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THE CULTURAL LOGIC OF POSTMODERNISM AS CRITIQUED BY FREDFUC JAMESON
THE SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
A Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of Graduate Studies
of
The University of Guelph
by
LISA TAMARA WILSON
In partial fulfillment of requirements
For the degree of
Master of Landscape Architecture
November, 2000
O Lisa Tamara Wilson, 2000
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ABSTRACT
POSTMODERNISM'S CULTUBU LOGIC AS CFUTIQUED BY FREDRIC JAMESON
THE SOCIAL. TRANSFORMATION OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Lisa Tamara Wilson University of Guelph, 2000
Advisor: Professor N. Pollock Elwand
This thesis is the investigation of the social transformation of metropolitan landscape
architecture that has occurred within postmodem society. The metropolitan city is
fimdamentally different fiom the city of the modem era. As the transformation between the
modem and the postmodem era occurred, the cultural construction of that society also
changed. These changes to culture also influenced the psychological foundation of cultural
production within society.
This thesis creates a greater understanding of the psychological elements of
postmodernism that influence the design of landscape architecture. This is achieved by
creating a modelof the key cornponents of the current cultural logic, these being, time, space,
action, truth and reality. This model was developed fkom the critique of postmodern society
which was presented by Frednc Jarneson in his book Postmodemisrn, or, The Cultural Logic
of Lare Capitalism (199 1 ) and the philosophy of Hannah. By applying this model to 3 case
studies of parks within Toronto, the evaluation of the current cultural condition of landscape
architecture is performed.
Acknowledgernents
The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the involvement
of many people. The first people 1 would like to acknowledge are my advisor Nancy Pollock
Elwand and cornmittee member Jirn Taylor. Both have been not only inspiring, but also
patient over the writing process. They brought both insight and rigor to rny study.
Khaldoon Ahmad is another person who has been indispensable during the past
several months. His kindness in taking me under his philosophical wing and his generosity
with his tirne has greatly helped in deveIoping the thoughts presented in ?his research.
Khaldoon often provided the guidance 1 required to persevere in the toughest of times.
Although unbeknownst to him, Will Robinson is also an individual to be
acknowledged. It was Will who lent me his copy ofPostmodemism, or, n e Culfural Logic
of Late Capitalism (199 1) a year and a half ago. Since then many pages have been tom and
dog eared as the book was read and loved.
To al1 the other people who have known me through this journey, thank you for your
encouragement and good thoughts!
Table of Contents
Acknowledgernents Table of Contents Figures
ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
TWO: JAMESON AND THE METROPOLITAN CONTEXT 8
The Metropolis Fredric Jarneson's Cultural Logic The Disappearance of the Individual Subject Stylistic Triumph of Pastiche A Crisis in History Schizophrenic Consciousness Rise of the Hysten'cal Sublime
The Appropriateness of Jameson within Landscape Architecture Postmodernisrn as a Cultural Logic
History and Depthlessness Present and lnstantaneous Existence Postmodern Hyperspace Image and Media
THREE: A MODEL OF POSTMODERNISM AS CULTURAL LOGIC FOR THE EVALUATION OF METROPOLITAN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE 50
Time Space Action Truth & Reality
FOUR: THE EVALUATION OF FOUR TORONTO PARKS 59
Methodology Background Study: Cloud Gardens Consewatory Case Studyl: Cumberland Park
The City of Toronto Design Brief Jury's Report Written Su bmission Cultural Logic of Pcstmodernism
Case Study 2: Court House Square The City of Toronto Brief Jury's Report The Written Subrnission
Cultural Logic as Postmodernism Case Study 3: Dundas Square
The City of Toronto Design Brief The Written Submission Jury's Report Cultural Logic as Postmodemism
FIVE: CONCLUSIONS
The Social Transformation of Landscape Architecture in Toronto Cultural Logic of Landscape Architecture Landscape Architecture and the Metropolis
General References
APPENDIX A: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
Juror A Juror B Juror C Juror D Juror E
Figures
Figure 1 : A Graphic Representation of Jameson's Mode1 29
Figure 2: Landscape Architecture's Potential Action within its Environment 40
Figure 3: The Bonaventure Hotel LeR Ariel view of building, Right Lobby (Source: The Westin
Hotel & Resort web site)
Figure 4: Development of the Model for this Research
Figure 5: Map of Toronto with Study Area Highlighted (Map by "Toronton MapArt Publishing,
1997)
Figure 6 : Park Locations within Toronto (Map: "To:onton by MapArt Publishing, 1997)
Figure 7: Literature Reviewed in Park Evaiuation
Figure 8: Cloud Gardens Conservatory (Photos: Author)
Figure 9: Base Plan of Cloud Gardens Park (Source: Canadian Architect)
Figure 10: Cloud Garden Conservatory Analysis
Figure 1 1 : Cumberland Park (Photos: Author)
Figure 12: Base PIan of Cumberland Park (Source: Landscape Architecture April 1993)
Figure 13: Cumberland Park Analysis
Figure 14: Court House Park (Photos: Author)
Figure 15: Base PIan of Court House Park (Source: City of Toronto Design Brief and Author)
Figure 16: Court House Park Analysis
Figure 17: Model of Dundas Square (Source: The City of Toronto's web site)
Figure 18: Base PIan of Dundas Square (Source: Brown and Storey Written Submissions)
Figure 19: Dundas Square Anaiysis
Figure 20: Summary of Park Analysis
One: Introduction
The postmodern metropolitan cityl is fundamentally different fiorn the city of the
modern era. Research regarding the contemporary metropolitan condition within the city
often fails to discuss the nature of postmodernism in regards to the various components, or
players, that create the urban fabric of the metropolis. Postmodernism is often used to
describe a particular style within the metropolis, such as the architecture of Michael Graves.
Such a description does not adequately describe the rneaniïg of postmodernism, for the
evolution of the metropolis into a postrnodem city has not been an isolated experience of
changing aesthetics and social trends. Every component of the metropolis' fiarnework
(architecture, art, media, and the economy) has been influenced or fiindamentally changed as
the metropolis has evolved. These fùndamental changes in îhe metropolis are certainly not to
the exclusion of landscape architecture2.
It is difficult to pinpoint when the transformation of landscape architecture within
society became postrnodern. The metropolis, however, and its cultural production, began to
feel the impact of a changing society half a century ago.
". . .at some point following World War II a new kind of society began to emerge variously described as postindustnal society, muttinational capitalism, consumer society and media society, New m e s of consumption; planned obsolescence; an ever more rapid rhythm of fashion and styling changes; the
' Metropolitan city and metropolis (which 1 will utilize interchangeably) refer to the urban built environment, more specificaily to the areas of urban built environment where dwelling is not the essential funetion-
Landscape Architecture, within this discussion, is to be conceived of as the discipline which deals with the design and creation of spaces within the metropolis. It ako refers to the spaces themselves as being landscape architecture- These spaces are parks, street-scaping, courtyards, plazas and public open spaces. The design of these spaces is not synonymous with landscaping which is a horticulturally focused discipline.
penetration of advertising, television ànd the media generally to a hitherto unparalleled degree throughout societr, the replacement of the old tension between city and country, center and province by the suburb and 5y universal standardization; the growth of the great networks of superhighways and the arriva1 of automobile culture - these are sorne of the features which would seem to mark a radical break with that older prewar society in which rnodernism was shll an underground force." (Jameson 1983, p. 124- 125)
The transformation of the metropolis, including landscape architecture, has been a
result of the change of cultural logic fiom that of the modem era. Contemporary cultural
logic, also referred to as postmodemism in this research, is the psychologica13 foundation of
cultural production within society4. Understanding postmodemism as the contemporary
cultural logic is based within the psychological changes that have occurred within the
metropoliss. The goal of this research is to create a greater understanding of the
psychological elements of postmodernism that influence the design of landscape architecture
within a rnetropolitan environment. This will be achieved by creating a mode1 of the key
components of the current cultural logic, these being time, space, action, and tnith and
realig. These four general terms encompass the psychological changes that have influenced
' Psychology is defmed in this research as referring to the mental domain- (This definition is consistent with the writings of George Simmel.) The psychological aspects of the various elements of postmodernism in addition to the psychology of the meeopolitan individual both refer to the mental conception of the metropolitan environment. Thus the psychology of space is the mental conception of space and the psychology of the individual is the mental sphere of the individual.
' Cultural production responds to themes, intentions, social issues and values and other influences that exist within society. These influences, sunimarized as a general trend within society, provide the psychoIogicai foundation of a specific period in tirne. When this trend perrneates al1 aspects of society, it is descnied as a cultural logic. The cultural logic explains the universal rational or intention of cultural production on al1 scales of metropolitan existence during any time period.
Although many changes are visually apparent, such as the change in architectural style, these are the physical manifestation of the universal rational or intentions of the cultural logic. The psychology, which influenced these physical changes, is the mental (and social) parameters of existence within the city. The psychologicai conditions that frrst affect the subconscious, or the state of muid of the metropolitan individual.
the postmodem rnetropolitan individual's experience%ffandscape architecture. The purpose
of this research is to identi& these key components of time, space. action. and truth and
reality and present them in model form so that an understanding of the cultural condition of
contemporary landscape architecture can be achieved7. Through the discussion of the
rnetropolitan context necessary for the creation of the model, an understanding of the
psychology of contemporary metropolitan existence will also be provided. Within the
postmodem city the psychology of the metropolitan individual is an important design
consideration because it is indicative of the mental consideration of existence in the
postmodern city. It is thus important that landscape architects are aware of this psychology
and its presence within the postmodern city.
This research will provide an understanding of the current cultural condition of
landscape architecture within Toronto. The landscape architecture, which the model will be
applied to within this paper, is four parks within Metropolitan Toronto. An understanding of
the social transformation of these pieces of landscape architecture will provide insight into
the current cultural condition of landscape architecture within Toronto. The current cultural
condition will be reflective of the extent that the language of postmodernisrn8 has been
Experïence is to be taken in the broadest sense of the terrn including a historical experience, and imrnediate experience or a perceived experience. These expenences may be both direct interaction with the landscape architecture and any indirect contact as well.
7 Although it is intended that the model wili be applicable to al1 contemporary Iandscape architecture, this study will only deal with four pârks within Toronto.
Language is used as a term to encompass the ability of people within a cultural logic to commiinicate and express ideas and concepts specific to that era. As the cultural production within the metropolis becomes increasingIy posmiodem, the language of postmodernism ais0 permeates society. As the language becomes more developed, people fllrther removed £tom cultural production are also capable of understanding the concepts that the ianguage reflects.
developed. Insight into the future of landscape architecture in Toronto can be presented
based on the understanding of the development of the language of postmodemism.
The essence of this research is,
"The social transformation of landscape architecture in ~ o r o n t o ~ can be understood
by identiwng key elements of the cultural logic of postmodemisrn. By applying these
elements to parks within Toronto, one can evaluate the current condition of landscape
architecture."
The nature of the human condition is an important design consideration for landscape
architects. However, the current cultural logic of metropolitan existence is not sufficiently
explored within the literature provided to most landscape architects. A full understanding of
the cultural logic requires an exploration of the psychology of the metropolitan individual
and the various components of the city (architecture, art, media and landscape architecture).
Although this research will provide landscape architects with a mode1 to understand the
cultural condition of landscape architecture, it will also provide an overview of
postmodemisrn fiom a psychological perspective which will contribute to the greater
understanding of design within a rnetropolitan environment.
This research will also provide landscape architects with an integrated understanding
of postrnodemism. The philosophy of Fredric Jameson, along with other authorities, is used
in the presentation of the cultural context of postmodemism and in the development of the
9 The Don Valley Parkway, Eglinton Avenue, and Dufferin Sbeet are used in this research to define the metropolitan area of Toronto. These streets form an area of built urban environment where dwelling occurs but is not the primary function. These streets also reflect previous and present political boundaries in the city of Toronto. See Figure 5 on page 57 for a rnap outlining the study area.
model. Fredric Jarneson discusses many components of the netropolis and their condition
within the postmodern cultural logic. Jameson isolates five key components of
posû-nodemism within his book Postmodemism. or, The Cultural Logic of Late Copitalism
(199 1). Although these elements were considered within the discussion of the metropolis,
they were not used for the model itself. A more complete understanding of the psychology of
the hurnan condition is required within a model that evaluates postrnodern landscape
architecture". Thus Jameson's discussion of the cultural logic (postrnodernism) is
augrnented to present a model representative of the cultural logic which will be more relevant
to landscape architects ' '. A reintegration of the cultural transformation of postrnodernism within Jameson's
model will provide the social requirements of the design of public space within a
metropolitan context. An understanding of the psychology of the postmodern individual, in
combination nith a cultural understanding of the transformation of art and media, economy,
and architecture fiom the modern era, is necessary to conceptualize the social elements
required within Jameson's model.
1 O The psychological changes that occur within the design of landscape are not as intuitively understood as those that have rnanifested within the art and architecture of postmodernism Landscape architecture's public nature expands the sphere of design from aesthetic design to design that also includes function, and thus the psychological and social implications of the landscape architect are not as easily interpreted as those of the artist. Architectural design is similar to fandscape architecture in that both are aesthetic and fûnctional. Architects, however, are able to convey their design intent more easily than landscape architects because of the lirniting factors involved with designing a building-
I I Jameson's key elements were presented within the framework of Iate capitalism's cultural logic, which he felt to be the defining characteristic of postmodernism. They respond to the cultural changes of the metropolis as being directly related to the economic structure of late capitalism. The social transformation of the metropolis, however, does not respond solely to the conditions of late capitalism. Late capitalism contains an inherent cultural element by nature but is not a comprehensive definition of postmodernism's culture. Thus, the application of Jameson's model would fail to realize the psychological changes that the metropolitan individual embodies as a result of the social transformation of postmodernism, and subsequently, not be sufficient to evaluate the cultural condition of landscape architecture,
This thesis wili be presented as follows: Chapter two presents the Iiterature review for
this research. The literature review will be subdivided into two main sections. The first
section provides the metropolitan context. It is compiled fiom the literature of severai
authorities on posûnodernism's view of the cultural production within the metropolitan
enviromments, as well as the context of the city itself. Secondly, is the presentation and
discussion of Fredric Jameson's model. Once the key elements of the model have been
discussed, the appropriateness of its use in conducting landscape architectural research will
be presented-
The model will be presented in chapter three. This model was developed through the
research of this thesis. T t will discuss the main themes of postrnodeniism as they relate to the
psychology of the rnetropolitan individual and the relevance to landscape architecture.
Chapter four will focus on three pieces of landscape architecture in metropolitan
Toronto". The case studies for this research will be presented and analyzed and general
conclusions will be made about each of the parks, Once the examination of the parks has
been concluded, conc1usions about the social transformation of landscape architecture within
Toronto will be provided. The social transformation is the portion of the research that will
provide the understanding of the evolution of landscape architecture fkorn the rnodemist era
to its current condition.
Chapter five will be the concluding chapter. Conclusions will be made concerning
both the current cultural condition of landscape architecture within Toronto and the language
of postmodernisrn. Once these are understood, a reexamination of the metropolitan context
will be necessary. This reexamination will provide an understanding of the extent of the
'" Cumberland Park, Courthouse Square, and Dundas Square.
current cultural condition of landscape architecture in retation to the cuItural production of
the greater metropolitan environment. This will provide landscape architects with the
opportunity to understand the trends that have occurred within design to date, and the
importance of cultural understanding on a psychoIogical level,
Two: Jameson and the Metropolitan Context
Postmodernist metropolitan life did not break filom the pre-existing modemist
culture; rather there existed a slowly evolving sense of consciousness. Metropolitan life
became a postmodern culture without any clear beginning, nor has this social change given
us any indication that it will end. There were clues along the way, particulariy in the areas of
cultural production where postmodernism was first conceived as a philosophical and literary
project, It became obvious that postmodernism was far more transcendental than these
projects alone. Metropolitan life in the postmodem era became commodified, chaotic and
reproduced. Postrnodernism's essence is neither lirnited to these characteristics of
contemporary cultural life, nor is postmodern culture synonymous with the formation of a
contemporary consumer society. The cultural implications of conternporary consumerism,
however, begin to give the former modernist some insight that "...our western culture is
becoming increasingly a civilization of image." (Kearney 1988, p. 1) As Robert Hughs
reflects on the current cultural status, the "modernist achievement will continue to affect
culture for another century at Ieast,. . but its dynamic is gone, our relationship to it is
archeological." (Tbid. p. 24) The modernist era is now welI within our past but it continues to
leave us with a conceptual hangover. Modernist culture was understood as a linear sequence.
This linear sequence is replaced %y the postmodern idea of a synchronie polyphony of
styles." (fiid. p. 27) There no longer exists a clear focus within culture; it has become a
multitude of styles which are al1 conceived of in unison.
The subtle understanding of the social transformation of both culture and landscape
architecture within the postrnodern metropolis must recognize the platforrn of cultural
context that made the transformation possible. A discussion of the North Amencan
metropolis is sufficient in presenting the parameters of discussion, but not in providing the
context of the transformation of society. Postmodern society came to fi-uition after a unique
combination of social realization and capitalist evolution within what was primarily a North
American context. This combination occurred in the years following the Second World War
when a conscious power shift was seen fiom the military and economic dominance of Britain
to that of a North Amencan flavour. North American capitalist dominance was realized
within a global context, changing the domain and perspective of the world's economies. The
globalization of thought and social perspective, which may have been initiated by the
multinational impact of trade, but more likely by the global realization of the two World
Wars, was given recognition within several communication and philosophical spheres, North
America, with its newfound dominance (Touraine 1995, p. 186), had the confidence to
realize a self-promotional evoIution and brought forth the opportunity for the synchronic
polyphony of styles, which is a defining characteristic of postmodernism- (Kearney 1988, p.
