, 2007:3). It is not
obvious which websites pose malware threats, as 83% of all malware-infected
web pages are found on completely legitimate websites (Sophos, 2008a:7).
Malware is thus a real threat, but a threat not limited only to Online Social
Networking websites.
A study by Schmidt and Arnett (2005:69) revealed that 61% of the respondents
detected the presence of spyware on their computers and the damage done by
spyware included the following elements:
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• The tracking of websites by spyware and the unauthorised use of the host
computer's address book;
• The slowing down of programmes and automatic computer shut down;
• Users being prevented from opening Internet Explorer; and
• Even after the removal of the spyware, the normal functioning of Internet
Explorer is affected (Schmidt & Arnett, 2005:69).
According to Sophos (2008a:1), the world of malware fundamentally changed in
2007 as hackers fully embraced the Internet as their primary source of entry into
unsuspecting users' computers. Virus writers of the past were typically creating
code for mischief, but current attacks are organised, malicious acts aimed at
stealing information and resources for the sole purpose of making money
(Sophos, 2008a:1). Since Online Social Networks aim to allow users to publish
information, these networks may be prime targets for hackers and virus writers.
From the above discussion, it becomes clear that malware protection should
become part of standard service plans, as is already the case with companies
such as America Online (Schmidt & Arnett, 2005:70). With the propagation of
malware, maintaining an adequate level of protection thus becomes increasingly
important. Also of importance are issues concerning bandwidth which will be
discussed next.
4.5.2 Bandwidth implications
At this stage, not many organisations condone participation in Online Social
Networking; however, employees are accessing these networks from work, thus
classifying these unauthorised activities as Internet use that is not directly related
to work. According to Rensleigh (2002), Internet use that is not directly related to
work has a direct negative effect on the loss of bandwidth at organisations.
Sophos (2008b:1) acknowledges this concern by noting that unauthorised online
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surfing can cause network slowdown as well as legal risks should it happen that
sensitive information about a company or individual is posted online.
Since the nature of Online Social Networks is to allow employees to interact with
one another in an informal manner, bandwidth-clogging elements such as heavy
graphics and video and audio streaming can be expected within such a network.
These activities "congest digital pipelines" (Rensleigh, 2002). For example,
Facebook's attraction element is the ability it lends to its users to create albums
with photographs within their profiles. However, the downloading of these photos
may potentially slow down a network that is not intended to be used for such
activities.
The above examples given of some of the technological implications that may be
encountered when participating in Online Social Networking highlight the
importance of the users of such networks to be knowledgeable regarding the
possible effects of participation in Online Social Networking.
4.6 Conclusion
In this chapter, the positive and negative effects of Online Social Networking
were examined. Although a number of positive implications were mentioned
regarding collaboration and knowledge sharing, it is evident that unrestricted use
of Online Social Networks may pose detrimental if employees with a low locus of
control are appointed initially. For instance, if an employee is inclined to wasting
time and being counter-productive, an Online Social Network will only be one of
the time-wasting activities he or she will engage in.
However, when Online Social Networks are implemented by productive
employees, various positive effects may become evident. Bryan, Matson and
Weiss (2007:2) support this view by stating that personal social networks
increase the value of collaboration by reducing the search and coordination cost
of connecting parties who have related knowledge and interest. As with all new
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inventions, Online Social Networking can be used to the advantage of an
organisation, but has to be managed and channelled in a pro-active way.
Clarke and Rollo (2001:183) suggest a possible solution to the dilemma of
attempting to manage Online Social Networking, by mentioning that "knowledge
management in the knowledge-based consists of the systematic management of
the intellectual capabilities of people". In their opinion, the most successful way to
support these capabilities would be to understand how to discover, organise and
allow the sharing of intellectual activity. The sharing of intellectual activity is one
of the major enhancing features of Online Social Networking.
When considering the following statement: "The capability to support human
creativity and the cycle of innovation is the primary focus of knowledge
management," by Clarke and Rollo (2001:183), it becomes evident that any
company functioning within the new knowledge-based economy should aim to
find a middle ground in order to encourage the use of an Online Social Network
within their organisation. This is the perceived technological direction that the
younger workforce, or the connected generation, is taking in their personal as
well as their professional lives.
However, the positive contribution that can be made to an organisation by the
use of Online Social Networks can easily be overshadowed by the negative
technological implications of malware such as viruses and spyware. Lee
(2002:140) warns that in certain instances, it is irrelevant if an organisation is
using the strongest encryption technology or authentication processes across its
network, as a weak link anywhere along the chain, will cause attackers to focus
on this vulnerability to eventually exploit it. If Online Social Networks prove to be
such a security liability, its negative implications may outweigh its positive effects.
Schmidt and Arnett (2005:69) note that prevention, detection and remediation
efforts will play a key role in safe and secure computing in the foreseeable future.
Nonetheless, one advantage that is a direct result of the security threats brought
on by Social Web technologies, is the increased awareness and intensive
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counter-developments by companies. Sophos, for example, provides anti-virus
and anti-spam software for businesses and develop advanced software to
counteract these technological threats. In addition, SophosLabs was created to
provide intensive research and global response to protect businesses from the
increasing complex threats of Social Web technologies (Sophos, 2006:4).
In this and previous chapters, Online Social Networks were discussed within the
context of the knowledge-based economy, the global community and the effects
the use thereof may have on the workforce. In the following chapter, the results
of an empirical study will be compared to the findings of the literature study to
establish whether the use of Online Social Networking in practice has positive
and/or negative effects on employee productivity.
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Chapter Five:
Empirical research and discussion of findings
"Research is formalized curiosity.
It is poking and prying with a purpose." ZORA NEALE HURSTON 1903‐1960
5.1 Introduction
The University of Johannesburg (UJ), which was founded in 2005, is an
amalgamation of the former Rand Afrikaans University and Technicon
Witwatersrand. As in many other organisations, employees at the UJ have
varying skill levels regarding computer and Internet literacy. This study aimed to
establish whether employees within the Faculty of Management at the UJ have
previously used, are currently using, or would in future be interested in using
Online Social Networks in a professional environment.
In the previous chapters, a literary overview was given regarding the global and
local Online Social Networking environment in order to lay a foundation from
which the empirical research could be embarked on. In this chapter the rationale
of the study, the proposed research methodology and the findings of the
empirical component of the study will be stated, explained and discussed.
5.2 Rationale of the study
From the discussions in the previous chapters the current popularity of Online
Social Networking is evident and many organisations have started to take notice
of this fact. However, scepticism regarding productivity and technological risks do
widely exist in respect of Online Social Networking. The UJ, as a tertiary
education institution, has the opportunity to implement Online Social Networking
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technology and necessary counter-technologies to positively influence its
employees' productivity and in future, enhance collaboration with its students and
potential students as well.
This study was aimed at establishing what the opportunities and risks regarding
unrestricted Online Social Networking by UJ employees might be. It was hoped
that the findings of this study could assist the UJ, and specifically the UJ Faculty
of Management, by fostering an understanding of the possible advantages of
allowing employees to participate in Online Social Networking in a fashion
characterised by corporate literate employees.
To this extent a discussion of the research design follows, first by providing an
overview of the research methodology that was applied towards solving the
stated research problem.
5.3 Research methodology
The rationale of the study was used to determine the research methodology that
was implemented. The principle aim of this study was to determine the possible
effect of social networking on employee productivity within the University of
Johannesburg. The next section in this chapter will closely examine the research
problem, research approach, the sampling of the target group, data collection
and data-processing procedures.
5.3.1 Research problem
The following research problem was formulated:
What is the effect of social networking on employee productivity within
organisations, specifically tertiary educational institutions?
In order to successfully address the research problem as stipulated above, the
following sub-problems were identified:
• What are global Online Social Networks?
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• How does South Africa compare regarding participation in Online Social
Networking?
• What are the possible consequences if employees are allowed to access
Online Social Networks without restriction?
• How can Online Social Networks contribute to the productivity of an
organisation, specifically tertiary education institutions?
• What are the possible advantages that social networking could have for
the University of Johannesburg?
In reaching answers to the above stated questions a specific research approach
was followed aimed at an actionable solution to the research problem.
5.3.2 Research approach
5.3.2.1 A definition of research
The term 'research' can be defined as a "search or investigation directed to the
discovery of some fact by careful consideration or study of a subject; a course of
critical or scientific inquiry" (Oxford English Dictionary, 1989). A more recent
definition of 'research' by the Concise Oxford English Dictionary (2004),
describes it as "the systematic investigation into and study of materials and
sources in order to establish facts or verify information".
The fundamentals of research are to resolve problems and develop our
awareness of the universe, which demands that it is circumspectly and
methodically conducted (Taylor, 2000:2). Taylor (2000:3) recognises seven
characteristics of research:
• Research begins in a question in the mind of the researcher;
• Research demands the identification of a problem stated in clear and
unambiguous terms;
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• Research requires a plan, addressing various components involved;
• Research deals with the main problem through appropriately associated
sub-problems;
• Research seeks direction through appropriate hypotheses and is based
upon obvious assumptions and beliefs;
• Research deals with facts and their meanings; and
• Research is circular; all major parts of the research have been fused into a
model.
Keeping the above characteristics in mind, a discussion follows of the research
endeavours that was made based on sound research principles, such as Stokes'
research paradigm.
5.3.2.2 Stokes' research paradigm
According to Stokes (1997:6-9), research classification can be divided into two
categories: 'basic' research and 'applied' research. 'Basic' research acknowled-
ges a theoretical investigation into advance scientific knowledge, where immedia-
te application is not the direct objective or motivation. The focus of this type of
research is to expand the general knowledge and understanding of nature and its
laws (Stokes, 1997:3). Alternatively, 'applied' research focuses on an experim-
ental investigation that uses existing knowledge for new or improved applications
(Stokes, 1997:4).
Stokes (1997:74-75) developed a four-quadrant model which can be used to
classify most types of research approaches (see Figure 5.1 on following page).
This model uses two dimensions to classify research:
• As having been inspired by consideration of use; and
• As a quest for fundamental understanding.
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Figure 5.1: Research classification quadrants
(Adapted from Stokes, 1997:74)
As depicted in Figure 5.1 above, the upper-left quadrant, i.e. 'Bohr's quadrant',
captures the traditional paradigm of basic research. Stokes was inspired by
Bohr's research, which focussed on atomic structure. 'Edison's quadrant'
embodies the traditional applied-research paradigm, as depicted in the lower-
right quadrant. Within this quadrant, researchers will be focussed on making
something work by solving a practical problem, thereby concentrating their efforts
on the considerations for research application. Under the lower-left quadrant, the
'Sterile quadrant', research is conducted that neither seeks fundamental
understanding nor considerations for use. This quadrant is typical of the research
conducted by academics when confronted by the command to publish or perish,
only to further their careers.
The quadrant that is most apt and important for this particular study is 'Pasteur's
quadrant'. This quadrant includes basic research with the purpose of extending
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the boundaries of understanding, but is also motivated by considerations for
possible use. The purpose of this research study is to gain insight into the effects
of Online Social Networks on the productivity of employees. The outcome of the
research will provide recommendations for UJ management to possibly
incorporate an Online Social Network into their IT infrastructure or at the very
least to ensure that an acceptable use policy regarding Online Social Networking
is created.
5.3.2.3 An action research approach
The rapid development of information and communication technologies (ICTs),
such as Online Social Networking technologies, is a factor that needs to be
considered in terms of research time and time to application. A dynamic and
inventive research model is needed to accommodate this ever-changing and fast
evolving environment.
Gummesson (2000:16) suggests that 'action research' is "the most demanding
and far-reaching method of doing case study research" and lists the following
characteristics of action research:
• Action researchers take action;
• Action research always involves two goals: to solve a problem and to
contribute to science;
• Action research is interactive and requires cooperation between the
researcher and the focus group;
• The understanding developed during an action research project aims at
being holistic and recognising complexity;
• Action research is applicable to the understanding, planning and
implementation of change in an organisation;
• It is essential to understand the ethical framework and values within which
action research is used within a specific context;
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• Action research can include all types of data gathering methods, but
requires the total involvement of the researcher;
• Constructively applied pre-understanding of the corporate environment
and of the conditions of business is essential;
• Management action research should be conducted in real time, though
retrospective action research is also acceptable; and
• The management action research paradigm requires its own quality
criteria.
Coghlan and Brannick (2001:16) recommend that an action research cycle
comprising of a pre-step, context or purpose and four basic steps, viz.
diagnosing, planning action, taking action and evaluating action be followed (see
Figure 5.2 below). The action research cycle is important in order to determine
the outcomes of a research project and establishes whether the original
'diagnosis' of an environment or situation was correct.
Figure 5.2: The action research cycle (Adapted from Coghlan and Brannick, 2001:17)
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Coghlan and Brannick (2001:17-18) explain that the action research cycle that is
proposed should be executed as follows:
Pre-step: Context and purpose
The cycle unfolds in real time and should commence with an understand-
ing of the context of the project. Within this preliminary process, the
external context of the project should be considered. Factors such as
political and social forces should be taken into consideration. A definition
of the desired future state of the system should also be outlined.
Main steps: Four basic steps
• Diagnosing – this step entails the articulation of the theoretical
foundations of action. This should be a collaborative venture and
should engage all relevant parties.
• Planning action – this step focuses on the analysis of the context
and purpose of the project. Collaboration is, again, emphasised by
Coghlan and Brannick (2001:18).
• Taking action – in this step, the plan is implemented and intervent-
ions are made where necessary.
• Evaluating action – the outcomes of the project, both planned and
unintentional, are examined to establish:
– If the original diagnosis was accurate;
– If the action taken was correct;
– If the action was taken in a suitable manner; and
– What should be considered in the next phase of diagnosis:
planning and action?
By incorporating an action research strategy, the dynamic nature of the Social
Web setting, and specifically the Online Social Networking environment, can be
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accommodated. In the following section, the type of sampling methods and the
research participants selected for the empirical study will be discussed.