24)
What is tïuly important within the discussion of the changing metropolitan landscape
is the cultural logic which exists that makes the social and cuItural production occuning
today fundamentally different and unique from the evolution of the rnetropolis during modem
times. These changes within the metropolis have resulted in a social transformation of
Iandscape architecture. It is the social nature of these changes that necessitates the discussion
of the impact of postmodernism on the cultural sphere of the metropolis and Iandscape
architecture. The understanding of the evolution of art, media, economics, and architecture
provide the foundation of the cultural changes within postrnodern society.
In addition to the evolution of the cultural sphere, the metropolis has also been
socially transformed. The social transformations manifesting within postrnodern society are
to be conceived within the evolution of history, the existence of ~ e i n ~ " , and the psychology
of the built environment. The built environment, in addition to the cultural changes which
have occurred, affects the metropolitan individual in the postrnodern era- PsychologicaIly,
art, media, and architecture necessitate a different social understanding of the visual setting
that these elements have created. The social and cultural production of art, media,
architecture, and landscape architecture are the visual background of public space.
Landscape architectural design occurs within a social £i-amework that responds to the same
cultural and social conditions of production as that of art, media, and architecture. The
psychological parameters of the rnetropolitan individual influence the conditions of its
creation, for it is the social nature of the design of p.,ibIic spaces that is reflective of the
context in which these spaces exist. As the metropolis continues to change its conception of
public space, the design of these spaces is also affected. It is both the social and the cultural
together which have transformed the postmodern metropolitan individual. It is in the context
of the psychology of the postmodern metropolitan individual that the cultural logic of the
metropolis will be examined to understand the social transformation of landscape
architecture.
The psychology of the metropolitan individual, and the change in the metropolitan
culture within the postmodern era have been the topic of a large body of literature which has
1 > The capitalization of being in this manner is a philosophical tool to delineate betsveen the physical being and the Beîng which is the ultimate reference of existence for being. Some philosophers use Being as a term synonyrnous with God, but here this is not tbe case, although the relationship of Being as a referent for being is pertinent within this discussion.
been produced since the second worfld war. AIthough the authors of such literature are al1 in
agreement that postmodem society i s fiindamentally different fiom the culture of the modem
era, the nature and reason for this difference is a point of dispute, Critics of postmodernism,
such as Jurgen Habermas, criticize posûnodernity for its inability to separate itself fiom the
modem era except by virtue of the tenn 'post'. (Habermas 1997, p. 227) Jean-Francois
Lyotard presents a simi1a.r attachrnent to modernism where although he challenges many of
the assumptions ernbedded within mrodernism, his philosophy ultimately acknowledges a
"cyclical process that Ieads to ever mew modemisms." (Leach 1997, p, 207) Within both of
these examinations of postmodernism, as well as within the works of many of the other
philosophers concerned with the postmodem condition such as Jean Baudrillard and Jaques
Derrida, the link between cultural production and the psychology of the postrnodem
condition is evident. Even within Charles Jenck's work, which was initialIy limited to a
specific style of architecture, the influence of the social transformation of society is
undeniable in terms of its effect on tIhe cultural production within postmodem society.
This research focuses on the critique of the postrnodem condition by Fredric Jameson
within his book Postmodemism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalkm (199 1). This
particular work presents a sophisticarted understanding of postrnodernism which deals with
the underpinnings of the cultural conditions within the metropolis. It is the nature of this
sophistication, in addition to Jameson's multi disciplinary review of postmodernism which
isolated his work as the focus of thiç research. Prior to Jameson's first wrïtings on the
postrnodern condition in the early 19807s, a large body of postrnodem literature focused on
the phenornenon of postrnodernism as opposed to the processes within society which
provided the social conditions neces.sary for postmodernism to have occurred. Although one
of the key theorists of postmodernism, Jameson's philosophy is often incornplete in resolving
the projects he proposes. He has been criticized for not only his inability to fully extend his
iüea of 'the waning effect' of postrnodernisrn (a major point o f his discussion in the social
change in culture and its effect on art and architecture) to a point that it reconciles with his
political theones, but also for his treatment of late capitalism and culture. Although the
connection of late capitalism to the cultural phenomenon of postrnodernism appears to be the
intent of Postmodemisrn, or, the Cultural Logic of late Capitalisrn (199 1 ) the relationship of
this connection is not clearly revealed, but rather simply presented as fact. (Homer, no date,
P- 1)
Many theorists also bring question to Jameson's understanding of 'heterogeneous'
such as in Wes Cecil's book review of Postmodemisrn, or, the Cultzrral Logic of Late
Capitalism(l99 1). Although the conception of heterogeneous has not been developed
throughout the book, it is important within Jarneson's initial presentation of his project
(appearing first on page 1). The original proposition of heterogeneous elernents within
Emest Mandel's conception of late capitalism becomes obscured when Jameson atternpts to
provide a greater scientific understanding of postrnodernism (Cecil, no date, p. 1).
Recognizing these short comings within Jameson's conception of the cultural logic of
late capitalism, the psychology of Hannah Arendt in ï?ze Htlrnarr Condition (1 958) (arnong
the work of other philosophers such as Giami Vammo and Paul Virilio) were used to
relocate the social phenomenon within postrnodernism. Although Arendt's work predates the
postmodem period, it provided the relevant understanding of the human condition necessary
to reinterpret Jameson's proposition of postrnodernism. Arendt's work is the reflection on
human activities or "vita activam- (Hirakawa, no date, p. 1) The modes of human activity
within Arendt's work (action, labour and speech) and their relation to the nature ofhumanity
are transcendental and are not confined to the phiIosophica1 project of modeniity. They
instead provide a psychological foundation which can be reinterpreted within a multitude of
cultural logics.
Hannah Arendt's work becarne integral within the reinterpretation of Jameson's
mode1 because both philosophers exarnined the fine difference between human nature and the
human world. It is this agreement within their philosophical projects that made Arendt's
work the underlying structure in the examination of Jameson's conception of postrnodernism.
Ham& Arendt's work was also relevant for this research because the design, use,
and function of landscape architecture in contemporary society are inherently connected to
the psychological conditions of the individual. As the psychology of the rnetropolitan
individual transformed through the change in sociew fiom modernity to postmodemity, the
implication of this transformation has revealed itself in the individual's relationship with the
metropolitan landscape.
The postmodem condition of art, media, and architecture, as well as the conception of
~ e i n ~ ' in the postmodem era create a cultural context where the rnetropolitan individual is
disoriented, alone, gullible and disinterested. These psycholagical parameters presented by
the metropolitan individual are inherently manifested within tnily postmodern landscape; that
being landscape architecture that is a product of the cultural logic of conternporary society.
This connection of metropolitan landscape architecture with the cultural logic of society is
inherent because of both the social and the metropolitan context of landscape. Every element
of the constitution of the postmodern metropolitan existence has demonstrated a social
transformation as a result of the changing psychology of the metropolitan individual. This
social transformation has produced the new cultural logic in which postmodern landscape
architecture is presented.
It is necessary to examine social transformation of landscape architecture in terms of
its relationship to the psychology of the rnetropolitan individual before a discussion of
postmodem design styles. (Although in academia there is a large body of discussion on
design styles that occurs without the preceding discussion of landscape architecture and
psychology.) The fundamental changes within the landscape architecture of postmodern
society are social in nature and originate on the level of the individual's relationship with the
physical existence of the city. It is upon the understanding of the metropolitan individual's
existence within the context of the postrnodem environment that the nature of landscape
architecture's social change can be comprehended.
The Metropolis
In this research it is important that the postmodern metropolitan context is
understood. This context must preclude the discussion of postmodern landscape architecture
for an understanding of the society in which landscape design is occurrïng will provide the
foundation for the discussion of postrnodern landscape. Once the context is presented, the
various elements of cultural production may be examined separately and as they relate to
postrnodem landscape architecture.
The postmodern metropolitan city is essentially psychologically different from the
classic rnetropolis of the modem era. This psychological change includes both how the
physical structure of the rnetropolis affects the individual as well as how the culture
contained within the metropolis has dissolved the organization of the social arena of modern
times.
"The new conditions of Iife created, above all, by the structure of the modern city are
depicted as an uprooting of man fiom his traditional setting.. ." (Vattirno 1988, p. 36)
Posmiodernisrn has changed the way in which social actions are experienced, and how, as
social creatures, existence is lived. The metropolitan individual's psychological foundations
are within ". . .the intensification of emotional life due to the swift and continuous shif? of
extemal and interna1 stimuli." (Sirnrnel 1997, p.70) The differences within the physical
rhythm of the metropolis give both a foundation of existence for the individual to view
themselves against, and the parameters of the culture within which they live.
The cultural appearance of postmodernisrn, however, ". . .cannibalizes al1 the
architectural styles of the past and combines them in overstimuIating ensembles-" (Jarneson
1991, p. 19) In addition to the architecture, which composes the cityscape, the metropolis
has been decorated with the products of technology. This decoration has proliferated to the
extent that media is no longer escapable within the physical landscape of the metropolis. The
extemal layer of media has produced the distortion of the individual's conception of location
and belonging within the cognitive boundanes of the metropolis. This distortion occurs both
upon a conscious and subconscious level. Georg Sirnmel intellectualizes the intensity of the
rhythm caused by the extemal stimulus of the metropolitan landscape. Sirnrnel's writing
descnibes the subconscious emotional reaction of the individual towards the events contained
within the metropolitan. (Simmel 1997, p. 70) Subconsciously the metropolitan individual
ceases to internalize the emotional impact of the intensity of visual barrage within the city.
Emotional reactions are replaced by a mental predominance. "Thus the reaction of the
metropolitan person to those events is moved to a sphere of mental activity which is least
sensitive and which is furthest removed fiom the depths of personality." (Ibid. p. 70) This
subconscious reaction distorts the individual's sense of location and belonging within the
metropolitan city because it negates the emotional reaction of existing within the iandscape
of the city.
The metropolitan individual also experiences a distortion of location within the
conceptualized boundaries of the city on a conscious level. The reality of place within the
metropolis is no longer clear fiom the interpretahon of the signage and cues belonging to the
metropolis. The modem tnumph of urban design has dissolved within the conceptual
f2amework of postrnodemism. Kevin Lynch analyzed the modem metropolitan environment
in tems of identity, structure and meaning. (Lynch 1960, p. 8) Within the rnetropolitan,
spaces and patterns give a meaning to the observer. Beyond Ùiis, however, ". . .the object
must have some meaning for the observer, whether practical or emotional." (Ibid. p. 8) The
objects that compose the postmodem landscape architecture within the metropolis no longer
require of themseives traditional meaning and visual cues. Architecture fiom the modem era,
of which rnost metropolises are comprised, has been denied its former meaning through the
imposition of postmodem elements upon their settings. Most comrnonly, the former art of
aesthetic design within architecture is being replaced by the image of media. Where
architectural practices spoke to the buildings as a complete entity, the image of media is often
separable or unrelated to the location and function ofthe building upon which it has been
attached. Media has problematized the conception of reality. (Eisenrnan 1996, p. 58) n i e
subtleties of urban design and architectural practices, which psychologica~ly guide the
rnetropolitan individual through the civscape, have been neglected by the impact of the
overwhelming visual media through the city.
The physical structure no longer presents us with the syrnbols necessary to locate the
individual, in a cognitive sense, within the background of metropolitan life.
In this new perspective devoid of horizon, the city was entered not through a gate nor through an arc de triomphe, but rather through an electronic audience system. Users of the road were no longer understood to be inhabitants or privileged residents. They were now interlocutors in permanent transit. (Virilio 1997, p. 382)
Technological advances in this manner, that being the effacement of the edge of the
metropolis, have changed both the psychological edge to the city and the physical edge. The
postmodern metropolis is no longer a distinct entity that is separate and recognizable. An
urban mass has been formed through both the physical sprawl of the suburban landscape that
surrounds the metropolis and by the capability of communication technologies to connect the
periphery to the central axis, the city. (Tbid. p. 382)
"As a unity of place without any unity of tirne, the City has disappeared into the
heterogeneity of that regime comprised of the temporality of advanced technologies. The
urban figure is no longer designated by a dividing Iine that separates here kom there." (Ibid.
p. 382) In the postmodern metropolis, the conception of near and far no longer needs to
exist- Terms that exist to reference distance are dissolved by the 2bility to virtually transcend
this space. The h c t i o n of the rnetropolis can thus be dissipated amongst several locations
which need not be geographically connected,
The rnetropolis is no longer a self contained nor a self explaining entity. The modern
city with its districts and fùnctions has disappeared through the fieedoms that technology has
brought into the contemporary consumerist society- "The idea of the city has been
dismantled; the city is now a constellation of densities forever avoiding a condition of critical
mass." (Koolhaas 1996, p. 90) Without the linear clarity of modem culture the postmodern
metropolis is being forced to reintegrate its existence within the psychological
transfarmations of contemporary culture. The physical structure of the metropolis remains as
a nostalgie emblem of its rnodernist creation, but its exterior presence no longer speaks to the
culture Erom which it came. It is the firnction of the metropolis which is no longer
recognizable at the level of the individual's psychological perception or in the collective
individual's cultural conception.
The metropolitan individual exists within the postmodern city. It is a new cultural
landscape within which the individual exists. "The fundamental ideological task of the new
concept, however, must remain that of coordinating new foms of practice and social and
mental habits." (Jarneson 1991, p. xiv) Without the cultural reality of the modern
perspective, the social structure of the city has been required to reintegrate itself within the
conditions presented by its postrnodern existence. The cultural and social practices of the
metropolitan individual have become the guide for the future function of the metropolis. The
initial visual and psychological changes within the postmodem metropolis have occurred as a
result of the social and cultural production of architecture, art, and media within the new era.
These have been the most abundantly visual indicators of the postmodern condition, The
new reality for the postrnodern metropolis of the future will be far more complex than the
visual indicators of postmodernism. It will be the combination of the social and cultural
traditions realized within the visual metropolis with the psychologÏcal needs of the urban
existence that will constitute the metropolis. This will be a reflection of the totality of the
cultural logic of postrnodernisrn,
Landscape architecture's social transformation cornes fiom the change in psychology
of the metropolitan individual within the postrnodem cultural logic. This social
transformation, although comprehensible when discussing a specific expenence of built
landscape architecture, is Iess comprehensible when regarding landscape experience kom a
research perspective where the conceptual design of the landscape is primarily considered.
Thus, a detailed and practical understanding of the social transformation of Iandscape
architecture within the rnetropolis of Toronto is not immediately comprehended f?om a
literary review of the psychoIogy of the metropolitan individual in the current cultural logic
and landscape architecture.
The abstract concept of landscape architecture's social transformation can be
recognized within the context of a particular city (in this research, Toronto) if the key
indicators of the social transformation and their presence within the postrnodem cultural logic
are concisely illustrated. An attempt to present a succinct discussion, which would provide
the foundation of the cultural logic of postmodemism, was presented by Fredric J a m e ~ o n . ~ ~
Fredric JarnesonYs discussion of postmodernism at a lecture series at Stanford
University and within his book Postmodernisrn, or, the Cultural togic of Late Capitalism
( 1 99 1 ) provides a point of departure through which postmodem society can be understood.
The £ive point scherne which elucidates the defining elements of postmodern society focuses
on the connection between late capitalism and the current cultural logic. The examination of
Fredric Jameson's model and its applicability to Iandscape architecture proves profilematic in
its disregard to the social transformation that led to the cultural logic of postmodern. The
evolution of the psychology of the metropolitan individual in a social context, the primary
concern of the discourse on the social transformation of landscape architecture, is not
irnrnediately clear within Jameson's model. Jameson's mode1 instead focuses on isolated
experiences of the psychology of the postrnodern condition.
Although Jameson's model is not directly applicable to landscape architecture, it
provides a literary review of postrnodernism that is pertinent within this research. Jameson's
philosophy of the cultural logic of contemporary society provides a discussion of
postmodemism which is primady psychological in its examples as opposed to dealing with
stylistic qualities. Although he often refers to pieces of postmodern cultural production and
their style of creation, he is primarily concerned with the psychoIogica1 influences and
14 The clear definition of this foundation was presented by Jameson during the Stanford Presidential Lectures and Syrnposia in the Humanities and Arts in 1999. This discussion was a synopsis of the concepts in his book Postrnodernisrn. or. tlze Cultural Logic of Lafe Capitalism.
impacts of specific design decisionsl*. He also provides an understanding of postmodernisrn
which is not historical or perïodical, but rather fluid. He ofien looks at pieces which may
have been traditionally considered modem in styling, but comprehends the change in cultural
influence which presents their psychology as being postmodern.
Jameson's interdisciplinary discussion of postmodern is thus relevant to the context
in which Iandscape architecture is produced. It is Jameson's five key elernents which are not
usefùl in Iandscape architectural research.