5.3.3 Sampling and research participants
Du Plooy (2002:106-115) explains that three sampling categories can be
distinguished: probability, quasi-probability and nonprobability sampling. In
Figure 5.3 below, these categories are illustrated showing the types of sampling
methods used in each category.
Figure 5.3: Types of sampling (Adapted from Du Plooy, 2002:106-115)
For the purpose of this study, the target population is the employees of the
University of Johannesburg (UJ). The accessible population, to which the finding
will be generalised, is the Faculty of Management within the University of
Johannesburg. In this study, a probability sample was conducted by drawing a
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stratified random sample, as the population was grouped according to certain
elements, viz. gender, age and appointment type, and divided into clusters.
5.3.4 Data collection and data processing procedure
Creswell (2003:18) suggests that there are three approaches to research as far
as data collection is concerned. The first of the three approaches mentioned by
Creswell, (2003:18), is a quantitative approach, where the investigator collects
data on predetermined instruments such as experiments or surveys that yield
statistical data.
The second approach categorised by Creswell is a qualitative approach in which
the researcher uses strategies of inquiry such as narratives or case studies to
collect open-ended data with the primary intent of developing theme from this
data (Creswell, 2003:18). The final approach mentioned by Creswell (2003:20), is
a mixed method approach, which involves the researcher to collect numeric
data as well as text, or open-ended data to ensure that the final database will
represent both quantitative and qualitative information.
In this research project, Pasteur's quadrant (i.e. use-inspired basic research as
discussed in section 5.3.2.2 above), which also represents the action-research
paradigm, supported by a mixed method approach was incorporated. The data
collection procedure followed a sequence in which exploration was followed by
measurement, which was in turn followed by a qualitatively analytical phase
(Davies, 2007:27).
In conjunction with the empirical facet of this study, a comprehensive literature
review was also performed to establish the theoretical background for addressing
the research problem. The empirical study was carried out by performing
interviews with key individuals and conducting a formal questionnaire regarding
various popular Online Social Networking sites available online and the target
group's use and knowledge of these Online Social Networking sites (see
Appendix 1).
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An informal poll was conducted on Facebook using the Facebook application
'Questions and Polls'. The question posed in the poll was "Can Online Social
Networks (like Facebook) help you do your job better?" and appeared on the
researcher's Facebook profile for two weeks (see Appendix 2). This poll was
available to a specific list of 60 'friends' and 19 responses were received. The
individuals on the 'friend' list were prompted to participate in the poll through a
message sent to their Facebook inboxes (see Appendix 3).
In addition to the informal poll and formal questionnaire, an e-mail interview was
conducted with four UJ employees not employed by the Faculty of Management.
These employees represented the UJ Information Communications Systems
department, the UJ Human Resources department; the UJ Centre for
Technology Assisted Learning (CenTal) and the UJ Library and Information
Centre (see Appendices 4-7). A fifth e-mail interview was sent to an employee of
a large South African telecommunications corporation, however, as a result of
confidentiality concerns, the individual had to withdraw from the interview
process (see Appendix 8).
The formal questionnaire was made available online by the Statistical
Consultation Services (Statcon) of the UJ by implementing the software package
'Statpac'. The survey was accessible via a URL and an e-mail was sent to the
183 Faculty of Management employees on the 26th of March 2008, explaining the
procedure to access the questionnaire and providing the URL to the online
survey (see Appendix 9). The survey was available online to these employees
until the 13th of May 2008, that is, a period of seven weeks.
During the period of availability, Statcon was regularly contacted to determine
how many surveys have been submitted. The following Figure 5.4 illustrates the
timeline of the survey life cycle, from being made available online, until closure.
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Figure 5.4: Timeline of the 'Online Social Networking' online survey
After having gathered the empirical data, the online survey was processed by
Statcon (see Appendix 14). As mentioned in Figure 5.4 above, a total of 89
responses were successfully captured, translating into a response rate of 48.6%.
It may be argued that this response rate is low; however the comparatively new
emergence of Online Social Networking technology may have contributed to this
relatively low response rate. The following section of this chapter will be
committed to a discussion of the findings of the formal online survey, the e-mail
interviews, and the informal Facebook poll through an analysis and interpretation
of the results.
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5.4 Interpretation and discussion of results
5.4.1 Statistical analysis of the formal online survey
In addition to the frequency analysis and interpretation of responses to the formal
online survey, cross-table comparisons were used to give further insight into
possible relationships between specific variables. The interdependencies of
these variables were statistically analysed through hypothesis testing. The
Concise Oxford English Dictionary (2004) defines a hypothesis as an "explanat-
ion based on limited evidence used as a starting point for further investigation".
Applying hypothesis testing is an integral part of the empirical quantitative
research process, as it provides a starting point to conduct further research. A
research problem can be simplified by the two outcomes of hypothesis testing, a
null hypothesis (H0) or an alternative hypothesis (H1). A null hypothesis (H0)
indicates that there is no relationship or dependency between the identified
variables, whereas an alternative hypothesis (H1) indicates that a relationship or
dependency does exist between the identified variables.
Effect size determines the exact relationship between two variables. When
determining the effect sizes, by using Cramer's V and Phi coefficient method, the
test sample is not an inhibiting factor, as the bigger the test sample is, the
stronger the power of the test. Rosenthal, Rosnow and Rubin (2000:15) identify
four groups of effects, as set out in Table 5.1 below.
Effect size: Interpreted effect:
0.0 – 0.1 No effect
0.1 – 0.3 Small effect
0.3 – 0.5 Medium effect
0.5 – 1 Large effect
Table 5.1: Rosenthal's guidelines to describe effect sizes (Adapted from Rosenthal, et al., 2000:15)
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A small effect size indicates that there are no significant dependencies between
identified variables, and a large effect size shows that a significant dependency
exists between the identified variables. The internal consistency of the current
survey which was validated by Cronbach's alpha values ranged from 0.567 to
0.656. This internal consistency was verified in testing the attitude and perception
of respondents regarding Online Social Networking.
A complete case analysis or Listwise deletion was done on all variables in the
procedure by testing and retesting the reliability of the results. It was considered
essential that a Listwise deletion be done in order to achieve equitable parameter
estimates in the instances where missing values were detected, or as was the
case in this study, to ascribe values to replace missing values.
Included in the reliability testing performed on the results of this survey, are the
following tests and procedures:
1. Bartlett's test, which was applied to verify the null hypothesis, or the
homogeneity of variance. This test of sphericity produced an approximate
Chi-Square of 161.717, indicating a high level of significance at .000 (see
Appendix 14), see also Horn and Engstrom (1979:283), for an elaboration
on Cattell's scree test in relation to Bartlett's Chi-Square test (cf. Appendix
14).
2. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of sampling adequacy also showed a
result of 0.754, which furthermore demonstrated the validity of the results
(cf. Appendix 14).
On the grounds of the above discussion of construct validity, the results of the
formal survey will subsequently be discussed in conjunction with the results of
the informal Facebook poll and e-mail interviews, which will be integrated in the
interpretation of the results.
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5.4.2 Interpretation of results – formal online survey, Facebook poll and e-mail interviews
Section A of the formal online survey requested background information from
the respondents. Question 1 and Question 2 of Section A required the
respondents to indicate their age group as well as their gender, in order to
ascertain the demographic of the respondents.
Chart 5.1 below reflects the age distribution of the sample, with the highest
frequency percentage being in the age category 30 to 39 (35.6%), followed by
the age categories 20 to 29 (24.1%) and 40 to 49 (18.4%). The age categories
50 to 59 and 60 years and older were represented by 12.6% and 9.2% of the
sample respectively. In addition, the responses indicated the gender break-up of
the respondents to be 28.4% male and 71.6% female.
Chart 5.1: Age distribution and gender break-up
From the above results, it was evident that the majority of respondents were
between the ages of 30 and 39 and that the majority of respondents were female.
Question 3 under Section A aimed to determine the type of appointment of each
respondent, in order to establish the level of seniority of the respondents as well
as to determine the focus of each respondent's position. For the purpose of this
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study, the types of appointments within the Faculty of Management were divided
into the following categories:
• Permanent academic staff (viz. senior lecturers and lecturers);
• Permanent administrative staff (viz. secretaries and academic
coordinators);
• Heads of academic departments;
• Temporary academic staff (viz. external lecturers); and
• Permanent administrative staff in managerial positions.
Chart 5.2 below illustrates the appointment levels of the sample.
Chart 5.2 Nature of appointment
For the purpose of this study, emphasis was placed on four main categories of
appointment, permanent and temporary staff members, as well as academic and
administrative staff members. Permanent academic staff (47.7%) represented
the majority of the sample, followed by permanent administrative staff (25.0%).
Only three of the nine heads of departments in the Faculty of Management
completed the survey, which constituted 3.4% of the sample. Temporary
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academic staff (6.8%) and permanent administrative staff in managerial positions
(4.5%) represented the minority of the sample, surpassed by temporary
administrative staff members (12.5%).
Section B of the formal online survey explored the habits and preferences of the
respondents towards Online Social Networking. This section was dedicated
towards establishing whether the respondents use Online Social Networks, how
much time they spend if they do engage in Online Social Networking and what
their opinions and preferences regarding this technology are.
Question 4 under Section B of the formal online survey prompted respondents to
select all the names of the given Online Social Networking sites that they
recognised. This question was included in the survey in order to establish the
respondent's familiarity with Online Social Networking sites. The four sites
mentioned in the list provided were YouTube, MySpace, Facebook and LinkedIn.
As portrayed in Chart 5.3, 12.4% of the sample did not recognise any one of the
four popular Online Social Network sites mentioned in the question. Facebook
proved to be the most recognised site with 82% of the sample's respondents
indicating that they recognised this site’s name. LinkedIn was the least
recognised site within this sample, with only 18% of the respondents indicating
that they recognise this site. YouTube and MySpace seem to be similarly popular
as 59.6% of the respondents recognised YouTube and 56.2% of the respondents
recognised MySpace in the list of Online Social Networking sites.
Within this question, respondents had the option to indicate whether they have
heard of any other Online Social Networking sites not featured on the list. None
of the 'other' sites mentioned by the respondents were Online Social Networking
sites, but rather general Social Web sites, viz. Blogspot, Flickr, Skype. This
indicates that, although the majority of respondents (87.6%) recognised the
names of the Online Social Networking sites provided in the list, at least 8.8% of
these respondents do not know what exactly constitutes an Online Social
Networking site.
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Chart 5.3 Recognised Online Social Networking sites
The likelihood of the respondents visiting the mentioned Online Social
Networking sites and, if any, whether they did visit any of these sites at all, was
determined by Question 5.
Within this sample, 55.2% of respondents indicated that they do visit the
mentioned Online Social Networking sites, whereas 44.8% of the respondents
acknowledged that they do not visit Online Social Networking sites at all. This
question was augmented with the results of one of the e-mail interviews with a
member of the UJ Human Resources division (see Appendix 5). From this
interview, it was established that this individual was "not even aware of YouTube/
MySpace". This indicates that there are individuals at the UJ who are completely
unfamiliar with the concept of Online Social Networking technology.
Question 6, under Section B of the formal online survey, aimed at determining
the frequency of visits to Online Social Networking sites by the respondents that
indicated that they do in fact visit Online Social Networking sites.
The frequency of visits by the respondents to the four sites provided is illustrated
in Chart 5.4 on the next page. As with the previous questions, respondents had
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the option to indicate whether they visit any other Online Social Networking sites
not featured on the list. As was observed in the findings of the previous
questions, none of the 'other' sites mentioned by the respondents were Online
Social Networking sites, but rather general Social Web sites, such as, Blogspot,
Flickr, and Skype. However, these findings are of value to this study and are
therefore included in the discussion that follows.
Chart 5.4 Frequency of visits to Online Social Networking sites
With regards to the frequency of visits to the mentioned Online Social Networking
sites, respondents indicated that of the four sites mentioned, Facebook was the
site most frequently visited with 6.7% of the respondents visiting this site 'More
than once a day'. This does not correlate with an eMarketer (2008) survey which
revealed that, in December 2007, Facebook had a 16.03% share within the
United States Internet users market, while MySpace dominated the market with a
share of 72.32%.
However, in the United Kingdom, an August 2007 survey according to
NetRatings, (2007a:1-2), showed that Facebook received the most total time
spent by Britons during this month, with 991 million minutes being spent on this
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site by Britons during this month. Facebook was closely followed by Bebo and
MySpace with 600 million and 540 million minutes respectively (NetRatings,
2007a:1-2). This indicates that the 'most popular' Online Social Networking sites
differ from country to country and within this study's sample, the 'most favourite'
Online Social Network at this point in time is Facebook.
In the light of the above discussion, the lack of overall Online Social Networking
participation by the participants of this survey may be attributed to the less
significant Internet users market found in South Africa, as discussed in Chapter
Three. However, the fact that 6.7% of the respondents visit Facebook 'More than
once a day' does indicate that there is, at least to a certain extent, an interest in
this technology.
When exploring the reasons why respondents chose to visit one Online Social
Network more than they chose to visit another, the focus of the Online Social
Network should be considered. LinkedIn (http://www.linkedin.com), which is a
business-orientated Online Social Network, states that over 23 million
professionals use their site to "exchange information, ideas and opportunities".
LinkedIn lists its offering to clients as follows:
• Stay informed about your contacts and industry;
• Find the people and knowledge you need to achieve your goal; and
• Control your professional identity online.
This establishes LinkedIn as a business-orientated Online Social Network. Within
the sample of this study, LinkedIn was the least recognised site with only 18% of
the respondents indicating that they recognised its name. The most popular site,
Facebook, defines itself as a "social utility" and is visited more than once a day
by 6.7% of the sample group.
The contrasting nature of different Online Social Networking sites, such as the
social focus of Facebook and the business focus of LinkedIn, may contribute to
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the respondents within this survey preferring Facebook to LinkedIn. Taking the
statistics illustrated in Chart 5.4 above into consideration, it may be considered
that the respondents within this sample do not currently apply social networking
technologies to conduct or advance their business or daily functions, as the most
popular of the Online Social Networking sites is a site not particularly aimed at
business professionals.
However, this does not indicate that an Online Social Networking site should be
preserved exclusively for professional interaction to ensure an improvement in
productivity. As mentioned in chapter four, an informal network such as an Online
Social Network can be applied to collect and pass on business information,
making any Online Social Network a potential tool for conducting business and
exploiting opportunities.
The results shown in Chart 5.4 indicate that 51.1% of the respondents visit
Facebook once a month, 17.8% of the sample group visit Facebook once a week
and 13.3% of the sample group visits Facebook once every day. From these
results, it is assumed that a rather large section of the sample is either willing to
visit an Online Social Network on a daily basis, or on weekly intervals, signifying
an opportunity of virtual interaction within the organisation. If these individuals
are visiting an Online Social Network once a day, they might be encouraged to
visit a similar virtual network aimed at their organisation in particular.
Under Section B, Question 7 aimed to establish whether the respondents who
accessed Online Social Networks did so more often from their office computer,
indicating that these Online Social Network visits are most likely done during
office hours or from home, Internet cafes or via their cell phones. Within this
question, respondents had the opportunity to select more than one option. The
results, depicted in Chart 5.5 (next page), showed that 66.7% of the sample
group visit Online Social Networking sites from the office, while 58.3% of the
respondents visit Online Social Networking sites from home. Cell phone access
and Internet Cafes proved to be the less popular method of accessing Online
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Social Networking sites, with 25% of respondents indicating that they visit Online
Social Networking sites via their cell phones and 10.4% access these sites from
Internet cafes.
Chart 5.5: Access to Online Social Networking sites
It has been noted in the discussion of previous questions within this survey that
the sample group are not necessarily correct in their regard of what constitutes
an Online Social Network. The fact that 66.7% of the respondents in the sample
group visit Online Social Networking sites during office hours may influence
various aspects of organisational functionality:
• In Chapter Four, the risk of multi-tasking was noted highlighting the
possibility that multi-tasking, such as participating in Online Social
Networking, does initially yield productivity benefits, but as the level of
multi-tasking increases, the marginal benefits of multi-tasking eventually
decline (Aral, et al., 2008:17).
• As discussed in Chapter Four, Condon (2007:1) also notes that Social
Web technologies, such as Online Social Networks, have the potential to
boost performance if a company’s workforce is well-trained. Condon
(2007:3) warns that, if faced with suffocating policies, young knowledge
workers will leave a restrictive company to work in an environment that
“more closely matches the way they run the rest of their lives”. Within this
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sample, it is evident that a curiosity and willingness to participate in Online
Social Networking technology does exist. The potential that exists within
this group should subsequently be harnessed.
• Risks such as secondary data collection, social networking spam and
corporate espionage may be heightened if employees are visiting these
sites from their office computer. According to the survey results, this is the
case with 66.7% of the respondents.
• Social capital can be enriched through Online Social Networking, by
enhancing the external structure of the company, as categorised by
Sveiby (1997:11). With 66.7% of the respondents in this sample visiting
Online Social Networking sites during office hours, the opportunity to
enhance the branding of the University through its employees does exist.
The purpose of this study is to ascertain what effect Online Social Networking
has on employee productivity. A reliable indicator of whether Online Social
Networks are currently applied for work-related purposes by the respondents
within this sample group is their response regarding their utilisation of Online
Social Networking sites. Question 8 of the online survey prompted respondents
to indicate what they use Online Social Networking sites for and Chart 5.6 (next
page) exemplifies the responses as given by the sample group. As was the case
in Question 7, respondents had the option to select more than one preference.
The sample group indicated that socialising with friends was the most popular
reason for visiting Online Social Networking sites, with 64.6% of the respondents
selecting this as their main reason for visiting Online Social Networking sites. The
discussion of work-related issues with existing colleagues was the least selected
option, with only 14.6% of the sample group indicating that this is one of the main
activities they engage in when visiting an Online Social Network.
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Chart 5.6: The utilisation of Online Social Networking sites
According to an Institute for Corporate Productivity (I4CP) survey (Marketing
Charts, 2007a), 47.4% of the respondents indicated that they use Online Social
Networking sites for professional purposes, viz. showcasing skills and resumes
and to connect with potential suppliers. In the same I4CP survey, 40.8% of
respondents revealed that they used it to connect with friends and family on a
social basis. Within the results found in the current study's survey (see Chart 5.6
above), 39.6% of the respondents acknowledged that they use Online Social
Networking sites to build business contacts and 27.1% of the respondents
indicated they visit Online Social Networking sites to 'find solutions to job
queries', indicating that a considerable percentage of the respondents do utilise
Online Social Networking sites for professional purposes.
However, within this sample group, 64.6% of the respondents agreed that they
use Online Social Networking sites to socialise with current friends and 60.4% of
the respondents indicated that they use Online Social Networking sites to find old
friends. From these results, it is inferred that the sample group's current main
purpose for using Online Social Networking sites is for social interaction rather
than using Online Social Networking sites for business purposes. The assumpt-
ion is made that, at this point in time, the most value that is added to the
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respondents' daily lives, regarding Online Social Networking sites, happens on a
social level. One explanation may be that this market has not yet realised the
potential value that Online Social Networking sites may add on a professional
level as discussed in Chapter Four, sub-sections 4.2.1 and 4.4.1.
The last section of the formal online survey, Section C, was aimed at
determining the attitudes and perceptions of the respondents towards Online
Social Networks (see Table 5.2 below).
9.1 OSN encourages people to share knowledge and expertise.
9.2 OSNs lower the productivity of employees.
9.3 I have to have extensive knowledge about Internet applications to participate in OSNs.
9.4 OSNs contribute to the intellectual capital of an organisation. (Intellectual capital is people’s knowledge that can be exploited for financial gain or any other useful purpose that might be advantageous to a company or cause).
9.5 OSN sites are addictive (Meaning that these sites may negatively influence the way you normally function to an extent that is detrimental to you).
9.6 OSN sites should be blocked by a company’s IT department.
9.7 OSNs encourage innovation through collaboration.
9.8 OSN is a tool designed for teenagers and students.
9.9 Using e-mail is just as effective as participating in OSNs.
9.10 An organisational OSN, specifically aimed at UJ personnel, will allow me to perform my day to day work functions more efficiently.
Table 5.2: Questions 9.1 to 9.10 of the formal online questionnaire
The above question set, i.e. Question 9 consisted of ten statements which
respondents had to rank by indicating their choice on a Likert scale.
Respondents had to indicate whether they strongly disagreed, disagreed,
agreed, strongly agreed or were undecided regarding each statement. This Likert
scale method therefore assessed the degree to which respondents agree or
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disagree with each statement. These questions aimed at determining the sample
group's attitude and perceptions regarding Online Social Networking in a number
of instances and were formulated as shown in Table 5.2 (previous page).
As noted previously, this section of the questionnaire aimed to establish the
attitude and perceptions of the sample group regarding Online Social Networking
in their professional environment.
In the first sub-question of this section, Question 9.1, respondents were
prompted to give their opinion on the probability of Online Social Networking
encouraging the sharing of knowledge and expertise between users. The results
showed that 45.8% of respondents agreed and 24.1% of respondents strongly
agreed that Online Social Networking encourages people to share knowledge
and expertise. The sample group's responses are illustrated in Chart 5.7 (next
page). This attitude of perceived enhanced collaboration is resonated in the
results of Question 8, where 27.1% of the respondents indicated that they utilise
Online Social Networking sites to find solutions to job related queries, thus
forming a virtual Community of Practice where members share work-related
knowledge.
The formation of these virtual Communities of Practice can be beneficial to an
organisation and, as established in Chapter Four, Communities of Practice are
formed by promoting and encouraging the sharing of knowledge between
individuals by allowing the formation of social networks (Bartlett & Ghoshal,
2002:38). The results of Question 9.1 indicate that the sample group recognises
the value of social networks and that the respondents share knowledge by
interacting with contacts to find answers to job related queries. From these
results it is surmised that the majority of the participants within the sample group
recognise the potential of Online Social Networking to encourage knowledge
sharing and that they utilise Online Social Networking for exactly that purpose to
a certain extent.
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Chart 5.7: Attitude and perception regarding Online Social Networking related statements
In Question 9.2, respondents were given the opportunity to indicate whether
they are of the opinion that Online Social Networks lower the productivity of
employees. A surprising result was found in Question 9.2, as respondents were
divided on the statement that employee productivity is lowered by Online Social
Networks. The division was found between 33.7% of the respondents who
indicated that they disagreed with the notion that Online Social Networks lower
the productivity of employees, whereas the exact same percentage (33.7%) of
respondents acknowledged that they agreed with the statement that Online
Social Networks lower the productivity of employees.
As discussed in the previous section the majority, 69.9% of respondents, agreed
or strongly agreed that Online Social Networks encourages people to share
knowledge. As mentioned, knowledge sharing leads to the formation of
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Communities of Practice, which in turn has advantages that may include
decreasing the learning curve of new employees, responding more rapidly to
customer needs and inquiries, reducing rework and preventing "reinvention of the
wheel" and spawning new ideas for products and services (Lesser & Storck,
2001:834-839), all of which aid employee productivity.
Contrary to the notion that Online Social Networks encourage knowledge sharing
and therefore aid productivity, in Question 9.2 the majority of the respondents
agreed (33.7% of respondents) and strongly agreed (16.9% of respondents) that
Online Social Networks lower the productivity of employees. When compared,
the results of these two questions are therefore ambiguous, as the majority of the
sample group initially indicated that Online Social Networking encourages
knowledge sharing, but in the next question the majority of respondents indicated
that Online Social Networks lower employee productivity.
A possible explanation for this divide could be the preconceived notion that
Online Social Networking is a time wasting activity and that the sample group
may have reacted on this preconceived idea as opposed to reacting on the fact
that they are implementing Online Social Networking to share knowledge, an
activity that ultimately leads to increased employee productivity. The respondents
of this survey therefore acknowledge the hypothetical value of Online Social
Networking, but are not convinced that this technology does not place employee
productivity at risk.
The scepticism displayed by the respondents of the formal online survey was
also echoed in the informal poll posted on Facebook (Appendix 2). In this
informal poll, 19 individuals responded to the question: "Can Online Social
Networks (like Facebook) help you do your job better?" As shown in Figure 5.5
(next page), six participants agreed that they rarely focus on work when
participating on Facebook. The participants also had the option to add their own
response and vote for that response in the poll. One participant created the
response: "It helps during work as a quick break during work to see loved ones is
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great for productivity!" Six individuals, including the person who created the
response, voted for this option. Despite this positive perception regarding Online
Social Networks, the majority of participants in the informal Facebook poll
indicated that Online Social Networks do not aid them in doing their jobs more
effectively. It can thus be assumed, when considering the ambiguous results of
Question 9.2 in the formal online survey and the equally indefinite opinions
displayed in the informal Facebook poll, that these users of Online Social
Networks can recognise the value that might be gained by utilising Online Social
Networks, but that they are not completely convinced of this technology's positive
impact on employee productivity.
Figure 5.5: Informal poll posted on Facebook
The following sub-section of Question 9 in the formal online survey, aimed at
pinpointing the respondents perception of whether extensive knowledge of
Internet applications is necessary in order to participate in Online Social
Networks. Question 9.3 was therefore incorporated into the formal online survey
to establish whether a possible misconception, such as needing extensive
knowledge of Internet applications in order to participate in Online Social
Networks, could possibly deter respondents from attempting to participate in
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Online Social Networks. The results of Question 9.3 were relatively
uncomplicated. The majority of respondents, in total 51.1% of respondents,
disagreed that an extensive knowledge about Internet applications is needed to
participate in Online Social Networks. This result disqualifies the view that those
respondents who do not regularly visit Online Social Networks, choose do so as
a result of a lack in computer literacy. The choice made by the respondents who
do not utilise Online Social Networks is therefore not based on a lack of
computer literacy or technical knowledge regarding the Internet, since the
majority of respondents agreed that these skills are not necessarily required in
order to access Online Social Networking sites.
The next aspect of the respondent's attitudes and perception which was explored
in Question 9.4 was the notion that Online Social Networks contribute to the
intellectual capital of an organisation. The result of Question 9.4 showed that the
majority of the sample group disagrees (38.6%) and strongly disagrees (8.4%)
that Online Social Networks contribute to the intellectual capital of their
organisation, with 10.8% of the respondents remaining undecided. In Chapter
Four, it was exposed that an Online Social Network has the potential to
contribute to an organisation’s social capital by adding value to the external
structure (see Section 4.4.1). Even though a large number of respondents within
this study agreed (38.6% of respondents) and strongly agreed (3.6% of
respondents) that Online Social Networks contribute to the intellectual capital of
their organisation, the majority of respondents disagreed with this statement.
An explanation for the sample group's reaction to this question may be a lack of
understanding regarding the term 'intellectual capital'. The definition of
intellectual capital that was given in Question 9.4 is: "Intellectual capital is
people's knowledge that can be exploited for the financial gain or any other
useful purpose that might be advantageous to a company or cause". It may be
possible that the respondents are not familiar with Information Management as a
subject field and that the concept of 'intellectual capital' being transformed into
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traditional, monetary capital is not a logical progression of effects to these
respondents.
In trying to gain clarity regarding the attitudes and perceptions of the respondents
regarding Online Social Networking sites, the next sub-question, Question 9.5,
tested the notion whether Online Social Networking sites are addictive. The term
'addictive' was described as follows: "these sites may negatively influence the
way you normally function to an extent that is detrimental to you". The most
widely held opinion of the respondents is that Online Social Networking sites are
addictive, with 37.3% of respondents agreeing and 19.3% strongly agreeing that
these sites are in fact addictive.