Fredric Jameson's Cultural Logic
Fredric Jarneson proposes that the essential difference between postmodern and
modern society is a social fùnction that is directIy dependent on the difference in positing of
postmodemism within the contemporary economic system. This difference is in spite of the
constitutive elements of the two phenornenona, for Fredric Jameson first makes the
assumption that al1 of these aspects could be identical and the distinction of social function
would still remain. Thus, Fredric Jameson's distinction of rnodernist fkom postmodernist
societies revolves around the "transformation of the very sphere of culture in contemporary
society" (Jameson 1991, p.5) as it is directly related to the position of postmodem thought
within the Iate capitalist system.
1 S It is important to understand that Jameson is discussing the psychology of isolated exampIes and does not provide a social context through which the metropolitan individual's interaction with the examples can be extended to. Landscape architecture is inherently social and requires an understanding of a cultural psychoiogy as well as an individual psychology.
Fredric Jameson presents the elements of his model as the "...constitutive features of
the postmodem-" @id, p.6) They are representative of the key indicators of Jarneson's
conception of postmodem society and postmodern cultural production. He regards the new
depthlessness16 in sociew as being the result of the first two elements within the model; the
disappearance of the individual szrbject and the pastiche occurring within society's culture of
the image. It is through the initial understanding of this depthlessness that Jarneson is also
able to posit the crisis in hi~toricity'~. Although the cnsis is connected to the disappearance
of the individual subject, it is more indicative of the idea of pnvate temporality. The notion
of temporality is not disrnissed following the discussion of historicity, but rather is fùrther
elucidated in the context of the schizophrenic consciousness which Jarneson feels exists in
postmodem culture. Jarneson's final discussion is of that of the hysterical szrblime. It is here
that the technoIogy of contemporary society is most influential and that Jameson grounds his
mode1 within the late capitalist system. (Ibid. p. 6)
These elements present the underlying therne of unconnectedness. This is the state of
the metropolitan individual in reIation to both their Iived metropolitan context and to their
psychological condition1*. Jameson discusses at length the change in the nature of the
interaction of the postrnodern metropolitan individual with cultural production within the
l6 Fredn-c Jameson uses the term depthiessness to refer to the postrnodern trend of postmodern art losing its 'depth' as compared to modem art. It is Jarneson's position that modem art was composed in order to project some meaning into society above and beyond that of beauty. This rneaning existed in either the intent of the artïstic production (as with Jackson Pollock) or within the composition's subject (as wïth Munch). Jameson does not believe that there exists the same thought and meaning withh postmodern art and refers to it as being depthless (without depth of meaning).
" Historicity is the lived context of history.
'' We will r e m to the theme of uncomectedness in the development of the model which will be used within this research.
presentation of the five key elements of the cultural logic. In many ways these discussions
are transferable to landscape architecture for they deal with the metropolitan individual
impression of the subject of cultural production and the intention of the 'artist'. Jameson
does not continue the discussion to the point of interaction within the cultural production.
Landscape architectural research can build upon the nature of an individual's interaction with
cultural production; however, it is necessary to recognize the need to experience the three-
dimensional aspect of landscape architecture.
Jameson's model is provided below. (A graphic representation is presented in figure
1 on page 29) Although this model will not be applied to the case studies in this research, it
was the psychological differences between the various elements (in combination with
Arendt's writings) that provided the foundation for the model which was used. The
following elements present the initial context of cultural production within a postmodem
metropolitan environment.
The Disappearance of the Individual Subject
The disappearance of the individual subject is primarily referred to within Fredric
Jameson's discussion of art within modem culture and 'art' that is being produced in a
postrnodem marner. It is one of the two elements within the model that relate to the new
depthlessness Jameson illustrates within contemporary creative design. The disappearance of
the individual subject is the influence of the depthlessness within the 'intent' of creative
production of contemporary society. TO illustrate his point, he first compares two paintings
that utilize the shoe as the subject. These are Van Gogh's painting of the peasant shoes and
Andy Warhol's Diamond Dust ho es'^. He refers to Van Gogh's shoes as being perceived in
objectalZO form as a "clue or a symptom for some vaster reality which replaces it as its
ultimate tmth." (Ibid. p. 8) It speaks to the observer with the immediacy of lived expenence
and illustrates a reality nch in familiarity of an existence that is fathomable.
Warhol's shoes do not express the sarne immediacy in contrast to the work by Van
Gogh. (Ibid. p. 8) Their reproducible lack of detail cornmodifies the image and the sterile
setting leaves the observer with no reference. The shoes do not extend beyond a graphic
image. Warhol's shoes are postmodern cultural production because they are presented as an
image that cannot dialectically engage the metropolitan individual.
Postmodernism is unable to resolve the hermeneutic gesture by restoring the image of
art to a larger lived context. (Ibid. p. 8) Without any reconciliation the art in postmodern
times achieves a ". . .flatness or depthlessness, a new kind of superficiality in the most literal
sense.. ." (Tbid. p. 9)
The depthlessness and the flatness of the artistic production within postrnodern
culture negates the idea of the personalized experience of aesthetic production. Without the
lived context within artistic production the experience of art becornes anonymous and
without the appeal of individual rneaning, depiction or statement. It is thus that the
individual subject is no longer realized within the dirnensionless art of the postmodern
metropolis.
l9 Fredric Jameson uses the Warhol example as being indicative of constitutive features of postmodernism Although 'Pop Art' is traditionally considered to be modern, Jameson argues that the psychology of Warhol's Diamond Dust Shoes is postmodern. In this researc h the psychoIogica1 influences of Warhol's works are to be read as postmodern staying consistent with Jameson's philosophy.
'O Perceived as an independent object separate fkom the context of the painting.
Styiistic Triumph of Pastiche
While still explonng the depthlessness of cultural production within postmodem
society, Jameson uses the discussion of the pastiche to recognize the increasing dominance of
the culture of the image- Jameson utilizes the word 'pastiche' to refer to the method of
cultural production from a creative standpoint within the current cultural logic, Pastiche is "a
cannibalization of past cultures, process substance into sheer simulation." (Jameson 1999,
lecture) The cultural production within postmodern society exists with the increasingly
unavailable persona1 style. (Ibid- p- 16) Personal style in modem culture was not solely
lirnited to the original production of both the subject and intent. Parody was often ernployed
within the cultural production of modemism. Through the use of parody a second resonance
was provided for a subject or intent of cultural production (e-g., Marcel Duchamp's piece
L.H.O.O.Q., more cornmonly known as the Mona Lisa with a mustache). This second
resonance within modem culture was replaced with the pastiche of postmodernism (e.g.
Sadie Lee's Bona Lisa). "Pastiche is, like parody, the imitation of a peculiar or unique,
idiosyncratic style.. ." (Ibid. p. 17) Although both concepts are innately forms of imitation,
they are also distinct in rneaning. The distinction between parody and pastiche in the context
of modernism and postrnodernism is that pastiche is a forrn of reproduction whereas parody
is production. Pastiche removes the capacity of original thought fiom the creative discipline
whereas parody manifests only after a reintegration of either the subject or the object within
the context of the work.
Jameson's position is that within the new depthlessness of the postmodem society,
there exists only the culture of the image. This culture is distinct frorn original cultural
production because it is dependent on the cultures of the past, (Ibid. p. 18) Pastiche is the
imitation of "dead styles" and projects itself ". . .through al1 the masks and voices stored up in
the imaginary museum of a now global culture." (%id- p. 18) Jarneson refers to the
eclecticism of postrnodern architecture to delineate this point. Postmodern architecture
". - .randomly and without principle but with gusto cannïbalizes al1 the architectural styles of
the past and combines then in overstimulating ensembles." @id, p. 19) A similar process is
also apparent within literature and f i h s of contemporary society. Jameson concludes that
within the culture of the image ". .,we are condemned to seek History by way of our own pop
images and simulacra2' of that of history, which for itself remains forever out of reach."
(Ibid. p. 25)
A Crisis in History
Jameson introduced the concept of history within his discussion of the pastiche.
Within that discussion he alluded to bis impending discussion of history in postmodern
~ o c i e ~ ~ . Jameson asserts that there is a crisis in history, or more accurately, historicity.
(Ibid. p. 25) Historicity describes the crisis in history as it relates to the Iived context of
history. In that historicity is not archival fact, its value is superceded by the cultural
influences that redefine lived history's connotation.
While still engaged within the discussion of architecture, art and literature, Jameson
looks at the simulacmm produced in postmodem society and the influence that it has had on
the conception of histoncal time. Simulacrum, Plato's Imguage for ". . .the identical copy for
'' A sirnulacra iç a reproduction of something for which there was never an original.
'> 7 - This discussion is more accurately descnied as lack of the ability to have a discussion of historicity (as opposed to history) in postmodern culture.
which no original has ever existed.. ." (Ibid. p. la), utilizes the past as a referent and thus
removes the chronology of existence and time together and replaces that with spectacle. The
spectacle is foundation for the intensification of desire for the products of contemporary
culture. Nostalgia of the spectacle is able to capture the attention of the consumer of cultural
production while keeping the aesthetic experience anonymous. It is thus that aesthetic
experience is no longer responsible for the cry, or gesture, which was so intirnate and
personal. Without the interconnectedness of the observer with the individual experience of
aesthetic, the nostalgie response is able to provide a predictable and unobtmsive reaction
within the observer.
As the collective cultural history empties into images of nostalgia, cultural production
is transformed into an emotional sphere of amusement. What was unwanted within the self-
reflection of the project of modemity, or the truth it elucidated, is now replaced by the
packaged expenence of the images of posûnodernism and its cultural production. There is no
longer risk or fear associated with the aesthetic experience, but this has also been at the
expense of genuine excitement, joy or sorrow. This anonyrnous experience of
uncon~ectedness is the realization of the disappearance of historîcity as being the
understanding of the individual within the history of his or her own lived context.
Schizophrenic Consciousness
lameson, through the discussion of the crisis in historicity, illustrated that the
individual no longer has the capacity to relate the past and füture within the context of
personal lived experience. The former comection of lived experience to historical
experience, which provides historicity, has become hgmented- In his discourse of this
hgrnentation, Jarneson employs the philosophy of Jacques ~ a c a n ~ ~ . It is fiom Lacan that
Jameson found the Ianguage of schizophrenia to descnie the way in which the past and
present conflate into the present. (Ibid, p. 26) This condition of present is the result of the
breakdown within the s i g n i m g chain. As discussed earlier, it is the interrelationship of the
series of signs and signifiers that produce r n e a n i x ~ ~ . ~ ~ When the interrelationship ceases to
exist, schizophrenia results ". ..in the form of a rubble of distinct and unrelated signifiers."
(Tbid. p. 26) These unrelated signifiers present unrelated presents in tirne. Without the
interrelationship with sign within the chain, there is no reference to past or friture, just pure
matenal signifiers that perpetually exist within the present.
Rise of the Hysterical Sublime
Jarneson's discussion of the sublime is in the context of the new cultural experience,
characterïzed by euphoria or intensity. (Ibid. p. 32) Through the technological innovations
which have saturated posûnodem society, images previousfy inconceivable, have become
common within cultural production. These images, the sirnulacrum of the discussion of
pastiche, provided the function of derealizationZ. (Ibid. p. 34) This derealization is the
incapacity of the individual to give referent to the sirnilacrum in terms of lived expenence.
Thus, the expenencing figure removes the perceived reality ttom the lived reality while still
" Jameson reference's Lacan's writing "D'Une Question Preliminaire a Tout Traitrnent Possible de la Psychose " in Ecrits, translated by Alan Sheridan.
'4 Lacan, however, does not consider the production of rneaning as a direct product, but rather it is derived from the space between the sign and signifier where there exists referent or concept.
'S Here Jameson borrows the term 'derealization' fiom John Paul Sartre.
comprehending the rneaning and desire within the perceived reality. This state of
irreconciliation within the individual gives rise to f i e sublime, or more appropriately, the
hystencal sublime26.
Technological advances have affected the cultural production within previous
societies without the derealization that is present im postrnodern culture. These previous
technological advancernents, however, have provided their own symbol of self-reference.
Jameson reminds us of the futurist Marinetti's cele%ration of the machine gun and the
motorcar. (bid. p. 36) Both were emblematic of the excitement of machinery. The machine
gun as an image presented a symbol of power and strength and, similarly, the motorcar was
viewed as a symbol of progress and man's dominamce over nature. Both symbols could be
used within cultural production without having to firther explain their importance- As
symbols, the meaning in their representation was self evident to society.
Postmodern technology does not provide the same capabiliw of representation- The
computer, the driving technology of postrnodemisrm, is a shell that contains the technology,
unlike the machine gun or the motorcar which is thze technology. Without the possibility of
reference to technology within cultural production, the postrnodern individual is alienated
fkom the impact of the technology. niere exists the second manner in which irreconciliation
between the individual and reality is realized. It is thus that the technology which drives the
globabilizing phenornenon of late capitalism, and i-tself supports the possibility of late
' 6 Jarneson3 belief that cultural production carries with it a sense of euphoria or htensity Ieads him to propose the tenn hysterical. It is a sençe of loss of control which is implied by hystencal which best descnies the postmodern culture. Hysterical is connected with the word sublime because the unconnectedness of the rnetropolitan individual from the technology that is dominant within society releases the individual into a state of sublime.
capitalism to have occurred, also produces a condition of euphoria or intensity within the
postmodem individual. This is the hysterical sublime.
Frederic Jameson Cultural Logic as Late Capitalism
The Disappearance of the Individual Subject Pastiche z:k -.-- J:.. a
Depthlessness (Discussion of Postmodern Art)
Crisis in History
-- "f,: Priva te Temporality
f (End of Histow and Time as "'0
a Schizophrenic Consciousness a
Alienation
Unconnectedness d [/ Rise of the Hysterical Sublime
1
Figure 1: A Graphic Representation of Jarneson's Mode1
The Appropriateness of Jameson within Landscape Architecture
Fredric Jameson's belief of postmodernism's connection to late capitalisrn is evident
within the title of his work Postmodernisrn, or. The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. It was
not Jarneson's attempt to produce a model that would be applicable to the understanding of
the transfomation of landscape architecture within postmodern society. The model was to be
indicative of the metropolitan sociev of postrnodemism, of which landscape architecture is a
part. Jameson's mode1 was to provide more than a historical account of postmodernism, a
fault he found in other discourses on the subject. He wanted to reconcile the culturaI aspect
of postmodernism with a dynamic conception of history. It was his position that through the
foundation of late capitalism that the cultural logic of postrnodemism wouId be elucidated.
Fredric Jameson's model is developed in the context of Emest Mandel's economic
model of late capitalismii and thus the common theme within the five elements of the mode1
stems fÏom the economic structure and practice of society. This third wave of capitalism is a
radical divergence which occurs within postmodem society, but it is not the single common
thread upon which al1 other change has been posited.
Jameson, distinguishing between the modem and postmodem periods, compares their
meanings and social functions. These meanings and social finctions are cIearly
differentiated by the ccposition of postrnodemism in the economic systern of late capitalism"
(Ibid. p. 5) , in addition to the change in the cultural sphere of contemporary society.
The philosophy of Late Capitalism inherently assumes a cultural aspect, to which
Fredric Jameson alludes. He proposes that the two tems cultural and economic "collapse
back into one another and Say the same thing". (Ibid. p. xxl) Other discourses on
postmodernism have generally agreed that Late Capitalism entails a cultural element within
its philosophy, yet the strength of this position, as viewed in its converse conception, has not
been as widely accepted. Economy and culture are stilI two distinct notions within
postmodemism, as they existed wîthin modemim. The Iinear modern sensibility, although
with a distinct economic market, tied the economy to society through the notion of progress.
Although late capitalism brhgs with it a social nature, it camot tie economy and society.
"The preconditions for economic growth, political f?eedom and individual happiness no
longer seem to us to be analogous and interdependent," (Touraine 1995, p. 185) Postmodern
culture is fûndamentally distinct and separate kom modem cultures in elernents which are
independent of the economic arena.
Jarneson's model, although not explicitly tied to the economics of late capitalism, is
not conceivable without the uiherent understanding of late capitalism. The five elements of
the mode1 first presuppose production within the late capitalistic systern. Although this can
be extended to include the cultural production of postrnodernism as well as the commodity
production, the model begins to break d o m .
The change in the psychology of the metropolitan individual within Jameson's model
is posited in relation to comrnodity production. n i e psychology of the metropolitan
individual in trrms of their social relationship within the metropolis and their condition
within the cultural Iogjc is not elucidated within Fredric Jameson's model. It is because
Jameson's model fails to recognize the social and cultural implications of the metropolitan
individual's psychology that it is not able to accurately evaluate landscape architecture.
Jameson's model, in focusing on cornrnodity production and the social and cultural
implications of commodity production, overlooks the psychology of the metropolitan
individual. Landscape architecture is a design process where the end physical product, the
park in this research, is intrinsically comected with the psychology of the metropolitan
individual as opposed to comrnodity production. Before the understanding of the social
transformation of landscape architecture can be made possible within the cultural logic of
postmodernism, the separation of comodi ty production and the psychology of the
metropolitan individual must be reintegrated into a mode1 which recognizes late capitalism as
an element rather than a defining force within the posûnodern metropolis.