This overwhelming opinion is not surprising and the reason for the sample
group's scepticism is highlighted by a Sophos survey (2008a:13) which revealed
that users openly boast about logging in to their Facebook accounts instead of
continuing with daily tasks at work. The Sophos survey (2008a:13) also found
that social networking can become extremely addictive, leading one in seven
users to be logged into their Facebook profile virtually all the time during office
hours. If this amount of time is spent socialising and not collaborating
productively, an employees' productivity is likely to decrease.
In the light of the findings of the Sophos survey and the opinions of the
respondents of this study's survey, it can be suggested that the threat of
employees becoming tempted to spend hours socialising on Online Social
Networking sites does exist, which may lead to a decline in productivity. The
respondents of the current survey acknowledged that this is a threat, which
correlated with the results revealed by Sophos (2008a:13) by indicating that, in
their opinion, Online Social Networking sites are addictive.
The possibility of an organisation's IT department blocking access to Online
Social Networking sites was investigated in the next question subset (Question 9.6). The question subset stated: "OSN sites should be blocked by a company's
IT department". The result of the respondents' reaction to this question indicated
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that 48.2% of the respondents disagreed and 15.7% of the respondents strongly
disagreed that access to Online Social Networking sites should be blocked by an
organisation's IT department. From these results it is inferred that the majority of
respondents rejected company interference with access to Online Social
Networking sites. On the other hand, 18,1% of the respondents agreed and 6.0%
of the respondents strongly agreed that an organisation's IT department should
block access to Online Social Networking sites. Therefore, a minority of the
respondents, but still a considerable percentage, see due cause for an
organisation's IT department to block access to Online Social Networking sites.
Possible due cause for an IT department blocking access to Online Social
Networking sites was explained in an e-mail interview with the UJ Chief
Technology Officer (CTO) (see Appendix 4). This individual explained that,
currently, the UJ blocks YouTube specifically due to bandwidth constraints.
YouTube is specifically aimed at users downloading music and video clips, and
as noted by Rensleigh (2002) in Chapter Four, these activities "congest digital
pipelines". In Figure 5.6 below, the 'site blocked' message that is displayed when
a user tries to access the YouTube site from a University of Johannesburg (UJ)
campus, is shown.
Figure 5.6: 'Site blocked' message displayed when users try to access YouTube from a University of Johannesburg campus
Although the majority of the respondents disagreed with the blocking of Online
Social Networking sites by an organisation's IT department, the UJ CTO further
explained the reasons for blocking these sights by stating that, besides
bandwidth constraints being a major concern regarding access to Online Social
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Networking sites, threats such as social engineering and the complete trust
people put in Online Social Networks are "…a major security headache". As
discussed in Chapter Four, social engineering, as mentioned by the UJ Chief
Technology Officer, is an attack method frequently used by hackers to evade a
company’s security systems in order to access sensitive organisational data
(ENISA, 2007:16). The trust issue, as raised by the UJ CTO, can also lead to
secondary data collection, as examined in Chapter Four.
Even though the majority of respondents in this study do not agree with Online
Social Networking sites being blocked by an organisation's IT department,
however, when the threats of unrestricted access to Online Social Networking
sites occur, measures have to be considered and taken by an IT department to
protect the organisation's information systems. The UJ CTO acknowledges that
there is currently no formal acceptable use policy at the university regarding
Online Social Networking; however a General Internet Usage policy is in the
process of being approved by the Members of the Executive Council (MEC) of
the University of Johannesburg.
After considering the possible threats that unrestricted access to Online Social
Networking may present, the following question subset explored a possible
positive effect of Online Social Networking. Question 9.7 tested the sample
group's perception and attitude regarding the possibility that Online Social
Networking sites encourage innovation through collaboration. A majority of the
respondents, in fact 53%, predominantly agreed and 6% of the respondents
strongly agreed that Online Social Networks do in fact encourage innovation
through collaboration.
The attitude of the respondents regarding Question 9.7 was also prevalent in the
results of the KPMG survey (2007:2) discussed in Chapter Four, where 75% of
respondents agreed or strongly agreed that Social Web technologies, such as
Online Social Networking technologies, will foster innovation at their organisation
as employees “use it to communicate and share ideas”. The sample group's
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affinity to the idea of Online Social Networks fostering innovation through
collaboration is indicative of a positive attitude regarding this technology. If the
UJ chooses to exploit this attitude, benefits may be drawn regarding increased
innovation of UJ employees.
A perception that was tested among the respondents of this survey is whether
Online Social Networking sites are tools specifically designed for teenagers and
students. When prompted, in Question 9.8, to reveal whether respondents are of
the opinion that Online Social Networking sites are designed mainly for
teenagers and students, the majority of the respondents disagreed (48.2% of
respondents) and strongly disagreed (13.3% of respondents) that these sites are
designed exclusively for teenagers and students. With the highest frequency
percentage of this sample group being in the age category of 30 to 39 (35.6% of
respondents), it is evident that the sample group predominantly feels that these
sites do not exclude individuals older than teenagers or students from their
demographic by exclusively aiming their design and functionality at a younger
age group.
The fact that the majority of the sample group did not feel alienated from the
Online Social Networking market bodes well when considering the possibility of
an organisation-specific Online Social Network. A smaller, but still significant
percentage of sample group did however agree (24.1% of respondents) and
strongly agree (8.4% of respondents) that they are of the opinion that Online
Social Networking sites are aimed at teenagers and students. Since Online
Social Networking technology can be customised to include the needs of any
specific group, this attitude can be seen as a misconception on the part of the
sample group. True, however, is the fact that the popular Online Social
Networking sites mentioned in the survey may cater for a younger demographic,
but Online Social Networking technology as a rule does not discriminate against
age groups through its functionalities.
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This conclusion is supported by an eMarketer (2007) survey, which compared
the demographics regarding age of MySpace users in June 2004 and February
2007. The result showed that the site experienced an increase in use by their
older demographic (25 years and older), where the use by a younger
demographic (18-24 years) showed a decline (see Chart 5.8, next page). This
example of an increase in the numbers of an 'older' demographic adopting Online
Social Networking technology supports the majority of the respondents of the
current study's sample group who are of the opinion that Online Social
Networking sites are not designed predominately for students and teenagers.
Chart 5.8: US MySpace users, by age, June 2004 & February 2007 (% of respondents) (Adapted from eMarketer, 2007)
Online Social Networking is a new technology if compared to e-mail, which is a
more widely accepted means for interaction. Question 9.9, in the formal survey,
addressed the question whether the use of e-mail is just as effective as
participating in Online Social Networking. A vast majority, i.e. 57.3% of the
sample group respondents, agreed that the use of e-mail is equally as effective
as participating in Online Social Networking. In an e-mail interview, when posed
the question: "Do you use OSN to do your day-to-day work at the University of
120
Johannesburg?", an instructional designer at the UJ Centre of Technology
Assisted Learning (CenTal) responded by saying that she does not need multiple
environments for communication and socialising purposes, as "I have e-mail that
I use for official and social communication".
It seems that the respondents of the formal survey agree with this CenTal
employee. The general perception of the respondents in the sample group
seems to be that e-mail is equally as effective a method for communication as
Online Social Networking may be. However, the fundamental difference between
e-mail and Online Social Networking technology is that Online Social Networking
may lead to the formation of a virtual Community of Practice. Wenger and Snyder
(2000:142) note that the purpose of a Community of Practice is to develop
members’ capabilities, where e-mail functions simply as another form or means
of communication.
In an e-mail interview, the Faculty of Management's subject librarian at the UJ
Library and Information Centre noted that forced and formal communication
channels fail to capture "intrinsic, private knowledge that a person uses to do
their day-to-day job". This library representative suggested that Online Social
Networking sites give her the opportunity to post a question or present a problem
and speedily receive a reply from within her trusted group of contacts. The main
aim of an organisation-specific virtual Community of Practice, such as an Online
Social Network, would be to collect and pass on business information in a
collaborative, informal manner. E-mail, as a more formal communication method,
is not aimed at creating a community of loyal users, thereby implicating on
collaboration and thus excluding the positive impact of a virtual Community of
Practice in the process.
As noted by Bartlett and Ghoshal (2002:38), value can be found in promoting and
encouraging the social networks that enable the sharing of knowledge between
individuals. E-mail can be used as a knowledge sharing tool, but does not
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encourage knowledge sharing to the same extent as is done through a
Community of Practice, which can be supported within an Online Social Network.
The reaction of the sample group towards the possibility of an organisational
Online Social Network, specifically aimed at UJ personnel and allowing
employees to perform their day-to-day work functions more efficiently, is tested in
Question 9.10. The findings show that 33.7% of the respondents disagree and
7.2% of the respondents strongly disagree that such an Online Social Network
may have this effect on employee productivity. A noticeable number of
respondents (13.3%) remained undecided in this question, however the majority
of the remaining number of respondents agreed (37.3% of respondents) and
strongly agreed (8.4% of respondents) that such an organisation-specific Online
Social Network will allow them to perform their daily work functions more
efficiently.
These findings show that the possibility of such an organisation-specific Online
Social Network, aimed specifically at UJ employees, will be welcomed by the
majority of respondents of this sample group. The positive attitude of the sample
group towards such an Online Social Network should encourage further
investigation into the possibility of creating an Online Social Network specifically
aimed at UJ employees, since the positive effects of Communities of Practice, as
discussed in Chapter Four, can benefit the UJ in future.
5.5 Summary
In this chapter, findings on the attitude and perceptions of the employees of the
Faculty of Management at the University of Johannesburg regarding Online
Social Networking were discussed. Through the use of an online survey, e-mail
interviews and an informal Facebook poll, the attitude and perceptions of the
individuals mentioned were tested.
Some of the significant findings of the above empirical research component can
be summarised as follows:
122
• Online Social Networks are currently more likely to be applied for
social interaction than for business purposes.
• Instances exist of incognisance and indifference regarding Online
Social Networking and the application of associated technologies in the
work place.
• Interest exists in the application Online Social Networking technology
within the work place; however, the potential value that Online Social
Networking sites may add on a professional level yet needs to be
recognised.
• A preference exists towards using e-mail as a means of professional
communication.
• A generally positive attitude towards Online Social Networks exists and
proves beneficial should the UJ consider the development and
implementation of an organisation-specific Online Social Network.
However, certain misconceptions regarding Online Social Networking
technology exist which should be noticed.
• The absence of a formal UJ acceptable use policy regarding Online
Social Networking needs to be addressed. Such absence should be a
significant concern to management, since the threats posed by
irresponsible use of Online Social Networking technology include
bandwidth constraints, social engineering, secondary data collection
and loss of information privacy.
• Clear indication exists of the willingness of respondents to apply
organisation-specific Online Social Networking technology to perform
daily work functions.
123
In the light of the above findings, Chapter Six will subsequently present the
conclusion to the study. It will also provide some recommendations and point out
possible future research possibilities, based on the findings of this chapter.
124
Chapter Six:
Conclusions and recommendations
"If you have knowledge,
let others light their candles in it." MARGARET FULLER 1810‐1850
6.1 Overview of research and conclusions
In the literature review of this research project, the following was established:
In Chapter Two, it was identified that a shift occurred in the global economy and
that the Internet has become a part of everyday life. It was established that,
within the knowledge-based economy, knowledge workers will use information
and communication technologies, such as Online Social Networks, as natural
extensions to their cognition. Within this chapter, it was also highlighted that
learning is the key factor that distinguishes the knowledge-based economy from
the previous information economy.
Chapter Two also investigated the rise of the 'Social Web' and it was argued
within this chapter that globalisation was making participation to networks
essential to organisations, as networks have become the key to the competitive
success of companies in today’s highly competitive global economy. One of the
benefits of knowledge sharing technologies, like the Internet and Online Social
Networks, was found to be the enhanced sharing of knowledge by reducing the
restrictions associated with distance and time. Also, in the modern organisation,
the emphasis was found to be on self-organisation and communities of practice,
as interdisciplinary and inter-vocational collaboration are seemingly becoming
progressively more valuable.
125
In Chapter Three, it was established that the Internet and the technologies
associated with it will continue to advance at a rapid speed. It was noted that,
through these advancements, Online Social Networks are likely to gain more
users and by gaining more users, it will possibly contribute double the amount of
value to the existing online environment. Through the development of
applications and trends such as Enterprise 2.0, it was evident in Chapter Three
that the value of social networking is gradually being recognised as a positive
contributor to organisational value and productivity.
Chapter Three also highlighted the rapid growth of participation in Online Social
Networking on a global, as well as a local level and it was noted that large online
portals, such as Yahoo! and Google, are already joining the social networking
trend through various approaches. It was established that, through these
initiatives and the huge popularity of this technology, a standard will be set which
will ultimately guide Online Social Networking to become as prevalent in
everyday functions as e-mail has become.
The possible effects of Online Social Networking on various organisational
elements were investigated in Chapter Four. The issues of Online Social
Networking, Community of Practice and productivity were explained and
discussed and it was established that Community of Practice, such as those
formed within an Online Social Network, could lead to increased capacity building
whilst the members of the Online Social Network will also be sharing business
information simultaneously.
However, it was also noted that social networking for personal purposes can
affect productivity negatively if employees spend time at work interacting in a
frivolous manner. Chapter Four confirmed that participation in social networking
has the potential to become extremely addictive, leading one in seven users to
be logged into their Facebook profile virtually all the time during office hours.
Within this chapter, it was mentioned that social networking is currently faced
126
with the same suspicious reception that e-mail was faced with, but that this
technology has the potential to deliver the same benefits, if managed effectively.
Chapter Four established that various technological implications exist when
considering unrestricted access to Online Social Networks by employees. These
risks were found to include secondary data collection, social networking spam
and corporate espionage. Again, focus fell on the effective management of this
technology to ensure that the negative implications do not overshadow the
possible benefits of this technology.
The empirical research (as discussed in Chapter Five) uncovered important
findings that could assist the University of Johannesburg's adoption of an Online
Social Network for its own benefit. Although this is a relatively new technology, it
was clear that the University of Johannesburg should take note of the possible
advantages to be drawn from incorporating this technology into its own IT
infrastructure. The sample group tested in this study showed an interest in
applying this technology and the scepticism towards Online Social Networking
shown by the respondents can possibly be discredited through the effective
management of and training on an organisation-specific Online Social Network,
should such a network be implemented at the University of Johannesburg.
As reflected in the research findings, respondents are of the opinion that Online
Social Networks encourage knowledge sharing. This attitude indicated that
respondents comprehend the possible value that may be drawn from Online
Social Networks and that they may see the same potential in an organisation-
specific Online Social Network.
The final conclusion to be reached based on this research project is that:
Online Social Networks have the potential to positively affect the productivity of employees if a locus of control is inherent to these employees.
127
6.2 Recommendations
This research project gave a broad overview of the trends, dangers and possible
advantages related to employees' participation in Online Social Networking
during office hours. The University of Johannesburg is therefore advised to take
into consideration the possible advantages that may be drawn from implementing
an organisation-specific Online Social Network within its current environment. It
is suggested that an informed strategy regarding Online Social Networking be
formulated by the University of Johannesburg by applying the research findings
of this study.
The findings of this study could be used not only to guide the University of
Johannesburg in its adoption of an organisation-specific Online Social Network,
but to change the way employees at the University of Johannesburg interact with
one another in a more effective manner. It is also suggested that the Faculty of
Management and the University of Johannesburg consider a pilot project, testing
the practical implication of such a network on a small but representative portion
of the University of Johannesburg community. Such a pilot project will be
extremely valuable in determining the needs of University of Johannesburg
employees as well as identifying possible pitfalls that can be expected if an
organisation-wide rollout of such a network is to be implemented.
It is, furthermore, recommended that the University of Johannesburg approve an
acceptable use policy regarding Online Social Networking, since it was indicated
that a number of respondents within the sample group of this study is already
accessing Online Social Networking sites during office hours. Even though a
policy can only act as a guideline concerning the acceptable participation in
Online Social Networking from an office computer, it is important that the
University of Johannesburg clarifies its position regarding the use of this
technology on its premises and computers. If it is decided that an organisation-
specific Online Social Network is to be adapted, the University of Johannesburg
has to identify, through such an acceptable use policy, clear boundaries and
expectations regarding its employees' use of such a network. An acceptable use
128
policy of this nature has to define specific goals that it aims to achieve through
the incorporation of this technology, to ensure that employees have no doubt
about the benefit that the University of Johannesburg wants to achieve through
applying this technology.
6.3 Areas for future research
During the literature study of this research project, it was abundantly clear that
academic research regarding the use of Online Social Networking was lacking on
both an international and local level. This was also one of the limitations of the
study. Organisations should realise that the generation of knowledge workers
currently joining the economy do not regard technology such as Online Social
Networking as a 'nice to have' aspect of their daily lives. This is their way of
communicating with each other. Research aimed at harnessing the potential
benefits of Online Social Networking within a business environment should
therefore be at the forefront.
It is thus suggested that the focus of future research should approach Online
Social Networking from both an academic and theoretical point of view, but a
strong practical research component from organisations that are effectively
implementing similar technologies, should definitely be present. Industry players
should be approached and research needs should be identified to ensure that the
focuses of academic research projects are answering the needs within industry.
The University of Johannesburg, as a tertiary education institution, should realise
that its customers (the students) are part of a generation of 'connected
consumers', where the customer should be able to interact with his or her service
provider to make suggestions or give comments. Based on this notion, the
University of Johannesburg should also consider launching a research project
aimed at establishing a marketing strategy which embraces the tools introduced
by the Social Web.
129
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Appendix 1Formal Online Questionnaire
139 Continued…
Dear Sir/Madam, I am investigating Online Social Networks as part of my MPhil studies. The empirical component of my study involves an online survey of various aspects regarding people’s preferences and habits concerning Online Social Networking. I kindly request your participation in this 5 minute anonymous survey (before or on 31 March 2008). Survey URL: http://www.statpac.com/aferreira. If the link does not open when you click on it, please copy and paste the URL into your Web browser address bar to access the website. Should you have any enquiries or comments regarding this survey, you are welcome to contact me on 011 559 2183 or [email protected]. Yours sincerely, Andrea Ferreira
Appendix 1Formal Online Questionnaire
140 Continued…
SECTION A – BACKGROUND INFORMATION This section of the questionnaire refers to background or biographical information. The information given in this section will allow us to compare groups of respondents. Please be assured that your response will remain anonymous. Your contribution is appreciated. 1. Gender
Male Female
2. Age
20 - 29 30 - 39 40 - 49 50 - 59 60+
3. Appointment
Permanent Academic Staff Permanent Academic Staff - HOD Permanent Administrative Staff Permanent Administrative Staff - Manager Temporary Academic Staff Temporary Administrative Staff
SECTION B This section of the questionnaire explores your habits and preferences, if any, with regard to Online Social Networking (OSN). 4. Please select ALL the names of the Online Social Networking sites that you recognise:
You Tube My Space Facebook LinkedIn I do not recognise any of these names Other, please specify
5. Do you visit any of the above mentioned Online Social Networking sites?
Yes No
If no, please skip questions 6, 7 and 8 and continue with Section C.
Appendix 1Formal Online Questionnaire
141 Continued…
6. If yes, how often do you visit each of the following Online Social Networking sites?
Never Once a month
Once a week
Once a day More than once a day
You Tube My Space Facebook LinkedIn Other, please specify
7. From where do you access OSN sites? Mark ALL applicable.
From home At the office At Internet cafés On cell phone Other, please specify
8. What do you utilise OSN sites for? Mark ALL applicable.
To find old friends To socialise with current friends To find solutions to work-related queries To chat with friends To build business contacts To discuss work-related issues with colleagues To upload photos Other, please specify
Appendix 1Formal Online Questionnaire
142
SECTION C This section explores your attitude and perceptions regarding Online Social Networking (OSN). If at all possible, please do not select the option ‘Undecided’. 9. To what extent do you agree with each of the following statements?
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree
Agree
Strongly
Agree
Un
decided
9.1 OSN encourages people to share knowledge and expertise.
9.2 OSNs lower the productivity of employees.
9.3 I have to have extensive knowledge about Internet applications to participate in OSNs.
9.4 OSNs contribute to the intellectual capital of an organisation. (Intellectual capital is people’s knowledge that can be exploited for financial gain or any other useful purpose that might be advantageous to a company or cause).
9.5 OSN sites are addictive (Meaning that these sites may negatively influence the way you normally function to an extent that is detrimental to you).
9.6 OSN sites should be blocked by a company’s IT department.
9.7 OSNs encourage innovation through collaboration.
9.8 OSN is a tool designed for teenagers and students.
9.9 Using e-mail is just as effective as participating in OSNs.
9.10 An organisational OSN, specifically aimed at UJ personnel, will allow me to perform my day to day work functions more efficiently.
Appendix 2Informal Facebook Poll
143
Appendix 3Message sent to Facebook friends
144
Dear Facebook Friend, Please complete the poll about social networks on my profile? It’s right at the top under my personal info. I’m going to submit the results as part of my empirical study for my Masters. I would really appreciate it if you would help me out! Thank you, Andrea
Appendix 4E-mail sent to the University of Johannesburg's Chief
Technology Officer
145 Continued…
From: Ferreira, Andrea Sent: 09 May 2008 09:26 AM To: Wolmerans, Francois Subject: E-pos Onderhoud - MPhil Hi Francois, Soos bespreek sal jy asseblief die volgende vrae beantwoord aangaande my empiriese ondersoek vir my M? Jy is welkom om uit te brei – jou opinie is baie waardevol in hierdie opsig. (OSN = Online Social Networking / OSNs = Online Social Networks) 1 Does your organisation have a policy on employee access to OSNs? 2 Are any of the following OSN sites purposefully restricted to your employees? 3 From a technological point of view, what are your greatest concerns regarding employee
access to OSNs? 5 Do OSN sites hold a greater security threat in terms of malware than any other websites?
6 What are the bandwidth implications to your organisation if employees are to have
unrestricted access to OSNs?
7 What elements (financial, policy, infrastructure) will be necessary to allow the incorporation of OSNs into your organisation's IT infrastructure?
8 In your opinion, what are the implications of OSN on employee productivity? Baie dankie hiervoor! Andrea Ferreira Academic Coordinator Department of Information and Knowledge Management FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG +27 11 559 2183 +27 11 559 2822 (f) A Faculty of excellence and management scholarship that pursues exciting new frontiers of knowledge and develops innovative, socially responsible leaders relevant to a global, interconnected market.
Appendix 4E-mail sent to the University of Johannesburg's Chief
Technology Officer
146 Continued…
From: Wolmarans, Francois Sent: 11 May 2008 01:50 PM To: Ferreira, Andrea Subject: RE: E-pos Onderhoud - MPhil Chief Technology Officer - University of Johannesburg > Questions: (OSN = Online Social Networking / OSNs = Online Social > Networks) > Does your organisation have a policy on employee access to OSNs? There is currently no formal policy irt social networking but a General Internet Usage policy is at the MEC for approval which will formalise acceptable internet usage. > Are any of the following OSN sites purposefully restricted to your > employees? > > * Facebook > * MySpace > * YouTube > * LinkedIn Youtube is specifically blocked due to bandwidth constraints for personnel as well as students. From the computer labs facebook, myspace and youtube are blocked. > From a technological point of view, what are your greatest concerns > regarding employee access to OSNs? Bandwidth constraints are the biggest limiting factor. From a student point of view the amount of time OSN users tie up machines which could be used for academic pursuits are a major problem. > Do OSN sites hold a greater security threat in terms of malware than > any other websites? Technically no, but the social engineering aspects that are used by malware authors as well as the complete trust people put in OSN are a major security headache. > What are the bandwidth implications to your organisation if employees > are to have unrestricted access to OSNs? We would probably see a 3-4x slowdown of internet access for everyone (especially if streaming audio/video are opened). Also note that most of these sites are overseas which has a major cost implication if we need to increase bandwidth. > What elements (financial, policy, infrastructure) will be necessary to > allow the incorporation of OSNs into your organisation's IT > infrastructure?
Appendix 4E-mail sent to the University of Johannesburg's Chief
Technology Officer
147
To allow OSN's (including streaming audio/video) a chargeback model will have to be implemented (as at other South African universities) to fund the expanded bandwidth/hardware requirements. There is no incorporation into the IT infrastructure just allowing unmanaged access to these resources. > In your opinion, what are the implications of OSN on employee > productivity? It does have a major impact on employee interactivity, this should be addressed by the line managers personnel. On the student side it creates a major problem in terms of access to computer resources.
Appendix 5E-mail sent to a member of the University of Johannesburg's
Human Resource Department
148 Continued…
From: Ferreira, Andrea Sent: Thursday, May 08, 2008 9:42 AM To: Rhodes, Basil Subject: MPhil - Online Social Networking Importance: High Dear Dr Rhodes, I left a voicemail on your phone earlier today. I am currently completing the empirical phase of my MPhil studies. My topic deals with Online Social Networking (e.g. Facebook and LinkedIn) and the effect these technologies may have on employee productivity. I would really appreciate it if you would be willing to answer a few questions (via e-mail), since I want to include someone from HR’s view on OSN in my study. I also approached someone from the library and someone from CenTAL to contribute to this study. I have included the questions at the bottom of this e-mail and it would be greatly appreciated if you would be willing to participate. Thanking you in advance. Andrea Andrea Ferreira Academic Coordinator Department of Information and Knowledge Management FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG +27 11 559 2183 +27 11 559 2822 (f) A Faculty of excellence and management scholarship that pursues exciting new frontiers of knowledge and develops innovative, socially responsible leaders relevant to a global, interconnected market. Questions: 1 Do you participate in Online Social Networking (OSN)? 2 If so, which OSN site(s) do you use? (YouTube/MySpace/Facebook/LinkedIn/Other) 3 Do you use OSN to do your day-to-day work at the University of Johannesburg? 3.1 If so, in what way? 3.2 If not, why not? 4 In you professional opinion, what effects will an OSN, specifically aimed at UJ
employees, have on their productivity? Please motivate.
Appendix 5E-mail sent to a member of the University of Johannesburg's
Human Resource Department
149
From: Rhodes, Basil Sent: 09 May 2008 10:57 AM To: Ferreira, Andrea Subject: RE: MPhil - Online Social Networking Hello Andrea Herewith the questionnaire Questions: 5 Do you participate in Online Social Networking (OSN)? No 6 If so, which OSN site(s) do you use? (YouTube/MySpace/Facebook/LinkedIn/Other) Not
Applicable 7 Do you use OSN to do your day-to-day work at the University of Johannesburg? No 7.1 If so, in what way? Not applicable 7.2 If not, why not? I am not even aware of YouTube/MySpace etc. 8 In you professional opinion, what effects will an OSN, specifically aimed at UJ
employees, have on their productivity? Please motivate. I am in no position to answer this question.
Sorry Andrea, I have never accessed, or even considered accessing any of these sites. Possibly I should come to you, or someone you recommend, to see if I can gain from using OSN at work. Regards Dr Basil Rhodes Human Resource Division University of Johannesburg Room B236 B5 Building: Kingsway Campus Tel: 011-5592985 Fax: 086-6093904 Cell: 0828008341
Appendix 6E-mail sent to member of the University of Johannesburg's
Centre for Technology Assisted Learning
150 Continued…
From: Ferreira, Andrea Sent: 14 May 2008 09:26 AM To: Vilakazi, Bella Subject: E-mail Interview - MPhil Hi Bella, As discussed, will you please answer the following questions regarding my empirical investigation for my M? You are welcome to elaborate – your opinion is very valuable in this regard. Questions: 1 Do you participate in Online Social Networking (OSN)? 2 If so, which OSN site(s) do you use?