The discussion of Iandscape architecture within postmodern society necessitates the
understanding of its distinction fiom modemism with the realization that the cultural and the
economic are not interchangeable. Superficially this is necessary since landscape
architecture in this study is not a design discipline which recognizes the link of the economic
to cultural production with a dominating emphasis on economic value. (That is to Say that
landscape architecture is not designed for the purpose of selling the park. Unlike other forms
of aesthetic production, prirnarily art, parks do not produce a product which itself realizes
capital gain27). Landscape architecture fiequently affects the capital gain of the property on
which it was built, but is itself rarely a source of profit in a market sense. Landscape
architecture's product, landscape, is considered a public entity within the metropolitan
envir~nrnent .~~ Thus, the aesthetic production of landscape architecture within the
metropolitan environment, b y the inherent nature of the production of landscape architecture,
resists the collapse of the cultural and the economic. Although Jarneson is adamant that
"What has happened is that aesthetic production today has becorne integrated into commodity
" Although there are many econornic incentives for landscape architectural production, as well as economic benefits for adjacent properties, the park itself is not a cornmodity. This is unlike architecture and art which rnay be collected for the sole purpose of selling the piece for a profit. The park's property and the components of the park have real value. Landscape architecture, however' is cornmonly sold for the expressed purpose of economic gain if it is not associated with other profit or capital venture.
" While sorne landscape architects produce residential designs, this is not a realization of landscape architecture that affects the psychology of the metropolitan individual. Residential design's sphere of influence is generally Lirnited to a srnail locality and does not play a significant role within the Iarger context of the metropolis. It is for this reason that the products of landscape architecture in this discussion do not reflect the discipline of residential design.
production generally.. ." (Jameson 199 1, p. 4) this is not possible within the consideration of
landscape architecture. Landscape architecture thus requires a greater cultural understanding
than that provided within Jameson's model which this research will provide.
Postmodernisrn as a Cultural Logic
The social transformation that has occurred in conjunction with the evolution fiom
modernism to postmodernisrn has produced a new cultural logic. Postmodemism as a
cultural logic is defined by the new relationship of the individual to the parametes of his or
her existence. The understanding of this cultural logic will provide the context required
within Jarneson's philosophy to develop a model which will be applicable to landscape
architectcre. This cultural logic will be presented in four categories which are indicative of
postmodernism in a metropolitan context. These categories are also reflective of the
dominant structure and themes of Jameson' model. The four categories are as follows:
History and Depthlessness, Present and Instantaneous Existence, Postmodem Hyperspace,
and Image and Media.
As in the social transformations of other cultural evolutions, such as the rnimehc" to
the "...productive paradigrn of the modem.. ." (Kearney 1988, p. 17), the new cultural logic
is representative of a new way in which people conceptualize the relationship between
Mhet ic existence is most often associated with biblical tirnes where an extenor authority was responsible for the cultural logic. In painting of this period, the subject was often a representation of a higher force that was 'hown' but not seen by the artist.
cultural productior?O and rea l ig '. The social transformation of landscape architecture, in a
metropolitan context, is reflective of the conceptualization by the metropolitan individual
within the contemporary cultural logic.
The following discourse of the contemporary metropolitan existence will explain the
interna1 and external changes that have occurred as society evolved into its postrnodern
condition. Although the visual transformation of the metropolis is understood consciously,
the fundamental changes were realied by the metropolitan individual on a psychological
level. It is the psychological change in the metropolitan individual that has provided the
foundation for the social transformation of metropolitan life.
Landscape architecture, as being part of the fabric of metropolitan existence, has been
subject to the social transformation that has coincided with the evolution of contemporary
society. The defining elements of this social transformation have exhibited themselves in the
context of the various elements of the metropolis in a similar context to the way in which
they are manifested within the landscape. The literary review of the rnetropolitan context
provides a platform for the distillation of these elements while providing the foundation of
the cultural logic of postmodem society. The examination of postrnodemism as a cultural
logic now tums to the understanding of the social transformation of landscape architecture.
30 Cultural production is to be recognked as the progress, development and production of society. which is not a precondition to survival, but rather a product of the imaginative and creative capacity of society.
j' in this cultural Iogic there is Iittie separation between the projected life style (through media) and the life style which the metropolitan individuai is attempting to pursue. The proscn'bed reality of the advertisement (cultural production) becornes the desired rea1ity of the consumer. This is, however, deeper than the desires of the individual, the image of life style becomes a standard which 'should be' achievable by the consumer. This may not be feasible for the consumer in reality.
History and Depthlessness
History in postmodern society does not provide the same linear and chronological
benchmark as within modern society. The implications of this within the landscape
architecture of postmodernisrn are twofold. The idea of linear history within landscape
architecture was demonstrated both within a physical as well as a conceptual sense.
Landscapes provided a beginning and an end. Within the Iandscape architecture indicative of
the modem era, there was historically a succinct point of entry which began the experience of
the landscape, or a focus point to culminate the experience of the space. In addition, the
modernist landscape architectural experience often reflected upon the histoncal condition of
the site or provided a narration within the site. These histoncal allusions and manifestations
within the modernist landscape are not a relevant component within postmodern landscape
architecture.
The use of history within the cultural production of postmodern landscape
architecture is dissirnilar to that of modernity's because of the departure Eom the allusions
and manifestations of history within postmodern society. Because history is no longer a
linear or a chronological process, the evolving and unfolding nature of landscape expenence
is conflated to the distinct existence ofevent.
Realizing the conflation of experience of event within landscape architecture also
necessitates the recognition of the depthlessness of art and the parallel of the dissolution of
the dialectical relationship of the observer to the subject. The art of the modernist could be
described as hermeneutical, as something which itself is representative of a greater reality- In
modem art, the larger, lived context is the referent for the 'tnith' that is represented within
the work of art. Modem art strove for this ultimate underlying and universal 'truth' or 'idea'.
The art within the project of modernity was dedicated to moving towards an ultimate reality.
Aesthetic expression moved towards this realiq through theme, forrn, content, and art for
art's ~ake.'~ High modemism is dorninated by thernes of isolation, alienation, social
fragmentation, anornie and private revolt. (Jameson 1991, p. 11) These are some of the
realities of the modem individual experience. This conception of persona1 experience is no
longer recognizable in postmodern art. Postmodernism does not eliminate the previously
recognized anomie, but rather depersonalizes them. The feelings and anxieties of the
modernist subject are "£i-ee-floating" and "dominated by a peculiar kind of euphona" in
postmodem society. (Jameson 1991, p- 16)
What has becorne increasingly clear is the depthlessness in postmodern art that has
replaced the metaphysics of the modern subject. (Ibid. p. 9) The modern gesture of cry "as
desperate communication and the outward dramatization of inward fèeling" (Ibid. p. 12) is no
longer a genuine hemeneutical mode1 within postmodernism's artistic domain. This
depthlessness, although symptomatic of the dissoIution of the complex metaphysics of the
subject of art, also responds to "...the postmodern experience of art appears as the way in
which art occurs in the era at the end of metaphysics." (Vattirno 1988, p. 106) The
depthlessness of art is thus representational of not only the transfomation of the subject, but it
is also a realization of the cultural conception of art's role within society. Recognizing the
previous axiorn of tnith within art, it is recongnizable that ". . .in order to be lived experience
of truth, the encounter with the work of art rnust be set in the dialectical continuity of the
subject within art and without the conception of Being as having a comection with history,
31 Art for art's sake was suggested by the critic Clement Greenberg when refenïng to artists such as Jackson PolIock who were more interested in the act of painting as opposed to the visuaI appearance of the final piece of art.
the relationship of the observer and the object break d o m within postrnodemism." (Ibid. p.
124)
For the utilization of history within landscape architecture in the modem era, the
understanding of the significance of the design was realized through the dialectical
relationship between the individual and the landscape. As within the evolution of art to a
'depthless' aesthetic, landscape architecture within the metropolitan environment becomes
predicated by the psychological condition of the individual. The psychology of the
metropolitan individual removes the personal connectiori and self realization which occurred
within the cultural production of modemit.. To fbrther explicate the nature of history, and
the depthlessness of a nondialectical relationship presented by the cultural logic of
contemporary society, the reference to traditional landscape architectural design becomes
usefiil.
Traditional landscape architectural design references the concepts of symbol and
narrative. Narrative, and to a lesser extent symb01,~~ necessitate the existence of
chronological time. This necessity builds from the dialectical relationship between the
observer and the object in order to comprehend the meaning of either symbol or narrative.
As in Jarneson's discussion of the disappearance of the individual subject and the
depthlessness of postmodem art, the observer no longer participates in the outward
expression of inward subject. Narrative and syrnbol in landscape architecture no longer have
the ability to realize the precondition of a dialectical relationship. Without the movement
33 Symbol \vithout a chronologica1 referent is here to be thought of as image.
between the narrative or symbolic nature of landscape architecture and the metropolitan
individual, the meaning within the use of these elements cannot be completely conceived.
This static reIationship of the observer to the narrative or syrnbol is a result of the
ernotional detachent on the part of the metropolitan individuaI. Narrative and symbol are a
component of the experience of landscape architecture that is conceived of on a persona1
level. The individual's engagement, as within art, occurs in a manner where the experiences
of the narrative or symbol are reflected within the ernotional and cultural composition of the
individual. As with the themes of art, narrative and syrnbol form a relztionship with the
observer through the expression of their intent and meaning. This relationship cari only be
realized through the dialectical exchange occurring between the individual and the landscape.
Without the ability to dialectically comrnunicate with the metropolitan individual,
landscape architecture in contemporary culture is separated fiom the participants of the
sociew. Although physical use may still occur, the relationship to landscape architecture that
employs narrative and syrnbol is analogous to Robert Hughs' description of society and
modernism; narrative within postmodem landscape is without dynamic and archeological.
(Kearney 1988, p. 24)
Present and Instantaneous Existence
Activity within landscape architecture is the response of action within place. The
nature of this action is a reflection of the social awareness of the rnetropolitan individual in
regards to the cultural condition in which the landscape exists. Both within the discussion of
the postmodem individual and within the discussion of history, the idea of event (present and
instantaneous existence) is brought into a social context. The primary consideration for
landscape architecture and the changing nature of time within the posmodern metropolitan
environment is the idea of the event. Event is more than a temporal phenomenon. Event is
also the condition of Being, the current state of history and reiationship of the metropolitan
individua1 with the extemal environment. This is because of the implications that the
evolving society has had on metaphysical existence. Nineteenth century metaphysics negated
the stable structures of Being. vattimo 1988, p. 3) Being was not conceived of as being, but
rather becoming. The introduction of the philosophies of Nietzsche and Heidegger (Ibid.)
brought about the conception of Being as an evenp. Being is its ment ".. .which occurs
when it historicizes itself and when we historicize o~rselves~" (Ibid, p. 3) However, within
postrnodem culture, the traditional relationship between time and history has either been
suspended, or eliminated. "There is today a reduction of time and place compacted into a
condition of event. What formerly contained and delimited conditions of reality - that is,
presence, essence, objects, imprints - have been reduced to conditions of event." (Eisenman
1986, p. 58)
The landscape, which is created by the design of Iandscape architecture, contains
several spheres of the potential of interaction within its environment. GeneralIy these spheres
include the interaction between the landscape and its direct physical surroundings, landscape
architecture and the occupants of its space and the immediate vicinity, and the interactions of
individuals with other individuals within the landscape itself. (See figure 2 next page) As
the horizon of time within landscape architecture is reduced to an instantaneous point that
continues to exist within the present, the three spheres of interaction within landscape
34 Although neither Nietzsche or Heidegger are postmodem philosophers, their writings were arnongst the fïrst which consider the metaphysical differences in contemporary culture.
architecture becorne reduced to events3' Without the determining factor of time açsociated
with the spheres of interaction, the events wirhin landscape architecture are anonyrnous
occurrences with no historical or emotional implications. Landscape is thus conceived of as
a pladorm for event.
The Landscape of Landsca~e Architecture
Landscape to People ln te ra ction Ph ysical Surro un dhgs
to Metropolis Interaction
People Metropolis
People to People Interaction
Figure 2: Landscape Architecture's Potential Action within its Environment
The existence of landscape architecture as a platform is not the reduction of the
funchon of landscape as being arbitrary and negligible in and of itself, and in itself as a
constituting elernent of the metropolitan environment. Landscape architecture as a platform
for event is rather the expression of the reintegration of the space of landscape architecture
35 Event is not to be construed as an event which is synonymous with a planned gathering, but rather as action without the predication of t h e .
within the postrnodem metropolis. Landscape architecture continues to be psychologically
engaged by the rnetropolitan individual event within the unpredicted interaction of event.
The realization ofthe conditions of the engagement within the context of event provides the
foundation upon which Iandscape architecture exists within the psychology of the
metropolitan individual,
Postrnodern landscape architecture is not an arbitrary element within the metropolis,
but rather the possibility of a different scale of intensity of stimuli. The nature of the stimuli,
however, is not to be conceived of as being distinct fiom that experienced within the
metropolitan environment. The metropolitan individual utilizes landscape in conjunction
with the social existence of his or her metropolitan life. It is the platform for uncontained
social existence without a separation kom the understanding of the metropolitan context.
Where architecture and media situate themselves as outward projections of postrnodernism,
landscape architecture is the unobtmsive and 'fiee f l ~ a t i n ~ ' ? ~ or, inward projections of
postmodemism. With the smaller scale of intensity of stimuli, while the rnetropolitan
individual continues to be disconnected emotionally fiom metropolitan existence, a sense of
'silencey3' results kom the change in scale.
Postmodern Hyperspace
Landscape architecture invites one to occupy or rnove through the landscape to
appreciate the full aspect of its use effecting the psychological changes of the metropolitan
individual. The cultural logic of the postrnodem metropolis presents the individual of the
36 Here referencing the language of Fredric Jarneson.
'' Psychological silence and not audible silence.
urban fabric with an increasingly different foundation ofspace. Space and time were
previously conceived of as intercomected and CO-dependant. Their intercomectedness was a
linear existence providing a leveI of predictability for the experiencing figure of the
metropolis. The dissolution of this interconnectedness, or conversely, the inability of the
expenencing figure to move in anything but an apparently random nature has been realized
within the hyperspace of postrnodernism,
Hyperspace within postmodern architecture is not a reflection of the immediate
aesthetic of a contemporary piece. The architecture of contemporary Society was originaIIy
conceived of as postmodern for it presented an aesthetic which was distinct £iom the values
of modemism. TmIy modem architecture sought a universal character which would be
applicable in a global context. The international style of architecture, the universal
architecture, was also present within landscape architecture. Projects such as Nathan Phillips
Square in ~oronto~*, or the Christian Science Center in ost ton^^ project the same transferable
qualities as the buildings of Mies van der Rohe or Le Corbusier during this period. This
architecture was produced in the cultural context of the progression of the modemity project.
Architecture responded to the culture in this fkamework, that architecture was a symbol of
modemity, a universal representation of development, progress and the value of the new.
"From architecture to the novel to poetry to the figurative arts, the post-modern displays, as
its most imposing trait, an effort to free itself fiom the logic of overcoming, development,
and innovation." (Vattirno 1988, p. 105)
j8 Designed by ViIjo Reveil
39 Designed by 1. M. Pei
Postmodern architecture is practiced within a different space than that occupied by
the buildings of modemism. Architecture, which truly represents the cultural logic of
contemporary society, breaks down the ability of the experiencing subject to understand their
perceived relationship to the world around them. The ability to cognitively map existence is
now in relation to a global context that is unrepresentational. (Jarneson 199 1, p. 53)
Although this level of self-reference has become abstracted for the postmodern individual, it
has not completely eliminated self-reference in today7s society for as Jameson concedes " the
global system is knowable even if it is not itself representational.
The transformation of built space in postmodem architecture becomes fürther
abstrac ted when the dissolution of space is without referent. Several philosophers, including
Fredric Jameson, refer to the Bonaventure Hotel in Los hgeles4' to illustrate this trait of
postrnodern architecture. This piece of architecture is a clear example of the capability of the
postmodern built environment to realize a true mutation of space. (fiid. p. 38) The
metropolitan individual does not have the perceptual capabilities to cognitively relate to this
mutation of space to the extent that it becomes 'hyperspace'. (Ibid. p. 38) Hyperspace, or
postmodem architecture's process of questioning the relationship between the container of
space, the reference of the container to the intended meaning of space, and the occupation of
space by the individual, does not consider traditional signifiers of space within the design
process. Within the Bonaventure Hotel, the relationship of the occupant to the building
begins to dissolve immediately upon entry. The entrance no longer exists to transport the
individual to the begiming of the building in an expenential sense, but rather performs only
JO Sighting Ernst Mandel's knowledge of the global system.
4 1 The architect of this building is John Portman.
the function of providing access to the building." The metropolitan individual's social
referents of location are thus incapable of cognitively mapping the experience of the space of
the building.
Figure 3: The Bonaventure Hotel Left: Ariel view of building, Rrglrt: Lobby (Source: The Westin Hotel & Resort web site)
Consistent with the mutation of space in the postrnodern architecture within the
metropolis, landscape architecture's platform is also synonyrnous with the hyperspace of
postmodemism. Landscape architecture's continued connection with the stimuli of
metropolitan existence reduces the ability to determine a decisive point of entrante.
Landscape architecture and the surrounding context are two distinct phenomenona, but the
inherent continuation of psychological existence does not necessitate a sense of entry as a
determining factor within the experience of the landscape. Although it cannot be denied that
'' The beginnùig of the building, what is traditionally conceived of as the lobby, does exist within the Hotel, but is nor dkectly accessibIe by riny entry point. It is thus required that navel through the building is required to corne to tbe point which is conceived of as the beginning.
physical barriers can compete with the dissolution of entry, such an event iintempts the flow
of the metropolitan psychology.
The intensity of the stimuli within the metropolitan environment, as discussed earlier,
has precluded the emotional existence of the metropolitan individual with a rational
subsistence. Within the hyperspace of the postmodem cultural logic the signs and signifiers
of landscape architecture present points within the experience which are n o longer logically
comected by the participant in landscape architecture. Hyperspace within landscape
architecture breaks down the flow of the landscape experience- As with t h e
interconnectedness of t h e and space with the experiencing figure moving within a
predictable manner, the experiential predictability of landscape experience also regards the
experiencing figure in a seemingly random fashion.
The rnetropolitan individual still occupies landscape architecture i n a similar fashion
on a physical level. There is still presence within landscape architecture amd experience of
landscape architecture. What is different within the landscape architecture of hyperspace is
the inability of orienting the occupant of the landscape architecture within the conceived
direction of experience. This orientation of experience reflects upon the continued
dissociation of program and continuiiy within landscape architecture. As the rnetropolitan
individual is imrnersed fùrther into the cultural logic of postmodemism, the program
elements of landscape architecture will continue to be apparent, however, anly in as much as
they enjoy self explanatory functional use. The relationship between the totality of the space,
and the program elements which are functionally conceived o c rnoves towards a coexistence
similar to that of a warehouse and its contents. Landscape architecture in Che current cuItural
logic houses program elements but the connection of the elements to the greater space of
landscape architecture is at a point of disjunction.
The postmodern figure reintegrates their metropolitan existence within landscape
architecture in an uncomected and rational manner. The rationality necessary to navigate the
hyperspace of the postmodem landscape architecture, or any other element of the postrnodern
metropolis, exists. What is distinctive with this manner of navigation is the breakdown of
sequence and thus the perceived fkagmentation or atornization of space. These are only
pulled back together in postrnodernism's hyperspace, a space where the ability to cognitively
understand location is no longer a defining characteristic in the space's design. Landscape
architecture within the current cultural logic is psychologically perceived of as hyperspace
without the appropriate dialectical relationship of the experiencer to understand the subtleties
of the design still based in history and narrative.
Image and Media
The cultural logic of postrnodern Society is heavily influenced by the presence of
image and media within the metropolis. Although the fundamental understanding of the
distinction between the image and media of the modernist cultural production and that of
postmodemism is defined by the concepts of reality, tnith and rneaning, these concepts
appear to be less applicable to landscape architecture. Landscape architecture is, however, a
part of the conception ofaestheticization within postmodern culture and thus subject to the
influence of image and the media on the rnetropolitan individual; the experiencer of the
landscape.
Aesthetic production is becoming increasingly inseparable fiom the economic
production of postmodernism43. As landscape architecture is inherently conceived of as
being, at Ieast in part, aesthetic production, then its comection to the economic production of
postrnodernism is a necessary consideration. The saturation of media penetration within
society has presented a foundation through which information (reflective of the consumerist
values of the economics of postmodernism) can be distrïbuted. (Vattimo 1988, p. 55) This
distriiution also assumes the authority of providing the criteria of beauty to society. Thus the
idea of beauty and the role of beauty are assumed by the sphere of media, or more rightly,
mass media.
Landscape architecture, although firnctional, also aspires to the position of an
aesthetic; to the production of beauty. The rnetropolitan individual, the user of landscape
architecture, has previously enjoyed a harmony of fimctionalism and beauty within
landscape. Within the cu1tural logic in which landscape expenence occurs today, there is a
separation of the spheres of influence goveming the fiinctional and the aesthetic aspect of
Iandscape architecture. Landscape architecture's hnctional elements are engaged at the level
of the individual. What becomes obvious within the aesthetic conception of landscape
43 Beyond the metaphysical conditions that have disappeared in the postmodem era, the penetration of media in contemporary culture has reinforced the cessation of artistic production in traditional terrns. Postmodern culture can be descnibed as a rnass culture which has been greatly influenced by the extent of media saturation. The cultural conception of aestheticization is an extension of the sphere of this media penetration. (Vattimo 1988, p- 56) In postmodern society this general aestheticization was possible ". -.because the mass media - who, to be sure, dismiute information, culture, and entertainment, but always according to the general criteria of the 'beautifùl', that is, the forma1 attractiveness of products - have assumed in the life of the individual an infinitely more important role than in any other era of the past." (Ibid. p. 55) As what is valued as aesthetic expression becomes increasingly inseparable fiom the economic production of postrnodernism, the infiuence of the mass media has placed cultural critics in a position where either art is redebed so that it can be reintegrated into postmodern culhxe tvith the necessary dialectical relationship to the observer to separate itself fiom media, or art as a discipline will be repIaced with other f o m of aesthetic expression.
architecture, however, is that the penetration of mass media within posûnodern society has
necessarily affected the perception of beauty as it applies to a11 aspects of metropolitan
existence including landscape architecture.
Landscape architecture is not presented as both functional and aesthetic, but rather as
a synchronie existence of both qualities. The cultural logic of postmodernisrn, however,
presents a foundation of perception that demands the disengagement of the two elements.
Through this disengagement the aesthetic quality of landscape architecture can be conceived
of as image, in the postmodem use of the word. Without the comection of the fùnction, or
the experience, of Iandscape architecture to the aesthetic quality, the appearance of landscape
architecture is reduced to image. The aesthetic consideration of landscape architecture
becomes two dimensional through the codat ion of time in its severed experience. This two
dimensional premise of landscape architecture is paralleled to the presence of image within
society. The dissociated experience of landscape architecture combines the image of
landscape with the image of the metropolis. Et is through this combination of landscape
architecture with the setting that was previously the referent of background which presents
the way in which media has problematized the reality of landscape architecture.
The problem ofreality within the 'image' of landscape architecture is due to the
perceptual connotation of the parameters of what is natural or aesthetic as proposed by mass
media. Media has given us an image of what the reality of landscape architecture should be
and the characteristics that should define this existence. As was previously discussed in the
context of media, reality and the image are becoming increasingly inseparable. (Kearney
1988, p. 70) In the case of landscape architecture, the media is presenting the parameters of
the definitions of natural, urban or other terminology utiIized to describe Iandscape
architecture. Thus, the observation of the aesthebc quality of landscape architecture is an
image that is measured against the conceptual images previously presented through the
media. It is this occurrence of events that recognizes the existence of the image as taking
precedence over reality.
Landscape architecture within the metropolis, although part of the urban reality, is
conceived of as a portion of a predefined image of postmodern society. Without the physical
engagement of the metropolitan individual with the landscape, the previously enjoyed three-
dimensional aspect of landscape architecture collapses into an image of metropolitan
landscape. The distinction of the merits of its reality, and the reality assumed by the
observer, become negligible through the continued embrace of media within the current
cultural Iogic,
Three: A Model of Postmodernism as Cultural Logic for the Evaluation of
Metropolitan Landscape architecture
This discourse on the social transformation of landscape architecture began with a
review of Fredric Jameson's model and the vanous elements of the postmodern metropolis.
it was through this review that an understanding of the defining characteristics of the current
cultural logic was to be ascertained. The context which has been presented within this
discourse, one Sased on several authonties of the postrnodem condition, proposes that
postmodemism is a cultural shift which is not based in economics alone, but rather in a
change in psychology which was initiated by the evolving rnetropolitan condition- This
endeavor, although it breaks fkom Jameson's project of linking late capitalism and the current
cultural logic, does not discard Jameson's intention of providing a social understanding of the
evolution of postmodemism~. Jarneson concedes ". . . what happened to culture may well be
one of the more important clues for tracking the postmodem." (Jarneson 1991, p. x) Where
Jameson's project breaks fiom the possibility of conceiving the social transformation for
landscape architecture is where he feeIs what has happened to culture has been integrated into
the theory of Iate capitalism.
The current cultural logic, although it possesses the elements which Jameson's mode1
refers to, is inherently more social. The late capitalistic system has greatly affected the
production, or rather reproduction, of postrnodem society. Late capitalism is also the
JJ It is important to realize that although Jarneson intends to provide an understanding of the postmodem social context, he does not fully realize this within his book Posmoderrzisnr, or. the Cztltrrral Logic of Lare Capitalism. The lack of social understanding of the evolution of postmodernism is the reason that this research needed to develop a new model through which Iandscape codd be evaluated.
dominant force that has made the technology o f postmodern society available, thus giving
nse to the image and media saturation as well as the aesthetic production that is most
reflective of artistic production- Thus, Iate capitalism plays an important role within the
definition of current cultural logic.
Landscape architecture, however, presents a mode of aesthetic production that,
although similar to architecture, is also tùnctional, Since both landscape architecture and
architecture must integrate fiinction within aesthetic design, they provide a leveI of
complexity in the understanding of the current cultural logic that is not presented solely
within the visual, or aesthetic comprehension.
The defining characteristic of the current cultural logic of the postmodern
metropolitan can be distilled fiorn the discussion of the psychology, the existence, and
experience of the metropolitan individual provided within the social and cultural contextJ5.
Al1 three of these aspects of the metropolitan individual are inherent in the understanding of
landscape architecture within the current cultural logic. These e1ements were elucidated
within the context of the postmodem metropolis, and are necessary for understanding the
social transformation of landscape architecture. They provide the foundation for the
presentation of a mode1 that addresses the totality of the cuItural logic of postmodemisrn.
Through the discussions of al1 aspects of postmodern society, the unconnectedness of
the metropolitan individual fiom their surrounding physical environment was elucidated.
This unconnectedness occurred perceptually within the discussion of art and, to an extent,
within the greater context of the metropolis. Conceptually, this unconnectedness was
In this research the book The Human Condition by Hannah Arendt was used to understand the parameters of social and cultural existence within the me~opolis.
manifested to the greatest extent within the media saturation evident within society, and,
secondly, within the discussion of art and the history of contemporary existence, The
physical unconnectedness of the metropolitan individual is mainly in connection with the
hyperspace of posûnodern architecture and the greater context of architecture as one of the
signifiers necessary for the postmo~dem individual to locate him or herseIf within the
metropolis.
This uncomectedaess, as iTt appears as a main defining point of the postmodem
condition of the metropolitan indiwidual, is multidimensional. Although unco~ectedness is
regarded as perceptual, conceptual and physical, the multidimensional aspect of its
conception is in the qualifications cof existence which it affects. An existence that is affected
perceptually, conceptually, and physically is influenced in a spectmm of hurnan experiences.
As Hannah Arendt explains, the human condition and human nature are not interchangeable
terrns. (Arendt 1958, p. 9) The understanding of unconnectedness as a defining characteristic
of postmodemism deals with the hruman condition of postmodernism. The human condition
is created by the dominant spheres of influence over the individual.
The most apparent spheres. of influence on the human condition of postmodernisrn
are those of space and rime. Both :space and time provide the structure for the parameters of
existence. Space and rime are the skeleton of phenornenalJ%exprience and thus the
parameters of existence within a physical world.
j6 The use of phenomenal is to negate the discussion of the noumenal and hence a dualistic conception of reaiity which philosophers such as Kant rnay propose. Nournenal refers to either 'things-in-themselves' or the 'world-in-itself. This is opposed to, the phenomenal thing or worId which is the physical existence which Ive perceive,
Space and time also provide the structure for experience within the physical world.
Existence within the physical world irnplies the occupation of part of that physicality. This
sphere of existence within the world is the action of the individual. It is reflective of not only
the occupation of the physical world, but the interaction with its physicality and al1 other
entities (including human) manifested within its physicality.
The last sphere of human condition as it applies to the existence within the physical
world is the perception of the world made by the individual occupying it. As rational beings,
hurnans make judgements about the nature of their surroundings. These judgments are in
regards to the tmth and reality of their existence within the physical parameters of being.
These four spheres of the human condition, time, space, action, and tmlh or reality
provide the characteristic aspects of the postmodern cultural logic needed for an
understanding of the social transformations that have taken place within the metropolis,
namely landscape architecture. The mode1 is proposed in the context of the defining
characteristic of unconnectedness as being the dominant feature of the psychology of the
metropolitan individual in the society, and more specifically, in the landscape architecture of
the postmodern society.
Unconectedness
Hyperspace - Lost Atomized, Random ... No Cognitive Mapping Event as opposed to
coniinuous or chronological Time
Space Time
Relationships of signs and
signifiers Broken
Being as Event
Space and Time as the structure for the Physical World l.4 3;5-, + >';t , - _-iXI-I_
*A&
The physicality of Ra fional and Perceptual space and tirne Judgements
Action Truth and Reality 3 Dissociated from 'Image ' of Landscape space and fime in V.S. Landscape postrnodernisrn
Figure 4: Development of the Mode1 for this Research
Time
Time within the cultural logic ~Epostmodernism is no longer the linear and
chronological measurement that existed within modern society. Postmodern time collapses
its relationship with space and no longer necessitates a sequential understanding.
"Chronological and historical time, time that passes, is replaced by a time that exposes itself
instantaneously." (Virïlio 1997, p. 162)
The modern conception of time necessarily irnplies a continuality, or a transversing
within the very nature of existence. The individual utilized tirne as a measurernent where
tirne elapsed and was recorded.
Time in the postmodern cultural logic exists as a point- It has no reference to the
--- past, nor does it continue to evolve into the future."' The social transformation of the
understanding of history and Being as event resulted in a new understanding of time which
posited time as random events, as opposed to chronological, which subsequently resulted in
the inability of the metropolitan individual to relate to time accurately as a measure of lived
experience.
This postrnodern mutation of tirne has found its preconditions in more than the
impact of the change in Being and history, or rather historicity. Technology has also
provided a defining force in the postmodern conception of time.
... the new technological time has no relation to any calendar of events nor to any collective memory. It is pure cornputer time, and as such helps constnict a permanent present, an unbounded, timeless intensity that is destroying the tempo of a progressively degraded society. (Ibid. p.384)
The influence of technology is fiom a radicalIy different sphere of influence than that
of the metaphysical conception of Being or historicity; however, the resulting implications
within time are the sarne. Time is instantaneous within postmodem society.
Time, as an indication of the social transformation of landscape architecture, wiIl
manifest its instantaneous nature within cultural production. The cultural production, more
speci fically landscape architecture, of postrnodern society will recognize the instantaneous
nature of time. The individual experiencing landscape architecture indicative of the current
cultural logic will engage the landscape with depthlessness reflective of the disconnection of
the postmodern existence. This depthlessness of experience is imminent because of the
instantaneous nature of time. Without the ability of Being to conceive of itself in an evolving
manner, the experience of postmodem landscape is Battened out and sensationalized. It is an
event of the present without the awareness of extension.
Space, as a social arena, is the hyperspace of postmodemism. It changes the
psychology of modem space, which has a linear relationship with time in its conception. The
hyperspace of postrnodernism has a lost sense of location. Similar to time, space no longer
realizes extension beyond the present.
Landscape architecture occupies physical space and so must be regarded spahally. In
understanding the social transformation of landscape architecture, the psychology of the
space of landscape architecture must be considered. Within the hyperspace of
postmodernism, the space that landscape architecture must eventually if not already occupy is
not conceived of as being extended to the surrounding space of landscape. Space becomes
like a mirrored fishbowl.
Postmodemism, as a globablizing force, psychologically embodies a larger
conceptual force than the conditions of previous existence. The postmodem metropolitan
individual, however, is only realized within the narrow sphere of their interactions. This
dichotomy of lived space and the global cultural space dissociated the individual fiom the
possibility of conceiving the spatial nature of their existence, and the existence of the space
that the individual embodies. Landscape architecture thus is not conceivable within both the
global context of the postmodern cultural condition and the narrow locality of occupied
space. Cultural production that proposes the ability for occupation, such as landscape
architecture, is reflective of a disconnected conception of space. Space is no longer
comected and consistent, but fragmented and random in the cultural logic of postmodemism.
Action
The interaction between humans has become possible in an abstract sense where the
modem notion of the individual is Iost. The unconnected condition of postrnodern existence
extends to the kdividual and the surrounding population. The end of the autonomous being
of the modern era, and the subsequent replacement with the postrnodern individual was also
the replacement of the q~iddity47 of the modem individual. The quiddity of the individual is
precisely what predicates that person's being as unique and distinct. Within postmodern
society this distinctness is lost and replaced by the prograrn of postmodern culture as
described through media saturation.
Action, or interaction, between individuals in the postrnodern metropolitan is the
interaction between individuals with the same program. Without the distinctness of
individuality, quiddity, which the media has replaced within the postmodem metropolitan,
the nature of the experience has also fundarnentally changed. Interaction becornes an
extension of the comrnon program as opposed to the elaboration of the individual's lived
experience. Achon is no longer the physical representation of cultural anomie and alienation.
Action has become the extension of the media's postrnodern program of the reiteration,
recombination and reproduction of the postmodem condition. The interaction, and action, of
the postmodem individual is, in essence, the pastiche and nostalgia of art and history
manifested in the event of the present.
47 Quiddity is a term used to refer to that which rnakes sornething what it is, or, the essence of that thing. It's 'whatness'.
Truth & Reality
The cultural logic of postmodemism has lost the perspectives of truth and reality.