(YouTube/MySpace/Facebook/LinkedIn/Other) 3 Do you use OSN to do your day-to-day work at the University of Johannesburg? 3.1 If so, in what way? 3.2 If not, why not? 4 In you professional opinion, what effects will an OSN, specifically aimed at UJ
employees, have on their productivity? Please motivate. Thank you for this! Andrea Ferreira Academic Coordinator Department of Information and Knowledge Management FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG +27 11 559 2183 +27 11 559 2822 (f) A Faculty of excellence and management scholarship that pursues exciting new frontiers of knowledge and develops innovative, socially responsible leaders relevant to a global, interconnected market.
Appendix 6E-mail sent to member of the University of Johannesburg's
Centre for Technology Assisted Learning
151
From: Vilakazi, Bella Sent: 14 May 2008 10:35 AM To: Ferreira, Andrea Subject: RE: E-pos Onderhoud - MPhil Hi,
1. Do you participate in Online Social Networking (OSN)?
No 2. Do you use OSN to do your day-to-day work at the University of Johannesburg?
No 3. If so, in what way?
4. If not, why not?
I have e-mail that I use for official, and social communication. I dont need multiple envoronments for communication and or socialising purposes
5. In you professional opinion, what effects will an OSN, specifically aimed at UJ
employees, have on their productivity? Please motivate.
I don’t think OSN can impact on employee productivity unless if they are
irresponsible and misuse the opportunity of accessing networks. BP Vilakazi Instructional Designer 011 559 3555 [email protected] Centre for Technology Assisted Learning (CenTal) http://www.uj.ac.za/cental/CenTALHome University of Johannesburg
Appendix 7E-mail sent to member of the University of Johannesburg's
Library and Information Centre
152 Continued…
From: Ferreira, Andrea Sent: Thursday, May 08, 2008 9:20 AM To: Van der Walt, Sophie Cc: Tanya Du Plessis ([email protected]) Subject: E-pos Onderhoud - MPhil Importance: High Hi Sophie, Soos bespreek sal jy asseblief die volgende vrae beantwoord aangaande my empiriese ondersoek vir my M? Jy is welkom om uit te brei – jou opinie is baie waardevol in hierdie opsig. Questions: 1 Do you participate in Online Social Networking (OSN)? 2 If so, which OSN site(s) do you use?
(YouTube/MySpace/Facebook/LinkedIn/Other) 3 Do you use OSN to do your day-to-day work at the University of Johannesburg? 3.1 If so, in what way? 3.2 If not, why not? 4 In you professional opinion, what effects will an OSN, specifically aimed at UJ
employees, have on their productivity? Please motivate. Baie dankie hiervoor! Andrea Ferreira Academic Coordinator Department of Information and Knowledge Management FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG +27 11 559 2183 +27 11 559 2822 (f) A Faculty of excellence and management scholarship that pursues exciting new frontiers of knowledge and develops innovative, socially responsible leaders relevant to a global, interconnected market.
Appendix 7E-mail sent to member of the University of Johannesburg's
Library and Information Centre
153 Continued…
From: Van der Walt, Sophie Sent: 09 May 2008 09:44 AM To: Ferreira, Andrea Subject: E-pos Onderhoud - MPhil Hi Andrea, Hier is my bydrae: Questions: 1 Do you participate in Online Social Networking (OSN)? Yes I do, but as a private member, not as a representative of my department or institution. 2 If so, which OSN site(s) do you use?
(YouTube/MySpace/Facebook/LinkedIn/Other) Facebook & LinkedIn. I felt that MySpace is a bit more for teenagers and the cluttered interface complete put me off. I like Facebook's interface and most of my friends are on Facebook and not MySpace. I am also
part of a few Library/Work-related group there as most of my internationally work connections are on Facebook and not MySpace.
I also like LinkedIn as it is OSN without the "noise" of music videos, silly applications etc - it is more work related.
YouTube is blocked at my place of work and I do not have internet at home. 3 Do you use OSN to do your day-to-day work at the University of
Johannesburg? No 3.1 If so, in what way? 3.2 If not, why not? I use it to enhance my day-to-day work i.e. obtain interesting new sources on technology and
libraries, read up on new trends in the LIS (Library & Information Science) environment worldwide and to keep in the loop and to obtain a presence on OSN, but I don't use OSN to do my work. I tend to be a lurker on these sites and do not post much or often, however I read almost all the posts and access most of the suggestions or links presented.
If the library had a presence on OSN and I had an official Facebook UJ Librarian profile where students would be able to ask questions, leave entries or make appointments I assume it would become a much bigger part of doing my work.
Appendix 7E-mail sent to member of the University of Johannesburg's
Library and Information Centre
154
One reason for not having an official presence of the Library on OSN yet, is that we do not have a policy in place of whether it each librarian should decide for themselves to have a presence, or if everyone should have one. (Nothing happens without a policy) I am also unsure of whether or not students would welcome such a move - would I not be intruding in on their "space" to relax?
The second reason is that Facebook is blocked at most computers in the Library so that staff (and students) are unable to access it.
Lastly, the internet connection in the Library is extremely slow and I can only access Facebook once day before 9:00. If I go on any later the network is too slow for the application to download. I feel that it would be misleading to have an official Librarian presence on Facebook declaring to students that we can now help them via the program, and then only access it for 2 hours in the morning on select computers.
4 In you professional opinion, what effects will an OSN, specifically aimed at
UJ employees, have on their productivity? Please motivate. If the aim of the UJ OSN site meets the needs that UJ staff have, I feel that it could have a positive impact as it will allow staff to share knowledge across campuses easily and informally. I always feel that forced and formal communication channels fail to capture intrinsic, private knowledge that a person uses to do their day-to-day job. Having a central place, such as an OSN site, where I could quickly ask a question or present a problem and just as quickly receive answers from my colleagues/peers would boost my productivity. I would also be able to keep abreast of happenings in other Libraries and departments at the university and would be able to anticipate where I could possible help another staff member with information I have that I would normally never have heard of. The cross-campus info sharing could also boost productivity as driving around to all the campuses is time consuming. Potential negative impacts could be that staff spend too much time of the site and thus neglect their own work. By careful managing access to the site this could be minimised. An example would be to grant access to the portal: early in the morning, during tea times, lunch time and then after hours. Another possible down side (not necessarily towards productivity) could be that the site is used to post negative or derogatory remarks regarding individual staff members - which could lead to misinformation spreading faster throughout the institution and by implication it would then take longer to set the record straight. Kind Regards / Vriendelike Groete Sophie van der Walt [email protected] Blogs: http://ujeconomicslibrarianapk.blogspot.com and http://ujmanagementlibrarianapk.blogspot.com Subject Librarian: Economic & Financial Sciences (APK) Management (APK) University of Johannesburg: Library Services Kingsway Campus Tel: +2711 559 2641 Fax: +2711 726 7723 Website: www.uj.ac.za/library
Appendix 8E-mail sent to an employee at a large South African
telecommunications company
155
From: Ferreira, Andrea Sent: 05 May 2008 11:26 AM To: '[email protected]' Subject: MPhil - E-pos onderhoud Importance: High Hi E, Hoe gaan dit met jou? Ek kan nie glo ons het weer ’n normale 5-dag week wat voorlê nie! Die rede vir my e-pos is aangaande my M-studie waarvan ek jou vertel het. Ek sal dit baie waardeer as jy die vrae kan antwoord en teen die einde van die week kan terugstuur, ek gaan dit as deel van my impiriese studie gebruik. Ek stel die vrae in Engels omdat my studie in Engels is en ek nie enige misverstande wil laat deurglip as ek jou antwoorde vertaal nie. Baie baie baie dankie! (O, laat weet my ook ’seblief wat jou korrekte job title is?) En moenie bang wees om te elaborate nie, elke opinie/idee is baie belangrik! A --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Questions: (OSN = Online Social Networking / OSNs = Online Social Networks) Does your organisation have a policy on employee access to OSNs? Are any of the following OSN sites purposefully restricted to your employees?
• Facebook • MySpace • YouTube • LinkedIn
From a technological point of view, what are your greatest concerns regarding employee access to OSNs? Do OSN sites hold a greater security threat in terms of malware than any other websites? What are the bandwidth implications to your organisation if employees are to have unrestricted access to OSNs? What elements (financial, policy, infrastructure) will be necessary to allow the incorporation of OSNs into your organisation's IT infrastructure? In your opinion, what are the implications of OSN on employee productivity? Andrea Ferreira Academic Coordinator Department of Information and Knowledge Management FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG +27 11 559 2183 +27 11 559 2822 (f)
Appendix 9E-mail with questionnaire URL sent to the employees of the
Faculty of Management
156
From: Ferreira, Andrea Sent: 26 March 2008 02:54 PM Subject: Online Social Networking Survey Importance: High Dear Sir/Madam, I am investigating Online Social Networks as part of my MPhil studies. The empirical component of my study involves an online survey of various aspects regarding people’s preferences and habits concerning Online Social Networking. I kindly request your participation in this 5 minute anonymous survey (before or on 18 April 2008). Survey URL: http://take-survey.com/statkon/online_social_networking_survey.htm. If the link does not open when you click on it, please copy and paste the URL into your Web browser address bar to access the website. Should you have any enquiries or comments regarding this survey, you are welcome to contact me on 011 559 2183 or [email protected]. Yours sincerely, Andrea Ferreira Academic Coordinator Department of Information and Knowledge Management FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG +27 11 559 2183 +27 11 559 2822 (f) A Faculty of excellence and management scholarship that pursues exciting new frontiers of knowledge and develops innovative, socially responsible leaders relevant to a global, interconnected market.
Appendix 10E-mail reminder sent to the employees of the Faculty of
Management
157
From: Ferreira, Andrea Sent: 21 April 2008 03:15 PM Subject: Reminder: Online Social Networking Survey Importance: High Dear Sir/Madam, I am investigating Online Social Networks as part of my MPhil studies. The empirical component of my study involves an online survey of various aspects regarding people’s preferences and habits concerning Online Social Networking. If you have not completed this 5 minute survey previously, I kindly request your participation. Survey URL: http://take-survey.com/statkon/online_social_networking_survey.htm. If the link does not open when you click on it, please copy and paste the URL into your Web browser address bar to access the website. Should you have any enquiries or comments regarding this survey, you are welcome to contact me on 011 559 2183 or [email protected]. Yours sincerely, Andrea Ferreira Academic Coordinator Department of Information and Knowledge Management FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG +27 11 559 2183 +27 11 559 2822 (f) A Faculty of excellence and management scholarship that pursues exciting new frontiers of knowledge and develops innovative, socially responsible leaders relevant to a global, interconnected market.
Appendix 11E-mail reminder sent to an individual employee at the Faculty of
Management
158
From: Ferreira, Andrea To: Zaayman, Karen Sent: 5 May 2008 01:15 PM Subject: FW:Reminder: Online Social Networking Survey Dear Karen, As discussed telephonically, please see the original e-mail regarding the survey below. Thank you for agreeing to participate. Andrea From: Ferreira, Andrea Sent: 21 April 2008 03:15 PM Subject: Reminder: Online Social Networking Survey Importance: High Dear Sir/Madam, I am investigating Online Social Networks as part of my MPhil studies. The empirical component of my study involves an online survey of various aspects regarding people’s preferences and habits concerning Online Social Networking. If you have not completed this 5 minute survey previously, I kindly request your participation. Survey URL: http://take-survey.com/statkon/online_social_networking_survey.htm. If the link does not open when you click on it, please copy and paste the URL into your Web browser address bar to access the website. Should you have any enquiries or comments regarding this survey, you are welcome to contact me on 011 559 2183 or [email protected]. Yours sincerely, Andrea Ferreira Academic Coordinator Department of Information and Knowledge Management FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG +27 11 559 2183 +27 11 559 2822 (f) A Faculty of excellence and management scholarship that pursues exciting new frontiers of knowledge and develops innovative, socially responsible leaders relevant to a global, interconnected market.
Appendix 12E-mail reminder sent to an individual employee at the Faculty of
Management
159
From: Ferreira, Andrea To: Nel, Bev Sent: 6 May 2008 09:11 AM Subject: FW:Reminder: Online Social Networking Survey Dear Bev, As discussed telephonically, please see the original e-mail regarding the survey below. Thank you for agreeing to participate. Andrea From: Ferreira, Andrea Sent: 21 April 2008 03:15 PM Subject: Reminder: Online Social Networking Survey Importance: High Dear Sir/Madam, I am investigating Online Social Networks as part of my MPhil studies. The empirical component of my study involves an online survey of various aspects regarding people’s preferences and habits concerning Online Social Networking. If you have not completed this 5 minute survey previously, I kindly request your participation. Survey URL: http://take-survey.com/statkon/online_social_networking_survey.htm. If the link does not open when you click on it, please copy and paste the URL into your Web browser address bar to access the website. Should you have any enquiries or comments regarding this survey, you are welcome to contact me on 011 559 2183 or [email protected]. Yours sincerely, Andrea Ferreira Academic Coordinator Department of Information and Knowledge Management FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG +27 11 559 2183 +27 11 559 2822 (f) A Faculty of excellence and management scholarship that pursues exciting new frontiers of knowledge and develops innovative, socially responsible leaders relevant to a global, interconnected market.
Appendix 13E-mail reminder sent to an individual employee at the Faculty of
Management
160
From: Ferreira, Andrea To: Lubbe, Isolde Sent: 6 May 2008 11:55 AM Subject: FW:Reminder: Online Social Networking Survey Dear Isolde, As discussed telephonically, please see the original e-mail regarding the survey below. Thank you for agreeing to participate. Andrea From: Ferreira, Andrea Sent: 21 April 2008 03:15 PM Subject: Reminder: Online Social Networking Survey Importance: High Dear Sir/Madam, I am investigating Online Social Networks as part of my MPhil studies. The empirical component of my study involves an online survey of various aspects regarding people’s preferences and habits concerning Online Social Networking. If you have not completed this 5 minute survey previously, I kindly request your participation. Survey URL: http://take-survey.com/statkon/online_social_networking_survey.htm. If the link does not open when you click on it, please copy and paste the URL into your Web browser address bar to access the website. Should you have any enquiries or comments regarding this survey, you are welcome to contact me on 011 559 2183 or [email protected]. Yours sincerely, Andrea Ferreira Academic Coordinator Department of Information and Knowledge Management FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG +27 11 559 2183 +27 11 559 2822 (f) A Faculty of excellence and management scholarship that pursues exciting new frontiers of knowledge and develops innovative, socially responsible leaders relevant to a global, interconnected market.