The separation of image f?om reality, but also of tmth and the projected opinion of existence,
has brought about an unobjective understanding of truth and reality.
Truth no longer holds its reference to a greater and knowable end as it has through the
scientific discourse of the modern era. It is no longer a means through which the notion of
reality can be substantiated- Both reality and tmth have become separated and unobjective.
They are concepts that deal with the present as opposed to being an extension of the
understanding of the totality of existence. Postmodern tmth and reality are references to the
condition of rnetropolitan individual within a state of continua1 existence within the present.
Thus, a more subjective reading of tmth within contemporary culture has evolved.
Postmodern truth recognizes the link of itself to monument, social contract, or "the very
'substantiality' (in the Hegelian sense of the objective spirit) of histoncal transmission."
(Vattirno 1988, 12) Tmth is no longer to be conceived as an "object which can be
appropriated and transmitted, but as a horizon and a background upon which we may move
with care." (Ibid. p. 13)
Without the idea of 'absolute' inherent within the modem conception of tmth and
reality, the nahxe in which the postmodern metropolitan individual understands existence is
distinct frorn that of the modem individual. Reality and tmth are perceived and reintegrated
into the idea of existence. Thus, cultural production which embodies the perceived 'absolute'
is an artifact of that instantaneous event and not existence. The cultural representation of
existence can no longer be referred to as transcendental in nature for it is no longer based in a
transcendental reality, or dealing with tnrth.
Four: The Evaluation of Four Toronto Parks
The cultural context of postmodernism has provided the model of rime, space, action
and trrrth and reality. It is now is applied to four parks within Toronto to gain an
understanding of the lived context of landscape architecture. The methodology for the
application of the model within this research is explained beIow.
Methodology
Several methodologies were used within this research. Literature review was used to
co1Iect and analyze the information required for the development of the model. Case study
was used to select parks for the model to be applied to. Literature regarding the parks was
collected and, where information was not available, interviews in the fonn of a questionnaire,
were used. A content analysis was performed on the collected information and the results of
this were put into a matrix to present the findings.
Literature Review
The literature review performed for this thesis focused on the critique of
postmodernity and the philosophy of the postrnodem era. Although many authors were read
during this review, the Ziterature used to develop the model focused on the philosophy that
was consistent with Fredric Jameson's critique of postrnodernism. In that the research
focuses on the social nature of postmodernism, which Jameson did not sufficiently develop,
Hamah Arendt's work was used to provide the cultural construction of the human condition.
The themes of human nature and action within cultural construction (taken from Arendt's
work) were applied to Jameson's book Postmodernism. or, The Cultural Logic of Late
Capitalism(l99 1) to ultimately develop the model used wîthin this research.
The model of space, tirne, action, and t r ~ ~ t h and reality is captures the change in the
human condition that occur as society transfoxms. This transformation is within both private
and public space, as well as within the political and cultural bodies of s ~ c i e t ~ . ~ ' These
influences on the human condition were expressed in Jameson's literature, although not
developed. The literature review of Arendt's work along with other critics (namely Richard
Kearney, Gianni Vattirno and Paul Vinlio) provided the additional social and cultural aspects
of pcstrnodernism to integrate into Jameson's existing model of the disappearance of the
individual subject, pastiche, crisis in history, schizophrenic consciousness and the rise of the
hysterical sublime.
Case Studies
Case study research is traditionally linked to psychological research where the
detailed analysis of a particular case or cases is the objective of the research. (Rothe 1993, p.
83) This research is concemed with the psychology of the metropolitan individual, an area
where case study research has been traditionally utilized. In addition to the psychological
relevance of case study research, this methodology was also a relevant research method
because the problem statement of this research is dealing with a phenornenon
48 These transformations comprise one of the main subjects in Arendt's book The Hrrrnan Condition (1958). Although the book was published before the postmodem era, the social transformations that she observes are indicative of the human condition and therefore her work is still relevant withul a contemporary discussion.
(postmodeniism) that cannot be separated fiom its context (Toronto), and is a conternporary
event- (Yin 1984, p. 25) Given these conditions, Yin asserts that case study research will
provide the soundest data to be coIlected and analyzed.
There are several different types of case study research which can occur. This
research uses multiple-case studies. Yin refers to the work of Hersen and Barlow (1976) to
explain that the repetitious nature of multiple-case studies provides the ability to contrast
contrary results for predictable reasons. When observing the social transformation of
landscape architecture, the results of the analysis should not be similar, but rather predictably
different (reflecting the changes within society) and multiple-case studies are designed to
reveal such an occurrence.
Criteria were established so that only the examples that are most applicable to the
uderstanding of the current cultural condition of Zandscape architecture can be isoIated. The
case studies were chosen through the following criteria:
1. Exist within a rnetropolitan context, specz~cally rnetropolitan Toronto.
The Don Valley Parkway, Eglinton Avenue, and Dufferin Street are used in this
research to define the metropolitan area of Toronto. These streets form an area of built urban
environment where dwelling occurs but is not the primary function. These streets aIso reflect
previous and present political boundaries in the city of Toronto. Although these boundaries
were presented through the area bordered by Lake Ontario and a series of major roads, a
seemingly arbitrary boundary, the metropolitan area of Toronto is contained within these
bo~ndar ies~~. The density of urban built environment is highly cornpacted within these
boundaries, in addition to a high population density throughout the area. The eastern
boundary, Don Valley Parkway, reflects the former political boundary of East York, and
Eglinton Avenue as a northern boundary is often used by politicians to separate downtown
Toronto frorn the remainder of the c i g o . Dufferin Street begins the division between
Etobicoke and Toronto, while also providing a boundary beyond which the housing density
decreases rapidly.
Figure 5: Map of Toronto with Study Area Highlighted (Map by 6LToronto" MapArt Publishing,
1997)
49 This information is based on several resources provided by Statistics Canada including 1996 census information. Statistics Canada can be reached at [email protected]
The City of Toronto website (www.citv.toronto.on.ca) provides sumrnaries of political debates which often discuss 'dovmtonm Toronto' or 'Metropolitan Toronto'. In such a format Eglinton Ave is ofien used as a northern boundary for the 'core' area of Toronto.
In addition to the political and demographic rational behind these boundaries, the
delineation of the study area through these roads and the lake will provide boundaries easily
identified by individuals who are not familiar with Toronto. Consistent with the definition of
rnetropolis in this discourse, these streets form an area of built urban environment where
dwelling occurs but is not the primary function.
2, The landscape was to have been a winning e n 0 in an urban park design competition.
The criterion of the Iandscape having been a wiming entry within an urban park
design competition in metropolitan Toronto was to provide an even foundation for the
evaluation of the landscape. By wiming a design competition, several assumptions can be
made about that landscape, the most important of which is that it is in part reflective of the
cultural pulse of Toronto at the hme of selection. Landscape architecture that is chosen by a
panel of experts and recommended as adhering to the criteria as presented by the C i v of
Toronto is more dependable as being indicative of the cultural logic of Toronto than
landscape that was built in isolation of the design competition process. The winning
landscape is understood as a supenor example of the cultural production of landscape
architecture at the tirne of the cornpetition.
3. The proposa1 for the Zandscape was following the year 1982.
In 1982 Brenard Tschumi's Parc de la Villette was the success£Ûl candidate for the
3 10 hectare (125 acre) urban park design competition in Paris. Tschumi's Parc de la Villette
was a deconstni~tionisi>~ piece in the written submission by Tschumi and the French
postmodernist philosopher Jaques Derrida, and postrnodern in a generic sense in its
adherence to a particular cultural logics2. It was the &t major landscape design cornpetition
that acknowledged the existence of postrnodernism within Iandscape architecture as a
preferable design approach, and indicative of the cultural logic of the timeiv. It also relied
heavily on the philosophy of Demda (and Tschurni), which deals with the psychology of the
rnetropolitan individual (Demda 1997, p. 325). By limiting the selection of landscape
architecture to the years following 1982, the social transformation of landscape architecture
will be limited to a penod when the production of 'postrnodern' landscape was conceivable.
Within Toronto there were very few parks that met the criteria outlined above. Two
parks that are not included within this research but were successful candidates in an urban
park design cornpetition after 1982 are Harbour Square and Downsview Park. The design
competition for Harbour Square was held as an "ideas cornpetition" and the landscape that
was built was not proposed within the competition. Thus the park does not conform to the
rationale that the park was a preferable design approach. Downsview Park, although within
the city Iimits of Toronto, is not within the metropolitan area as delineated by this research.
It is within the former city of North York (now Toronto) and is an area that has a very low
population density as compared to the study area and is very suburban in nature.
5 1 Deconstructionism is considered a movernent within postmodernism. Although it embodies many of the same principles as postmodernism, decons~c t i~n i s rn is more extreme in its ideology of unconnectedness.
Derrida rnakes the distinction between Parc de la villette as a w-ritten piece and the actual park in his essay "Point de Folie - maintenant l'architecture"
The following are the four Iandscapes that satisfied the criteria as presented above
(see figure 6 for a map of park locations within Toronto):
Cloud Gardens Consewatory
Designed by Baird Sampson Architects, Milus Bollengberghe Topps Watchom, Landscape Architects, and Margaret Priest, Artist.
Cumberland Park
Designed by Schwartz Smith Meyer Landscape Architects, and Oleson Worland Architects,
Court House Square
Designed by Janet Rosenberg and Associates Landscape Architects
Dundas Square
Designed by Brown and Storey Architects.
Figure 6 : Park Locations within Toronto (Map: "Toronto" by MapArt Publishing, 1997)
In this research, literature was used as the data collected fiom the case studies.
Where many case studies utilize the researcher7s observations of phenomena which are
people or places, this research focuses on the Iiterature that was produced in connection with
the design competition of the chosen parks. The Iiterature collected fiom the case studies is
not o d y representative of the concepts and intentions of the designer during the competition,
but also of the impressions of the cultural critics and the expectations of the city of Toronto-
An accurate application of the rnodel to the selected case studies requires several
Ievels of information, A successfil candidate in a design competition rnust both satisfj. the
parameters of the competition and present a superior design, and so it is necessary to
understand the landscape design through information which would convey bath these
elements. Thus it became critical that the competition brief, the outlines of the design
competition as proposed by the City of Toronto, be the foundational piece of information of
the landscape design. It is in the City of Toronto requirements for the competition that the
restraining factors of the design cornpetition (such as the need to use particular elements or
adhere to a chosen therne) are rnost apparent. it is also the document that provides the
greatest insight into the cultural condition of the rnetropolis as perceived by the City of
Toronto itself.
The second level of information, which is necessary in the application of the rnodel in
order to understand the social transformation of landscape architecture, is the written
component of the design. It is here that the designer explicates the intent of the design.
Understanding the design intent is important for it may convey ideologies which are
indicative of the social transformation, but rnay not have translated into the manifestation of
the design, or have been recognized by critics of the design.
The jurors' comments, provide a third Ievel of information that is especially crucial in
the discussion of the social transformation of Iandscape architecture. The jurors are cultural
experts as selected by the City of Toronto. They are representative of the perceived cultural
logic of Toronto and are charged with the responsibility of ascertaining which design both
meets the requirements of the competition and produces a superior piece of landscape
architecture. It is through the jurors' comments that the elements of the design that produced
a superior intent can be perceived.
Structured Interview
in the case of Dundas Square, where there was not a jury's report provided in the
competition process, the jurors were surveyed with the questionnaire attached in Appendix A.
The questionnaire was used to replace a plamed structured interview when the proximity and
the schedules of the participants made interviewing impossible. A stmctured interview is
used when the researcher is attempting to uncover a specific area of Zaiowledge. (Rothe
1993, p. 98) In this research the interviews were designed to replace the information that was
not available since a jury's report was not produced. The questionnaire was the interview
question which had been prepared ahead of time. These questions reflected specific aspects
of the key elements ofpostmodemism. To gain knowledge of the specific aspects of
poshnodernism, many open-ended questions were asked so that the respondent would have
the opportunity to relate a level of information and any persona1 judgments that they felt were
necessary. (Ibid. p. 103) It also required commentary about the preference of the selected
design approach. This preference was to replace the comments in the juror's report which
would nonnally lead to the park selection.
The last level of information, which is relevant within the understanding of the social
transformation of landscape architecture, is the cnhcism provided by cultural critics. The
criticism of the park provides an insight into the design which may not have been conveyed
through the previous levels of information. Published criticism, criticism which is found in
joumals and articles, is assumed to be presented by a cultural critic of landscape architecture
which is produced for the metropolis, specifically that of Toronto. The criticism brings the
insight of a cultural statement that is provided by experts in either the contemporary culture
of Toronto, or landscape architecture itself
N A - There was no jurour's report for the Dundas Square cornpetition
Figure 7: Literature Reviewed in Park EvaIuation
Content Analysis
Content analysis was used to examine the various levels of information that
were collected in the case studies. Content analysis is used extensively within research
concemed with changes in culture and society. As a forma1 research method, it was used
extensively by the militaiy intelligence to monitor public media so that trends and changes
could be noted and assumptions concerning the enemy's intentions could be ascertained.
(Simons, 1978, p. 212) It has continued to be used as a research method in examining
communications where the underlying perspectives and intentions of the source reflect the
cultural and social condition of the environment being studied-
The key elements of the rnodel used to express the cux-rent cultural logic (space, time,
action, truth and reality) were used as indicators to categorize the ideas and themes that exist
within the literature- (Rothe, 1993, p. 104) This type of content analysis of information is not
exarnining the rnanifest content, but rather the latent content within the literature. Manifest
content is the real content within the literature. A rnanifest content analysis rneasures the
fiequency that a word is used within a piece of literature. (Simon 1978, p. 2 12) In this
research manifest content analysis was not applicable. The content analysis perfonned was
concemed with the latent rnatenal within the literature.
Through the examination of the latent content of the literatures3, the more abstract
ideas of the model (space, time, action, and tmth and realiiy) will be observed. The latent
content refers to the ideas, themes and concepts that are obvious within the literature, but are
not specifically written. This method of content analysis is a usefül technique when
uncovering the latent meaning, that is the ideas and intents of the literature. To uncover the
latent content within a text, categones of interest are first developed. (Ibid. p. 212) This
research utilizes the model of space, time, action, tmth and realie-' as the categories of
interest. Using these elements of the model, the words and phrases within the text are
53 Content analysis can be applied to many sources of communication including media, spoken word, and literature, but for the purposes of this research, literature will be analyzed-
54 The literature \vas examined both within the context of Jarneson's mode1 and the philosophy of Hannah Arendt in her book The Human Condition. Isolathg the amiu tes of the psychology of the human condition provided in Arendt's work, the literature review was cornpleted, thus M e r isolating themes ~~~~~buhg to the contemporary cdtural condition of society and its inhabitants.
'coded', which is the separation of the text into the various categories of interest. (Ibid. p.
212)
Even using the coding process, it is difficult to measure the number of indicators
present? However, by examinhg the text in such a rnanner, trends implicit within the text
are revealed, These trends are ofien unmeasurable information, but a qualitative
understanding of the literature exarnined is representative of the changes within the
phenornenon being studied. (Ibid. p. 21 1) Because the understanding of the social
transformation of landscape architecture is not dependant on ascertainhg the specific degree
of transformation that has occurred at any specific point, the comprehension of the trend of
transformation is sufficient to rnake conclusive statements about the cument cultural
condition of landscape architecture within this particular discourse.
The content analysis is performed only on written rnaterial within this discourse. It is
believed that observation of the built design is not an accurate rnethod of comprehending the
intent of the landscape architect. The intent as expressed within written matenal is specific
and does not reflect any problems or unforeseen constraints which may have been
experienced dunng building. Observation is also unreliable because the distinction between
intent and design style is negligible within the built landscape. The application of the model,
however, to a l four of these sources of information will ascertain the existence of the key
elements of postrnodernism within the landscape architecture considered and the coherence
of the literature to the cultural logic ofpostmodernism,
55 An example of this wouId be the repetition of the indicator of time. Although rnany occurrences are clearly an exampIe of postmodem tirne, the idea of irnmediate experience and time are too close in meaning to qualm quantitatively. In order to deal with such instances, latent analysis Iooks at the trends of occurrences and does not attempt of quantifi concealed meanings.
It is the intent of the landscape architecture, as opposed to the fûnction of the built
landscape, which is of primary importance in this research, The intent of a landscape design
is directly connected to the cultural logic of society because it is the expression of the
designer's concept of the park, The concept is influenced by the contemporary culture that
the Iandscape architect exists in and so the intent of the park reff ects part of the lived
experience of the designer, Landscape architecture, as being partly psychological within its
intent, can be measured against this cultural logic in order tu understand the current cultural
condition of its design intent- As the coherence of the intent of the landscape architecture to
the cultural logic increase, the social transformation, whiçh has occurred within the design
intent, is elucidated. It is thus that an understanding of the social transformation of landscape
architecture within the cultural logic of postrnodernism can be achieved within the context of
the metropolis of Toronto.
Matrix Development
The results of the content analysis are presented in the form of a matrix. The
matrices presented within the analysis of each of the case studies are representative of the
trends that the content analysis revealed. As the latent content was categorized, the literature
presented 3 main trends mithin each of the categories (space, time, action, truth and reality).
These trends were postrnodern, between postmodern and modem, and not postrnodern. The
dominant trends of the presence of the categories within each piece of literature are presented
within the matrïx. This fom of data analysis and presentation is based on pattern matching.