Appendix 14Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
161 Continued…
A Ferreira Basic Descriptives and Frequencies
Section A
a1 Gender
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
Male 25 28.1 28.4 28.4
Female 63 70.8 71.6 100.0
Total 88 98.9 100.0
Missing System 1 1.1
Total 89 100.0
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
162 Continued…
a2 Age
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
20 2 2.2 2.3 2.3
21 1 1.1 1.1 3.4
22 3 3.4 3.4 6.9
23 1 1.1 1.1 8.0
24 2 2.2 2.3 10.3
25 2 2.2 2.3 12.6
26 3 3.4 3.4 16.1
28 3 3.4 3.4 19.5
29 4 4.5 4.6 24.1
30 1 1.1 1.1 25.3
31 3 3.4 3.4 28.7
32 4 4.5 4.6 33.3
33 4 4.5 4.6 37.9
34 2 2.2 2.3 40.2
36 3 3.4 3.4 43.7
37 5 5.6 5.7 49.4
38 4 4.5 4.6 54.0
39 5 5.6 5.7 59.8
40 3 3.4 3.4 63.2
42 4 4.5 4.6 67.8
43 1 1.1 1.1 69.0
44 2 2.2 2.3 71.3
45 1 1.1 1.1 72.4
46 1 1.1 1.1 73.6
47 1 1.1 1.1 74.7
48 3 3.4 3.4 78.2
50 1 1.1 1.1 79.3
51 1 1.1 1.1 80.5
52 1 1.1 1.1 81.6
53 1 1.1 1.1 82.8
54 2 2.2 2.3 85.1
55 1 1.1 1.1 86.2
56 2 2.2 2.3 88.5
57 1 1.1 1.1 89.7
59 1 1.1 1.1 90.8
60 3 3.4 3.4 94.3
61 1 1.1 1.1 95.4
62 4 4.5 4.6 100.0
Total 87 97.8 100.0
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
163 Continued…
Missing System 2 2.2
Total 89 100.0
Age (Binned)
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
Twenties 21 23.6 24.1 24.1
Thirties 31 34.8 35.6 59.8
Forties 16 18.0 18.4 78.2
Fifties 11 12.4 12.6 90.8
Sixties 8 9.0 9.2 100.0
Total 87 97.8 100.0
Missing System 2 2.2
Total 89 100.0
Statistics a2 Age
N Valid 87
Missing 2
Mean 39.13
Median 38.00
Std. Deviation 11.838
Skewness .421
Kurtosis -.758
a3 Appointment
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
Permanent Academic Staff 42 47.2 47.7 47.7
Permanent Academic Staff (HOD) 3 3.4 3.4 51.1
Permanent Administrative Staff 22 24.7 25.0 76.1
Permanent Administrative Staff (Manager) 4 4.5 4.5 80.7
Temporary Academic Staff 6 6.7 6.8 87.5
Temporary Administrative Staff 11 12.4 12.5 100.0
Total 88 98.9 100.0
Missing System 1 1.1
Total 89 100.0
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
164 Continued…
Academic vs Admin staff
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
Academic 51 57.3 58.0 58.0
Administrative 37 41.6 42.0 100.0
Total 88 98.9 100.0
Missing System 1 1.1
Total 89 100.0
Section B
b4.1 - b4.6 Please select ALL the names of the Online Social Networking sites that you recognise.
Not Marked Marked Total
You Tube Count 36 53 89
% 40.4% 59.6% 100.0%
My Space Count 39 50 89
% 43.8% 56.2% 100.0%
Facebook Count 16 73 89
% 18.0% 82.0% 100.0%
LinkedIn Count 73 16 89
% 82.0% 18.0% 100.0%
I do not recognise any of these namesCount 78 11 89
% 87.6% 12.4% 100.0%
Other Count 80 9 89
% 89.9% 10.1% 100.0%
b4.7other Other, please specify
Frequency Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
81 91.0 91.0
blogspot 1 1.1 92.1
DeviantArt 1 1.1 93.3
flickr 1 1.1 94.4
flickr mxit gchat 1 1.1 95.5
Netlog 1 1.1 96.6
Outlook 1 1.1 97.8
Skype 1 1.1 98.9
stylefeeder 1 1.1 100.0
Total 89 100.0
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
165 Continued…
b5 Do you visit any of the above mentioned Online social Networking sites?
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
Yes 48 53.9 55.2 55.2
No 39 43.8 44.8 100.0
Total 87 97.8 100.0
Missing System 2 2.2
Total 89 100.0
b6.1 - b6.5 How often do you visit each of the following Online Social Networking sites? (Filtered - based on b5)
Never Once a month One a week Once a day More than once a day Total
You Tube Count 16 14 3 2 35
% 45.7% 40.0% 8.6% 5.7% 100.0%
My Space Count 22 11 3 1 37
% 59.5% 29.7% 8.1% 2.7% 100.0%
Facebook Count 5 23 8 6 3 45
% 11.1% 51.1% 17.8% 13.3% 6.7% 100.0%
LinkedIn Count 17 5 3 25
% 68.0% 20.0% 12.0% 100.0%
Other Count 4 2 1 2 9
% 44.4% 22.2% 11.1% 22.2% 100.0%
b6.6other Other, please specify (Filtered based on b5)
Frequency Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
44 91.7 91.7
DeviantArt 1 2.1 93.8
flickr 1 2.1 95.8
flickr mxit gchat 1 2.1 97.9
Skype 1 2.1 100.0
Total 48 100.0
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
166 Continued…
b7.1 - b7.5 From where do you access OSN sites? (Filtered based on b5)
Not Marked Marked Total
From home Count 20 28 48
% 41.7% 58.3% 100.0%
At the office Count 16 32 48
% 33.3% 66.7% 100.0%
At Internet cafesCount 43 5 48
% 89.6% 10.4% 100.0%
On cell phone Count 36 12 48
% 75.0% 25.0% 100.0%
Other Count 48 48
% 100.0% 100.0%
b7.6other Other, please specify (Filtered based on b5)
Frequency Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid 48 100.0 100.0
b8.1 - b8.8 What do you utilise OSN sites for? (Filtered based on b5)
Not Marked Marked Total
To find old friends Count 19 29 48
% 39.6% 60.4% 100.0%
To socialise with current friends Count 17 31 48
% 35.4% 64.6% 100.0%
To find solutions to work-related queries Count 35 13 48
% 72.9% 27.1% 100.0%
To chat with friends Count 26 22 48
% 54.2% 45.8% 100.0%
To build business contracts Count 29 19 48
% 60.4% 39.6% 100.0%
To discuss work-related issues with colleaguesCount 41 7 48
% 85.4% 14.6% 100.0%
To upload photos Count 36 12 48
% 75.0% 25.0% 100.0%
Other Count 42 6 48
% 87.5% 12.5% 100.0%
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
167 Continued…
b8.9other Other, please specify (Filtered based on b5)
Frequency Valid Percent Cumulative Percent
Valid
42 87.5 87.5
CURIOSITY 1 2.1 89.6
music videos 1 2.1 91.7
n/a 1 2.1 93.8
seeing what is happening out there 1 2.1 95.8
to keep an always updated list of contacts 1 2.1 97.9
watch videos on YouTube 1 2.1 100.0
Total 48 100.0
Section C
c9.1 - c9.10 To what extent do you agree with each of the following statements?
Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly
Agree Undecided Total
OSN encourages people to share knowledge and expertise Count 3 13 38 20 9 83
% 3.6% 15.7% 45.8% 24.1% 10.8% 100.0%
OSNs lower the productivity of employees Count 6 28 28 14 7 83
% 7.2% 33.7% 33.7% 16.9% 8.4% 100.0%
I have to have extensive knowledge about Internet applications to participate in OSNs
Count 8 46 14 9 5 82
% 9.8% 56.1% 17.1% 11.0% 6.1% 100.0%
OSNs contribute to the intellectual capital of my organisation. (Intellectual capital is people's knowledge that can be exploited for financial gain or any other useful purpose that might be advantageous to company or cause.)
Count 7 32 32 3 9 83
% 8.4% 38.6% 38.6% 3.6% 10.8% 100.0%
OSN sites are addictive (Meaning that these sites may negatively influence the way you normally function to an extent that is detrimental to you)
Count 2 29 31 16 5 83
% 2.4% 34.9% 37.3% 19.3% 6.0% 100.0%
OSN sites should be blocked by a company's IT department Count 13 40 15 5 10 83
% 15.7% 48.2% 18.1% 6.0% 12.0% 100.0%
OSNs encourage innovation through collaboration Count 5 20 44 5 9 83
% 6.0% 24.1% 53.0% 6.0% 10.8% 100.0%
OSN is a tool designed for teenagers and students Count 11 40 20 7 5 83
% 13.3% 48.2% 24.1% 8.4% 6.0% 100.0%
Using e-mail is just as effective as participating in OSNs Count 6 16 47 6 7 82
% 7.3% 19.5% 57.3% 7.3% 8.5% 100.0%
An organisational OSN, specifically aimed at UJ personnel, will allow me to perform my day to day work functions more efficiently
Count 6 28 31 7 11 83
% 7.2% 33.7% 37.3% 8.4% 13.3% 100.0%
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
168 Continued…
Reliability Analysis
Scale: Attitude and perceptions regarding OSN
Case Processing Summary
N %
Cases
Valid 57 64.0
Excluded(a) 32 36.0
Total 89 100.0
a Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure.
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
.255 10 Item Statistics
Mean Std.
Deviation N
OSN encourages people to share knowledge and expertise 3.07 .776 57
OSNs lower the productivity of employees 2.60 .863 57
I have to have extensive knowledge about Internet applications to participate in OSNs 2.25 .763 57
OSNs contribute to the intellectual capital of my organisation. (Intellectual capital is people's knowledge that can be exploited for financial gain or any other useful purpose that might be advantageous to company or cause.) 2.40 .704 57
OSN sites are addictive (Meaning that these sites may negatively influence the way you normally function to an extent that is detrimental to you) 2.75 .808 57
OSN sites should be blocked by a company's IT department 2.12 .803 57
OSNs encourage innovation through collaboration 2.67 .664 57
OSN is a tool designed for teenagers and students 2.28 .861 57
Using e-mail is just as effective as participating in OSNs 2.63 .771 57
An organisational OSN, specifically aimed at UJ personnel, will allow me to perform my day to day work functions more efficiently 2.58 .755 57
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
169 Continued…
Item-Total Statistics
Scale Mean if Item Deleted
Scale Variance if Item Deleted
Corrected Item-Total Correlation
Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted
OSN encourages people to share knowledge and expertise 22.28 7.277 -.001 .280
OSNs lower the productivity of employees 22.75 6.081 .246 .140
I have to have extensive knowledge about Internet applications to participate in OSNs 23.11 6.882 .103 .228
OSNs contribute to the intellectual capital of my organisation. (Intellectual capital is people's knowledge that can be exploited for financial gain or any other useful purpose that might be advantageous to company or cause.)
22.95 6.979 .108 .227
OSN sites are addictive (Meaning that these sites may negatively influence the way you normally function to an extent that is detrimental to you)
22.60 6.602 .149 .202
OSN sites should be blocked by a company's IT department 23.23 8.072 -.185 .369
OSNs encourage innovation through collaboration 22.68 7.398 .010 .269
OSN is a tool designed for teenagers and students 23.07 6.495 .145 .203
Using e-mail is just as effective as participating in OSNs 22.72 6.670 .153 .202
An organisational OSN, specifically aimed at UJ personnel, will allow me to perform my day to day work functions more efficiently 22.77 6.608 .180 .189
Scale Statistics
Mean Variance Std. Deviation N of Items
25.35 7.875 2.806 10
Factor Analysis to see which items need to be reflected
Communalities
Initial Extraction
OSN encourages people to share knowledge and expertise 1.000 .760
OSNs lower the productivity of employees 1.000 .621
I have to have extensive knowledge about Internet applications to participate in OSNs 1.000 .505
OSNs contribute to the intellectual capital of my organisation. (Intellectual capital is people's knowledge that can be exploited for financial gain or any other useful purpose that might be advantageous to company or cause.) 1.000 .609
OSN sites are addictive (Meaning that these sites may negatively influence the way you normally function to an extent that is detrimental to you) 1.000 .742
OSN sites should be blocked by a company's IT department 1.000 .640
OSNs encourage innovation through collaboration 1.000 .547
OSN is a tool designed for teenagers and students 1.000 .600
Using e-mail is just as effective as participating in OSNs 1.000 .519
An organisational OSN, specifically aimed at UJ personnel, will allow me to perform my day to day work functions more efficiently 1.000 .761
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
170 Continued…
Total Variance Explained
Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings
Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 3.641 36.407 36.407 3.641 36.407 36.407
2 1.482 14.824 51.231 1.482 14.824 51.231
3 1.181 11.810 63.041 1.181 11.810 63.041
4 .895 8.948 71.989
5 .661 6.608 78.598
6 .608 6.083 84.680
7 .490 4.896 89.576
8 .435 4.353 93.930
9 .345 3.453 97.383
10 .262 2.617 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Component Matrix(a)
Component
1 2 3
OSN encourages people to share knowledge and expertise .568 .094 .655
OSNs lower the productivity of employees -.435 .602 .264
I have to have extensive knowledge about Internet applications to participate in OSNs .510 .372 -.325
OSNs contribute to the intellectual capital of my organisation. (Intellectual capital is people's knowledge that can be exploited for financial gain or any other useful purpose that might be advantageous to company or cause.) .696 .347 -
.060
OSN sites are addictive (Meaning that these sites may negatively influence the way you normally function to an extent that is detrimental to you)
-.617 .354 .486
OSN sites should be blocked by a company's IT department -.795
-.021 .091
OSNs encourage innovation through collaboration .675 .225 -.202
OSN is a tool designed for teenagers and students -.534 .516 -
.219
Using e-mail is just as effective as participating in OSNs -.310 .526 -
.383
An organisational OSN, specifically aimed at UJ personnel, will allow me to perform my day to day work functions more efficiently .732 .364 .305
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
a 3 components extracted.