(Yin 1984, p. 103)
The matrix that is presented at the end of the study is a cornpellation of the matrices
fiom each of the case studies. This matrix is a simple time-series analysis. In a simple time-
series analysis, there are many changes within one variable. (Ibid. p. 110) In this research
the variable of the cultural condition of the categories was represented by three separate
outcomes. The transformation of the variable is presented in a single assembly so that trends
concerning these changes in the variable can 5e anafyzed. To make evaluations of the
categories and their presence within each of the case studies, the cultural condition of the
elements of the mode1 nerded to be sumrnarized, The rnatrix presented one evahation that
represented the major trends of the park's cultural condition throughout the various levels of
the literature- This evaluation was based on the predominant trends observed within the
content analysis of al1 the literature where the specific categories were concerned.
Limits to the Case Studies
It is important to recognize that there were several limitations w i W this shidy which
may have affected the results. The most apparent of these is the availability of information
conceming the case studies. Although the various levels of written information were not
complete, there was sufficient information for judgments to be made. These judgrnents,
however, would have been more complete if it were possible to discuss them with the panel
of jurors so that the validity of the individual clairns can be understood and not perceived.
The jurors, however, were both difficult to locate and are not al1 citizens of Toronto. h the
cases where juror members were not residents of Canada it would have been both difficult
and expensive to produce a more in depth case study.
In addition, the responses from the jurors who were contacted were not a complete
set. One juror was unable to participate and a second questioned the study to the extent
where fiirther conversation with him would have revealed the scope of study, thus rendering
his conceptions potentially biased and unusable within the case study of Dundas Square.
Background Study: Cloud Gardens Conservatory
Figure 8: Cloud Gardens Conservatory (Photos: Author)
A discussion of the Bay Adelaide Park is important in the understanding of the social
transformation of landscape architecture within the metropolis of Toronto, although the scope
of information outlined as being necessary for a true analysis of the park was not available.
The winning cornpetition was also the recipient of a great deal of literary review because the
park was recognized for its architectural significance as the winner of the 1992 Award of
Excellence from The Canadian Architect magazine. Because of this recognition the omission
of the park from a discussion of the social transformation of landscape architecture in the
metropolis of Toronto would be a notable shortcoming. Thus, the mode1 is being applied to
the pieces of criticism that are avaiiable in order to gain an understanding of the role of the
park within the social transformation of landscape architecture.
SITE PLAN
1 monument 2 ierrcces 3 gorge/water pcol d waterfoll 5 service rwrn O conscrvatary 7 belvederc [above] 8 green 9 arbour 1 O wocdcd orca I 1 existing buildings I 2 new Bay/Addaide buildings
I l i f 1 Temperance Street
Figure 9: Base Plan of Cloud Gardens Park (Source: Canadian Architect)
The Context
The cornpetition for the park at Bay and Adelaide in the Ci& of Toronto was the
result of failed business ventures in the 1980's. The developers who had agreed to provide a
portion of money and property fiom the Bay Adelaide towers that were to be erected were
still responsible for the green space. This was true even when their buildings became
financially impossible to build. The City of Toronto used the opportunity to hold a design
cornpetition to fil1 the space- (Fulford 1995, p. 45) The team headed by Baird Sampson
Architects, who were later honoured by the 1992 Award of Excellence in Architecture, won
the cornpetition. This honour was bestowed upon them for several unique qualities which the
park embodies. The review of the 1992 Awards of Excellence provided convnentary by
several affiliates of the magazine that discuss the complexity of the design. Although much
of the language used to describe the attributes of the park was reflechve of rnodernity, clear
ideals presented in the mode1 of the cultural logic of postrnodernism were also referenced
within the dc les6 . This is the primary source of criticism to which the mode1 is being
applied, but that application is not to the exclusion of other written pieces-
Relevant Criticism
Spatially, the design embodies characteristics that are consistent with the hyperspace
of postrnodemism. Primarily, one of these is the convoluted manner through which the park
is entered, The entrances to the park are not related to the streets for which the park is
commonly named (Bay Adelaide Park)- There is the neglect of the signs and signifiers which
orient the individual to the finctional aspect of the space. The article within The Canadian
Architect referred to the entrance of the park by pedestrians as being "...a hazardous, even
illegal, journey." (Canadian Architect 1992, p. 18) This comment was not provided as a
negative point to the park, but rather the curious response to a unique space which was not
determined by traditional urban design considerationss7.
The instantaneous nature of time within the culturaI Iogic of postmodernism is
recognized within the design of the Cloud Garden Park. The park's pladorm of design is
descnbed as having ". . .an overabundance of elements.. ." however, it is preciseiy fkom this
overabundance that the "vitality" and "excitement" (Canadian Architect 1992, p. 18) of the
park are produced. The complexity of the psychological interactions of the metropolitan
56 An example of postmodern references wiehin the article was comrnentary on the concept of the ruin that motivated the park design. Toronto does not have any niins and so it was the design's intent to create a modern day min. The article cornmented on the ability of the Iandscape to produce a spatial feeling of min while not appearing as a min displaced fiom motber culture.
57 For example, a traditional entrance would feeI safe and welcoming as opposed to hcizardous. This is 'cornrnon sense' in most urban park design guidelines.
individual with an overabundance of stimuli resuIts in the emotional detachment of the
individual fiom the stimuli- This detachrnent leads to the characteristic trait of instantaneous
time within the postmodem metropolis. The article builds on the idea of the instantaneous
nature of tirne within the park by referring to its contents as 'its many events' . The language
of postrnodernism as a cultural logic speaks to the conception of the event as a replacement
of the modernist use of 'elernent', This replacement of element for event is clear for the
expenences of the various 'elements' of the park; the Glass House, The Gorge, The Waterfall
and so on are referred to as 'events'.
The relationship of the park to the cultural logic of postrnodernism is not complete
within the criticism of the park. Although the article in The Canadian Architect clearly
redized the conception of time and space as being indicative of the traits of time and space
within the model, the modernist language of design continued to be present within the
examination of the park. The idea of the design's intent being reflective of the symbolism
that the context of the site creates is among the clearest of examples of the use of modernist
language.j8
The use of modernist language continues wïthin the article "A Modem-Day Ruin"
where the park is said to have ". . .emerged out of a highly self-conscious view of cultural
history." (Fulford 1995, p. 45) The mode1 of the cultural logic of postmodernisrn clearly
does not respond to the promotion of the histoncity of the site in which the landscape
architecture is produced. The connection between the lived time and the individual as being
58 This is the article's reference to the neighboring building's being symbolic of ravines and the park itself being a " ... a tnbute to the dialectical agents of erosion and transformation at work in the city.. ." Award of Excellence, in The Canadiun Architect, December 1992, p. 18.
unconnected is integral within the element of time within the model. The psychology of the
metropolitan individual is not capable of this self-conscious gesture within design.
The article does acknowledge the instantaneous nature of time when it references the
park's idea of the metropolis as a work in progress, (Fulford 1995, p. 46) but the significance
of this statement is fùrther dissolved with the continuation of the modernist language. The
language of modemism occurs clearly in the staternent that the ". . . park is the architectural
equivalent of a poern. .." (Fulford 1995, p. 46). Poem within landscape implies a dialectical
relationship between the individual and the landscape. This is not possible without the
understanding of historicity that is temporally connected and has meaning.
Cultural Logic of Postmodernism
It is important to recognize that without the appropriate level of information for the
Cloud Gardens Park the validity of the application of the model may be hindered. The
cnticism available presented a relationship to the language of modernity that was undeniable.
Although the model distilled elements of the cultural logic of postmodemism, the context in
which the elements were found was undeniable. The article within The Canndian Architect
did provide a discussion that was predominantly postmodem, but failed to recognize al1 of
the deterrnining elements of the model.
What is important within the discussion provided by The Canadian Architect. which 1
have already cited as the primary piece of criticism for this park, is that it recognizes the first
two elements of the model. In the presentation of the model time and space were presented
as the two elements that provided the physical context for the human condition.
Understanding that they are present within the design of the Cloud Gardens Park is integral to
the discussion of the social transformation of landscape architecture. The presence of these
elements allows the inference that the social transformation of landscape architecture has
begun in that it has recognized the elements within the cultural logic of postmodern which
ultimately provide t!ïe foundation for the subsequent elements.
There is evidence of the social transformation of landscape architecture that is clear
within the cursory exarnination of the Cloud Gardens Park. It is aIso clear that the hl1
realization of the cultural logic of postrnodernisrn is not recognized and so the social
transformation is not hlly realized. An extension of these statements is not appropriate
without fùrther sources of information.
Key for Chart: Not Postmodem Between Modern and Postmodern Postmodern
Figure 10: Cloud Garden Conservatory Analysis
Case Studyl : Cumberland Park
The Cumberland Park design cornpetition occurred in 199 1, It was for a park that
was erected within the Yorkville area of Toronto, specifically Cumberland Street, to replace
an existing parking lot. The winning submission was by Schwartz Smith Meyer Landscape
Architects in combination with Oleson Worland Architects-
Figure 11: Cumberland Park (Photos: Author)
The City of Toronto Design Brief
The design cornpetition, as set by the City of Toronto, oi
Figure 12: Base Plan of Cumberland Park (Source: Landscape Architecture April1993)
es several areas of
consideration for the entrants. Early within the literature provided by the city there is
reference to the creation of a 'natural oasis' within the city. The language of oasis is both a
metaphor of green space and a term that implies an unconnectedness of the space and its
context. Although this spatial reference, which is consistent with the cultural logic of
postrnodernism, cannot be overlooked it must be acknowledged that the brief continues to
talk about the importance of mature trees and parks within the core of Toronto. Thus the
spatial reference is not as substanhal if taken out of context.
Although the design brief that was available from the Ciiy of Toronto was not
complete, it was made clear that the submissions would have to acknowledge the historicity
of the site. This was to be completed within the context of the surrounding historical
buildings and the Village of Yorkville. The mandate of a historical connection within the
Iandscape architecture is consistent with the temporal understanding of modemism. it is an
allusion to Iived history that is aot relevant in the cultural logic of postmodemism.
It must be first stated that the level of information fkom the City of Toronto is not
sufficient to make emphatic statements about the applicability of the City's program to the
cuItural logic. It is, however, sufficient to make a statement about the trends that were
observed within the information provided. The City of Toronto's cornpetition brief was not
corisistent with the cultural logic of postmodernism. It is a document in which the
relationship to the language of modernism is clear. The emphasis of the cornpetition was
histoncal and environmental, both modernist ideals, although environmentalism to a much
lesser extent.
The cornpetition, as set by the City of Toronto, continued the beIief in the dynamic
nature of the individual expenence within a landscape of narrative, or historical allusion. It
requires the dialectical engagement of the occupant with the surrounding landscape and
context. Within the cultural logic of postmodernisrn this dialectical relationship is not
possible due to the instantaneous nature oftime and existence.
Jury's Report
The jurors commented on the random and fragmented nature of the park as severed
by the lot lines. Although the severing occurred to respond to the historicity of the site, the
resulting spatial presentation that presents some elements consistent with the psychological
understanding of space in the cultural logic of postmodernisrn. These Eagments of the
design were descnbed as ". . .rooms of discovery and fantasy.. ." on page six of the Jury's
Report that continues to support the random nature of the space. It aIso begins to reference
the elements of action, and truth and reality, although the reference is not complete enough to
expand the understanding of these elements.
The majority of the remaining comments as provided in the Jury's Report deal with
modern design language, There are several mentions of the understanding of history within
the landscape design that are modernist in their references. The specific use of the word
'heritageYs9 irnplies cultural and historical connections of the lived experience of the site to
the currrnt experience of the site. This is not compatible with the use of history and time
within the cultural !ogic of postmodernism.
In both the extension of the design beyond the site delineated within the City of
Toronto competition guidelines, and the direct comection of the site to the historic buildings
across the Street, this design continues to reference a modem conception of space. Although
the interior of the site provides a spatial conception that is consistent with the cultural Iogic of
postmodernism, the edge of the park fails to continue this spatial use?'
The design of the site presents events that are consistent within the sphere of action in
the cultural logic of postmodernism. These elements of event, however, have been arranged
within the design in a north-south axis, thus removing the spontaneous and unconnected
nature irnplicit within the events of the postmodem landscape. The organizing imperative of
modem design occupies the organizational intent of the events of the site.
Written Submission
59 The use of the word 'heritage' occurs on pages 5 and 7 of the Juror's Report.
it is interesthg to note, however, that the edge of the site was referred to as an area of weahess within the design.
The Cumberland Park design provides a foundation for expenences which are
consistent with action as an element of the mode1 of cultural logic of postmodernism. The
types of events that the design considered would be ". ..open to a considerable diversity of
interpretation and experience." (Swartz Smith Meyer 199 1) The important element within
this statement is the ability of the experience to be understood as a product of the
instantaneous occupation within the park as opposed to the predefined occupation. This is
the strongest place where the cultural logic of postmodernism c m be found within the written
subrnission,
Throughout both the goals of the park and the design concept there is a strong
dependence on the ideals of the cultural production of modemism. There is the explicit
desire to reflect the history of the site. The buildings across the street are Victonan and so
the design not only references the physical history of the buildings through the fragmentation
of the site through the lot lines, but also to the cultural practices of the Victorian era.
Victorian scale, planting practices, character, and most importantly, collechbles, are the
references that are rnost clear within the goal and concept statements in the written
subrnission.
The design brief reiterates the previous discussion of the rnodernist organizational
influence of the park's elements. They are descnbed as ". . .discrete elements, arranged for
the pleasure and instruction of park users." (Swartz Smith Meyer) Although the east-west
axis used to arrange the elements is indicative of the modernist organizational philosophy, the
park's use continues to reinforce the modem aspect of the placement of the elements.
It is also important to note that the written submission deals with the organization of
the site as a structuring force of the literature. The various fragments of the site are presented
as discrete eIements that are both differentiated and are sequenced by numbers. The
organization of this numeric progression, although most obvious in the explanation of the
fragments, continues to manifest in the orderly and progressive nature of the components of
the w-ritten submission.
Within the written submission there is a curious statement that parks is "...for this
place at this time." (Swartz Smith Meyer 1991) AIthough the initial reading may suggest a
coherence with the instantaneous nature of time, the perpetual present, the degree to which
the park is contained within a particular present and not the continually reintegration of the
present as the past and friture as present. The statement, however, alludes to the impending
disconnection of time ftom itself. It recognizes the static naturc of time as it is no longer
dynarnic, but is not able to remove itself fiom the artifice presented by the modern cultural
production within postmodern culture,
Relevant Criticism
The discussion of Cumberland Park in Landscape Architecture's 1996 ASLA Awards
in Landscape Architecttrre Magazine reiterates many of the concepts presented within the
written submission, This reiteration reinforces the influence of modemism within the
Cumberland Park design. The article does not present the conception of action that was
consistent with the cultural logic of postmodernism, and so eliminates the strongest
indication of a break Erom the modem tradition within the landscape. It is true that the article
describes the peculiar combination of several matenah such as the concrete seating rings
around the pines within the pine grove, but it does not promote these combinations as being a
strong deterrnining force in the design. It is thus that the design conception of
postrnodemism as a specific type of style combination is often used to promote the design as
postmodem although its social and organizational influences are entrenched within the linear
modem era,
The Cumberland Park design is a Iandscape rich in symbolism, a design technique
not transferable to landscape architecture of the posûnodern sociev. In Landscape
Architecture's article "Box Set: Cumberland Park" this syrnbolic cornponent of the design is
presented as an important element of the landscape. (Gdswold 1993, p. 68) Symbolisrn
necessitates the ability to make historical references that are perceivable by the occupants of
the landscape. The metropolitan individual, however, i s no longer capable of such a
perception as a result of the uncomected nature of mettopolitan existence in posûnodem
society.
Cultural Logic of Postmodernisrn
lcity of Toronto 1
Relevant Criticism
Not Postmodern Key for Chart: Between Modem and Postmodern
Postmodern
Figure 13: Cumberland Park Analysis
Although Cumberland Park recognizes the instantaneous action that is indicative of
the current metropolitan cultural logic, and thus implies a certain understanding of space and
time within the definitions presented by the model, this is not a strong element in the
Cumberland Park design. The influence of the organizational practices, symbolic reference,
and concem with history overshadows the presence of the element of action within
Cumberland Park.
Even with the presence of the undeniable rnodernist influence, Cumberland Park
attempts to speak to a Ianguage that is not completely modem. The perceived Eragrnentation
and randornness of the compartmenta~ization of the site, although clearly delineated by the
historical lot lines, embodies the space of the cultural logic as postmodernism. The
organization of the landscape prevents the space nom realizing the definition of space within
the model of postmodernisrn, but conversely, the apparent randomness is a departure fiom
structured modernism,
The park, postmodern as an example of Jameson's pastiche, does not complete a
psychological foundation that is consistent with the social nature of the metropolis's cultural
logic as postmodernism. It is clear that the park is an example of landscape architecture
which is no longer observing the project of modernity, but the social transformation of
Iandscape architecture as the cultural product of this discourse's conception of
postmodemism is not completely reaIized. CumberIand Park is not able to translate the
unconnected nature of the postrnodern individual into the design intent of the park
Case Study 2: Court House Square
Figure 14: Court House Park (Photos: Author)
Janet Rosenberg and Associates were the landscape architects who submitted the
wiming submission for the Courthouse Square design cornpetition. The City of Toronto held
the cornpetition in 1995 as an oppominity to develop a piece of land which existed at 10
Court Street near the intersection of Kings Street West and Church Street. The land known
as Court House Square was to be 'upgraded' in exchange for a higher density development
surrounding the square.