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
171 Continued…
Reliability of scale with reflected items
Scale: Attitude and perceptions regarding OSN
Case Processing Summary
N %
Cases
Valid 57 64.0
Excluded(a) 32 36.0
Total 89 100.0
a Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure.
Reliability Statistics after reflecting items
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
.791 10
Item Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation N
c9.1 3.0702 .77597 57
rc9.2 2.4035 .86313 57
c9.3 2.2456 .76253 57
c9.4 2.4035 .70355 57
rc9.5 2.2456 .80801 57
rc9.6 2.8772 .80335 57
c9.7 2.6667 .66368 57
rc9.8 2.7193 .86095 57
rc9.9 2.3684 .77070 57
c9.10 2.5789 .75468 57
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
172 Continued…
Item-Total Statistics
Scale Mean if Item Deleted Scale Variance if Item Deleted Corrected Item-Total Correlation Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted
c9.1 22.5088 17.612 .433 .776
rc9.2 23.1754 17.683 .359 .786
c9.3 23.3333 18.155 .354 .785
c9.4 23.1754 17.433 .529 .765
rc9.5 23.3333 16.940 .517 .765
rc9.6 22.7018 16.106 .664 .746
c9.7 22.9123 17.724 .513 .768
rc9.8 22.8596 17.123 .445 .775
rc9.9 23.2105 18.705 .260 .796
c9.10 23.0000 16.857 .582 .758
Scale Statistics
Mean Variance Std. Deviation N of Items
25.5789 21.034 4.58627 10
Factor Analysis with reflected items
Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation Analysis N
c9.1 3.07 .776 57
rc9.2 2.4035 .86313 57
c9.3 2.25 .763 57
c9.4 2.40 .704 57
rc9.5 2.2456 .80801 57
rc9.6 2.8772 .80335 57
c9.7 2.67 .664 57
rc9.8 2.7193 .86095 57
rc9.9 2.3684 .77070 57
c9.10 2.58 .755 57
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
173 Continued…
Correlation Matrix
c9.1 rc9.2 c9.3 c9.4 rc9.5 rc9.6 c9.7 rc9.8 rc9.9 c9.10
Correlation
c9.1 1.000 .090 .121 .340 .057 .386 .289 .324 .255 .509
rc9.2 .090 1.000 .091 .198 .419 .253 .177 .395 .229 .074
c9.3 .121 .091 1.000 .345 .306 .312 .341 -.002 .056 .431
c9.4 .340 .198 .345 1.000 .325 .500 .408 .131 .017 .595
rc9.5 .057 .419 .306 .325 1.000 .515 .355 .332 .254 .173
rc9.6 .386 .253 .312 .500 .515 1.000 .525 .362 .161 .473
c9.7 .289 .177 .341 .408 .355 .525 1.000 .271 -.035 .428
rc9.8 .324 .395 -.002 .131 .332 .362 .271 1.000 .266 .282
rc9.9 .255 .229 .056 .017 .254 .161 -.035 .266 1.000 .179
c9.10 .509 .074 .431 .595 .173 .473 .428 .282 .179 1.000
KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .754
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square 161.717
df 45
Sig. .000
Anti-image Matrices Anti-image Covariance
c9.1 rc9.2 c9.3 c9.4 rc9.5 rc9.6 c9.7 rc9.8 rc9.9 c9.10
c9.1 .627 .016 .054 -.052 .125 -.100 -.051 -.103 -.149 -.132
rc9.2 .016 .720 -.020 -.097 -.135 .013 -.012 -.205 -.093 .080
c9.3 .054 -.020 .695 .002 -.129 -.011 -.089 .148 .002 -.181
c9.4 -.052 -.097 .002 .519 -.089 -.090 -.024 .116 .112 -.207
rc9.5 .125 -.135 -.129 -.089 .534 -.172 -.073 -.095 -.150 .093
rc9.6 -.100 .013 -.011 -.090 -.172 .484 -.135 -.063 -.001 -.045
c9.7 -.051 -.012 -.089 -.024 -.073 -.135 .616 -.060 .155 -.066
rc9.8 -.103 -.205 .148 .116 -.095 -.063 -.060 .640 -.051 -.109
rc9.9 -.149 -.093 .002 .112 -.150 -.001 .155 -.051 .774 -.091
c9.10 -.132 .080 -.181 -.207 .093 -.045 -.066 -.109 -.091 .424
Anti-image Matrices Anti-image Correlation
c9.1 rc9.2 c9.3 c9.4 rc9.5 rc9.6 c9.7 rc9.8 rc9.9 c9.10
c9.1 .770(a) .023 .081 -.091 .216 -.182 -.082 -.162 -.214 -.256
rc9.2 .023 .727(a) -.029 -.159 -.218 .022 -.019 -.303 -.124 .145
c9.3 .081 -.029 .734(a) .004 -.212 -.019 -.137 .223 .003 -.333
c9.4 -.091 -.159 .004 .763(a) -.170 -.180 -.043 .202 .176 -.440
rc9.5 .216 -.218 -.212 -.170 .700(a) -.339 -.128 -.163 -.234 .195
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
174 Continued…
rc9.6 -.182 .022 -.019 -.180 -.339 .848(a) -.247 -.113 -.002 -.098
c9.7 -.082 -.019 -.137 -.043 -.128 -.247 .853(a) -.096 .225 -.129
rc9.8 -.162 -.303 .223 .202 -.163 -.113 -.096 .709(a) -.073 -.209
rc9.9 -.214 -.124 .003 .176 -.234 -.002 .225 -.073 .580(a) -.159
c9.10 -.256 .145 -.333 -.440 .195 -.098 -.129 -.209 -.159 .720(a)
a Measures of Sampling Adequacy(MSA)
Communalities
Initial Extraction
c9.1 .373 .531
rc9.2 .280 .338
c9.3 .305 .322
c9.4 .481 .508
rc9.5 .466 .738
rc9.6 .516 .570
c9.7 .384 .401
rc9.8 .360 .499
rc9.9 .226 .199
c9.10 .576 .732
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
175 Continued…
Total Variance Explained
Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 3.641 36.407 36.407 3.181 31.806 31.806 2.225 22.246 22.246
2 1.482 14.824 51.231 .971 9.710 41.516 1.509 15.094 37.340
3 1.181 11.810 63.041 .686 6.864 48.380 1.104 11.040 48.380
4 .895 8.948 71.989
5 .661 6.608 78.598
6 .608 6.083 84.680
7 .490 4.896 89.576
8 .435 4.353 93.930
9 .345 3.453 97.383
10 .262 2.617 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
Rotated Factor Matrix(a)
Factor
1 2 3
c9.4 .672 .078 .226
c9.10 .638 .028 .570
rc9.6 .615 .387 .207
c9.7 .588 .189 .140
c9.3 .567 .007 .004
rc9.5 .489 .656 -.260
rc9.8 .071 .620 .331
rc9.2 .131 .566 -.017
rc9.9 -.023 .388 .218
c9.1 .243 .177 .664
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
a Rotation converged in 12 iterations.
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
176 Continued…
Explore for normality
Case Processing Summary
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
Mean_rSecC 81 91.0% 8 9.0% 89 100.0%
Descriptives
Statistic Std. Error
Mean_rSecC
Mean 2.5222 .05231
95% Confidence Interval for MeanLower Bound 2.4181
Upper Bound 2.6263
5% Trimmed Mean 2.5238
Median 2.5556
Variance .222
Std. Deviation .47078
Minimum 1.20
Maximum 3.70
Range 2.50
Interquartile Range .67
Skewness -.013 .267
Kurtosis -.066 .529
Tests of Normality
Kolmogorov-Smirnov(a) Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic df Sig. Statistic df Sig.
Mean_rSecC .072 81 .200(*) .991 81 .848
* This is a lower bound of the true significance.
a Lilliefors Significance Correction
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
177 Continued…
Factor Analysis to 'force' two factors
Descriptive Statistics
Mean Std. Deviation Analysis N
c9.1 3.07 .776 57
rc9.2 2.4035 .86313 57
c9.3 2.25 .763 57
c9.4 2.40 .704 57
rc9.5 2.2456 .80801 57
rc9.6 2.8772 .80335 57
c9.7 2.67 .664 57
rc9.8 2.7193 .86095 57
rc9.9 2.3684 .77070 57
c9.10 2.58 .755 57
Correlation Matrix
c9.1 rc9.2 c9.3 c9.4 rc9.5 rc9.6 c9.7 rc9.8 rc9.9 c9.10
Correlation
c9.1 1.000 .090 .121 .340 .057 .386 .289 .324 .255 .509
rc9.2 .090 1.000 .091 .198 .419 .253 .177 .395 .229 .074
c9.3 .121 .091 1.000 .345 .306 .312 .341 -.002 .056 .431
c9.4 .340 .198 .345 1.000 .325 .500 .408 .131 .017 .595
rc9.5 .057 .419 .306 .325 1.000 .515 .355 .332 .254 .173
rc9.6 .386 .253 .312 .500 .515 1.000 .525 .362 .161 .473
c9.7 .289 .177 .341 .408 .355 .525 1.000 .271 -.035 .428
rc9.8 .324 .395 -.002 .131 .332 .362 .271 1.000 .266 .282
rc9.9 .255 .229 .056 .017 .254 .161 -.035 .266 1.000 .179
c9.10 .509 .074 .431 .595 .173 .473 .428 .282 .179 1.000
KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .754
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity
Approx. Chi-Square 161.717
df 45
Sig. .000
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
178 Continued…
Anti-image Matrices Anti-image Covariance
c9.1 rc9.2 c9.3 c9.4 rc9.5 rc9.6 c9.7 rc9.8 rc9.9 c9.10
c9.1 .627 .016 .054 -.052 .125 -.100 -.051 -.103 -.149 -.132
rc9.2 .016 .720 -.020 -.097 -.135 .013 -.012 -.205 -.093 .080
c9.3 .054 -.020 .695 .002 -.129 -.011 -.089 .148 .002 -.181
c9.4 -.052 -.097 .002 .519 -.089 -.090 -.024 .116 .112 -.207
rc9.5 .125 -.135 -.129 -.089 .534 -.172 -.073 -.095 -.150 .093
rc9.6 -.100 .013 -.011 -.090 -.172 .484 -.135 -.063 -.001 -.045
c9.7 -.051 -.012 -.089 -.024 -.073 -.135 .616 -.060 .155 -.066
rc9.8 -.103 -.205 .148 .116 -.095 -.063 -.060 .640 -.051 -.109
rc9.9 -.149 -.093 .002 .112 -.150 -.001 .155 -.051 .774 -.091
c9.10 -.132 .080 -.181 -.207 .093 -.045 -.066 -.109 -.091 .424
Anti-image Matrices Anti-image Correlation
c9.1 rc9.2 c9.3 c9.4 rc9.5 rc9.6 c9.7 rc9.8 rc9.9 c9.10
c9.1 .770(a) .023 .081 -.091 .216 -.182 -.082 -.162 -.214 -.256
rc9.2 .023 .727(a) -.029 -.159 -.218 .022 -.019 -.303 -.124 .145
c9.3 .081 -.029 .734(a) .004 -.212 -.019 -.137 .223 .003 -.333
c9.4 -.091 -.159 .004 .763(a) -.170 -.180 -.043 .202 .176 -.440
rc9.5 .216 -.218 -.212 -.170 .700(a) -.339 -.128 -.163 -.234 .195
rc9.6 -.182 .022 -.019 -.180 -.339 .848(a) -.247 -.113 -.002 -.098
c9.7 -.082 -.019 -.137 -.043 -.128 -.247 .853(a) -.096 .225 -.129
rc9.8 -.162 -.303 .223 .202 -.163 -.113 -.096 .709(a) -.073 -.209
rc9.9 -.214 -.124 .003 .176 -.234 -.002 .225 -.073 .580(a) -.159
c9.10 -.256 .145 -.333 -.440 .195 -.098 -.129 -.209 -.159 .720(a)
a Measures of Sampling Adequacy(MSA)
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
179 Continued…
Communalities
Initial Extraction
c9.1 .373 .260
rc9.2 .280 .403
c9.3 .305 .231
c9.4 .481 .494
rc9.5 .466 .462
rc9.6 .516 .581
c9.7 .384 .381
rc9.8 .360 .351
rc9.9 .226 .131
c9.10 .576 .692
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
Total Variance Explained
Factor Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %
1 3.641 36.407 36.407 3.104 31.037 31.037 2.432 24.322 24.322
2 1.482 14.824 51.231 .883 8.826 39.863 1.554 15.541 39.863
3 1.181 11.810 63.041
4 .895 8.948 71.989
5 .661 6.608 78.598
6 .608 6.083 84.680
7 .490 4.896 89.576
8 .435 4.353 93.930
9 .345 3.453 97.383
10 .262 2.617 100.000
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring.
Appendix 14 Questionnaire data processed by Statcon
180
Rotated Factor Matrix(a)
Factor
1 2
c9.10 .830 .063
c9.4 .687 .146
rc9.6 .616 .450
c9.7 .564 .252
c9.1 .483 .162
c9.3 .474 .082
rc9.2 .048 .633
rc9.5 .265 .626
rc9.8 .198 .558
rc9.9 .069 .355
Extraction Method: Principal Axis Factoring. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
a Rotation converged in 3 iterations.
181
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