Figure 15: Base Plan of Court House Park (Source: City of Toronto Design Brief and Author)
The City of Toronto Brief
It is clear that the City of Toronto wished the design of Court House Square to be
reflective of the historicity of the site. "The competition site is given shape, character and
historical connection by the buildings which surround it."" The design bnef explains the
history of both the buildings and the site history thus reinforcing not only the historical nature
of the site, but also the specific lived context of the history which the site should ulhmately
project as detemined by the City of Toronto.
The competition brief is also very specific about the inclusion of a number of
elements within the park. These elements are reflective of a cornmunity meeting process, and
'' City of Toronto Court House Square Design Cornpetition Design Bnef, p. 15.
hence a perceived current desire for such elements, although 1 would negate the significance
of such a process as an accurate reaection of the desires of the metrcpolitan individual. The
metropolitan individual continues to have a relationship with the language of modemism for,
without the resources to develop a new language of landscape architecture, which would be
reflective of the conternporary cultural logic, the reiteration of modernist desires is imminent.
It is thus that the parameters of the design competition as they relate to the elements required
are not to be considered as important to the understanding of this park within the social
transformation of landscape architecture.
With the Cornpetition Brief s dependence on the concept of the historicity of the site
and the parameters of the elements desired by the community, Court House Square's design
guidelines do not present conceptions that are consistent with the cultural logic es
postrnodem.
Jury's Report
The jury report for Court House Square has an underlying dependence on the
hgmented nature of the design. There were 5 distinct 'landscape spaces' within the park
that were not reflective of an organizational irnperative of order or progression. They are
elements that, although visually held together, are not intellectually connected. The inclusion
of these distinct eIements appeared to affect the nature of the juror's cornrnents. Unlike the
comments regarding the other submissions to the competition, there was a distinct absence of
thematic commentary- It was acknowledged that Janet Rosenberg's submission included a
historical treatment of the site, but this was more of a technical requirement after the degree
of emphasis which the historicity of the site received.
The juror's comments dealt in most part with the evaluation of particular elements
within the Iandscape. Several cornrnents refer to suggestions of how the park may alter a
specific element within its final realization of the design, as opposed to the significance of the
element within the design.
The juror's report for Court House Park made a distinct break from the modern style
of oîher juror's commentary. This break is clear within the discussion of Janet Rosenberg's
piece. Although there is no clear reference to the cultural logic as postmodernisrn, ches to
the unconnected nature of postmodem existence can be interpreted fiom the method of
commentary. The elements of the Court House Square project achieve an existence doser to
the conception of event as realized within the current cultural logic. The element's
independence of the park demonstrated by the removal of the element £iom the intent of the
park by the jury is consistent with the understanding of the context of event.
The Written ~ubrn iss ion~~
Many of the design decisions for the Court House Park reflect the City of Toronto's
desire to explore the history of the site. The manner in which the design chooses to ernulate
the history of Court House Square, Iiowever, begins to respond to a more postmodem design
style. The most obvious historical reference within Court House Park is the park's physical
arrangement that is based on the foundations of buildings which previously existed on the
site. The park constructs an "imaginary foundation ruin of the original fire hall and other
6' The written submission for Court House Park was not available from Janet Rosenberg and Associates or the City of Toronto. In its place, a document written for the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects Awards Submission was used. The fmt portion of this document is a staternent about the purpose of the project and its design intent. This section provided the information necessary to apply the model.
historical significant buildings." (Rosenberg: 1998) The use of the word imaginary is
consistent with the conception of û-uth and reality within the model. Although the historical
reference of the imaginary ruin is still a modernist influence, the decision to represent history
in an 'imaginary' design is the creation of a new reality, This is consistent with the idea of
simu~acra!~
There are other phrases within the written submission which also have a postrnodern
interpretation, The reference to the lights in the obelisks as beacons also stands out within
the document. 'Beacons' as a specific choice of word to describe lights deliberately implies
that the lights provide a function beyond lighting the park. They are also providing a
different spatial affect. In night the park extends the space that it once occupied to an
unknowable larger space through the light of the beacon. The beacons are also not used to
direct people to a particular spot (as far as their description within the written rnaterial has
divulged) but rather extend the presence of the park. The rational for this extension does not
become clear within the description, beyond the idea of altering the space of the park.
Cultural Logic as Postmodernism
63 Jameson discussed sirnulacra ~vithin The Crisis in History, however, it is used within truth and reality tvithin this model. An imaginary min of something which was not ruined, but was demolished is an identical copy of something for which no original ever existed. Truth and Reality of the frre are convoluted through the imaginary ruin, They present a new truth \vhich is not a syrnbol of reality but rather the creation of an alternate reality.
Both the design and the jurors' comments respond to elements of the cultural Iogic as
postrnodernism, specifically time (event) and space within the model. The temporal and
spatial understanding of the landscape within the w-ritten submission of the landscape
architecture was not made accessible during the course of this discourse. It is clear, however,
£kom the jurors' comments that the cohesion between the elements of the mode1 and the
intent of the design began.
NO^ Postrnodern Key for Chart: Between Modern and Postmodern
Postmodern
Figure 16: Court House Park Analysis
Court House Square presents the first instance where the cultural logic as
posmiodernism is manifested within both a portion of the design intent as well as the manner
in which that intent was later discussed. It is through this occurrence that Court House
Square provides an important contribution to the understanding of the social transformation
of landscape architecture. It still cannot be realized within the design of Court House Square
that Iandscape architecture is indicative of the cultural logic as previously presented, but the
sphere of cultural production and criticism representative of a postmodem influence has
continued to expand.
Case Study 3: Dundas Square
Figure 17: Model of Dundas Square (Source: The City of Toronto's web site)
Dundas St E
r
.- - 4
Dundas Square P b n
Figure 18: Base Plan of Dundas Square (Source: Brown and Storey Written Submissions)
The design competihon for Dundas Square was proposed for the area which most
people in Toronto consider the heaa of the City; the intersection of Yonge and Dundas. This
competition was held in 1998 in anticipation of the 2008 Olyrnpic bid, and was successfully
won by Brown and Storey Architects.
There was no formal jurors' report for the Dundas Square competition. Without the
jurors' report, however, an understanding of the judges' decision is not possible. The judges
for the Dundas Square cornpetition were presented with surveys designed to provide a
foundation for the comprehension of the expenence of the individual and the extent to which
the experience is reflective of the mode of the cultural logic as postrnodemism.
The City of Toronto Design Brief
The design bnef ciiffers greatly firom those of previous cornpetitions for it presents the
'opportunities' of the site as components that should be considered, as opposed to the
emphatic pronouncement of their existence within the site. Further, these cornponents are
reflective of the possibilities of experience within the site and not designed components of
the site. It is thus clear that the understanding of action within Dundas Square is consistent
with the model. As depicted within the model, preconditions that are implemented to guide
the metropolitan individual within the site are not reflected in the physical and psychological
interaction of the individual within the site.'
The instantaneous nature of time as event and the unpredicated nature of action, both
key elements of the rnodel, were further recognized within the section of the brief labeled
"Activities in the Square". The notion that activities are to be flexible disregards the
modernist ideal of providing a perceptual program for the space. Dundas Square is required
to accommodate a list of possibilities that cannot a11 simultaneously manifest a sign or
signifier of that possibility within the square. The City of Toronto recognizes the
unpredictable nature of interaction and event within the cultural logic as postmodernism.
This design brief provides a little discussion of modem ideas and reduces their impact
through the extent to which the city's ideology is consistent with the cultural logic of
postrnodernism. The movernent from elements to be included within the landscape to
opportunities that could be realized in the landscape not only allows a greater eeedorn within
the design process, but also responds to the inability to provide guidelines for the experiences
of the metropolitan individual.
The clear understanding of action, or interaction, consistent with action presented in
the mode1 exists to a degree that implies the understanding of space and t h e , at least at a
cursory Ievel. FIexibility and unpredictability categorize the design parameters of the
landscape, neither of which presents a lirniting factor to the concepts of space or time. The
foundation provided within the cornpetition brief realizes the possibility of landscape design
within a context other than modemism. It realizes the elements of cultural logic as
postmodemisrn even if it is not clearly stated within the specific desires of the brief.
The Written Submission
The written submission is consistent in realizing the various elements of the cultural
logic as postmodemisrn; however, it does fail to ,make a clean break fiom the idluence of
the project of modemity. This failure is not complete, for there is no clear understanding of
time appliec! to the landscape which is solely consistent with the modem conception.
Tirne within Dundas Square is allowed to evolve instantaneously and without
precondition. The Square is a pause, a moment in time, and no longer an extension of the
individual's lived experience. This is achieved on many levels, most notably by the
unpredictable nature of experience within the square. Thus the notion of existence within the
square as event is propelled through the instantaneous capability of the square to transfom.
The transformation of the square also aliudes to the spatial language of the design.
The grid shift of the urban context at Yonge and Dundas provided a space that exists as an
urban ' a n ~ r n a l ~ ' . ~ ~ Although the grid may appear to be an organizational element of the
modern era, Dundas Square introduces the grid in that it produces a shift as opposed to an
organizational element. The shift is a break from the regular space of the modern conception
of metropolitan regularity and produces the opportunity for further breaks korn the context of
the metropolis.
The space, although not convincingly presented as hyperspace, recognizes the
postmodern reluctance for a clear definition. The change in the spatial language, through the
use of the Iights and fountains within the space, prevents the ability of classic signifiers of
space to be considered. Through the change in spatial structure brought about by the lights,
the space reinvents the perceived scale of the landscape. This dramatic transformation of the
square's spatial language is instantaneous and provides the possibility for the
uncomectedness of that space with the previous manifestation of the park, thus propelling the
posûnodem aspect of the space.
In addition to the action that was mandated within the City of Toronto design brief,
Brown and Storey acknowledge both routine and singular events within the square, thus
providing a foundation for action and interaction that are consistent with the cultural logic as
postrnodernism. The threshold for this action is multidirectional, for the space of the
Iandscape does not provide a guide for the experience of the square. The action is thus
capable of being self-organizational in its manifestation within the design.
The written subrnission by Brown and Storey alludes to the understanding of truth
and reality as they are explained within the rnodel. The limits of elements within the park are
pushed to present a degree of reality that no longer is wholly representative of the practical
64 Brown and Storey written submission "Dundas Square Stage 2"
fiinction of that element within the landscape. Lights which are too bright are no longer
conceived of as providing light, an unconnected idea of the reality of the existence of the
light. The light then presents a problem within truth, for the finction of providing light is
still clearly understood, but it is no longer in a rnanner which projects the concise
understanding of light- Its truth is bent within the seerningly absurd use of its fùnction while
only providing its fiinction- m i l e being bright while being nothing but something which is
bright.)
Brown and Storey's design, while a clear departure fkom modemism, continues to
recognize modernist imperatives such as the relevance of history within landscape
architecture, action on a stage, and fomal entrance to the site? These are completely
overshadowed by the degree to which the written submission is able to present the four
elements of the model. It is clear that the cultural logic as postmodernism has provided the
theoretical and social fiamework in which the design was realized.
Jury's Report
The jurors for the Dundas Square cornpetition did not submit a forma1 Jury's Report,
Bellow is the result of the application of the rnodel to the jury's r e ~ ~ o n s e s ~ ~ . Since the
responses fkom the various jurors varied, each response was analyzed individually and
general conclusions were made about the collection of the responses.
65 Aithough Dundas Square rnay not at f3st appear ro provide a formal entrance, one is referred to in their written submission.
The questionnaire can be found in Appenduc A.
Juror 1 Survey Response
Juror 1's survey response was the most indicative of the cultural Iogic as
postmodernism within the responses received by the jurors. Juror 1's comrnents of the
experience possible within Dundas Square recognized various aspects of experience as
opposed to the programmed elements dominant within modem landscape architecture. Many
of the words that Juror I employed within his/her responses present an instantaneous
recognition of this existence. Delight, serendipity, and surprise are al1 experiences which
cannot be programmed for, but rather occur within the rnetropolis, specifically metropolitan
landscapes.
Many elements that are regarded as successful within modem landscape design were
referenced in combination with the ideals of postmodernism. The idea of providing links to
transportation are necessary within the practical irnplementation of a design within a
metropolitan setting, regardless of its cultural condition. These elements, however, were the
elements which the City of Toronto design bnef outlined as being necessary for the park to
realize. A successful candidate of the cornpetition had no choice but to recognize their
existence within the design.
Juror 2 Survey Response
The response received fiom Juror 2 regarded the design in a slightly less consistent
manifestation of postmodernism. Juror 2 continues to understand action as a modernist
structure within the landscape. The participation of the individual in available activities
negates the fiee floating sphere of interaction within the cultural logic as postmodernism.
Juror 2 does recognize the flexibility of activities within the design, but does not distinguish
between prograrnmed activities and instantaneous action if he/she believes the park projects
both.
There is very little reference to greater understanding of the cultural logic as
postmodemism within Juror 2's suwey response. Juror 2 instead continues to express
experiences of Dundas Square within the tanguage of modemism. Juror 2 alludes to the
symbolic, a design conception of modemism which is not tramferable to the postmodern
metropolitan individual. It is thus that his/her response does not add to the conception of
Dundas Square as being reflective of the current cultural logic.
Juror 3 Survey Response
The uncomected nature of Dundas Square to its surroundings is clear within the
response of Juror 3. Juror 3 makes several allusions to a change in the time of the design.
The square provides a pause for the metropolitan individual where the chaos of instantaneous
spatial presence is replaced by the event of time as present, a nonthreatening conception of
time that allows the 'unburdening' which Juror 3 refers to Juror 3 does not recognize the
other elements of the model within hisher answer. Juror 3 remains mainly within the
boundaries of the temporal shifi provided by the Dundas Square design.
Cultural Logic as Postrnodernisrn
Dundas Square embodies a consistency within the theoretical application of the
model and the Ievels of information of the design. It is not cornpletely indicative of the
elements of the model for it still presents a degree of modern values. It is indicative of the
continued realization of the social transfomation of landscape architecture within the
metropolis of Toronto. Within this design cornpetition, al1 levels of information responded to
the culhiral logical as postmodernism, thus presenting an extensive degree of saturation
withui cultural production of the model.
The design is reflective of the elements of the mode1 both within its written intent and
its portrayal of the physical landscape. Both the intent and the portrayal of the landscape are
reflective of the psychology of the metropolitan individual and provide the social foundation
in which metropolitan existence can occur in a postrnodem city such as Toronto.
Not Postmodem Key for Chart: Between Modem and Postmodern
Postmodern
Figure 19: Dundas Square Analysis
Five: Conclusions
The application of the model to the case studies has provided the analysis necessary
to understand the social transformation of landscape architecture within metropolitan
Toronto. It also provîdes the foundation for a discussion of the current cultural logic, as it
exists in Toronto. The application of the model, however, also provided insight into the
larger discussion of metropolitan landscape architecture in contemporary culture.
The Social Transformation of Landscape Architecture in Toronto
~ o t Postmodern Key for Chart: Between Modem and Postmodem
Postrnodem
Figure 20: Summary of Park Analysis
When the parks are examined in a chronological order, they delineate several points
in the evolution of landscape architecture. Although this relation between time and the social
transformation of landscape architecture was not expect, such a result is indicative of an
evolutionary process within deign and culture. Although the philosophical foundation for the
cultural logic existed in the context of the metropolis before the realization of postrnodem
metropolitan Iandscape architecture, landscape architecture had not developed the language
necessary to express the new cultural logic. Each of the parks within the case studies
demonstrates the progression o f the development of such a language and its use within
landscape. This language, however, cannot be conceived of as cornplete until the archaic
language of modemism and its relationship to the cultural production of modernism is
compIete1y surpassed within contemporary sociew. Thus, the Iandscape architecture within
Toronto appears to be following the trends of the other areas of cultural production as
opposed to being engaged within postrnodernism itself. Landscape architecture becomes
more representative of the current social condition of Toronto, as opposed to the cultural
production within the city.
Postrnodemism expressed as a cultural logic within the mode1 utilizes tirne, space,
action, and tmth and reality to provide a structure for the understanding of the language of
postmodernisrn. The social transformation of landscape architecture is represented within the
model through the gradua1 coherence of the case studies and the language of postmodernism
that the model presents. As landscape architecture transforms follaws the evolution of the
metropolis fiom the social parameters of modem society to those of postrnodemism, the
language ofpostrnodernisrn as a cultural logic will become increasingly evident within the
creation of landscape architecture- To achieve an understanding of the transformation of
landscape architecture and its current manifestation within the cultural logic of
postmodernism, the case studies should be considered not only individually, but also as a
cornplete and unfolding se t Through examining the design cornpetitions in chronological
order, the transformation of postmodem landscape architectural language is understood as an
evolving progression of coherence with the cultural condition of postmodernism, as opposed
to the presentation of a language based on a single assumption of a representative tirne of
postrnodemism. Such an assumption is not consistent with the development of a complete
language and, subsequently, with the study of landscape architecture as a social
transformation,
Within Toronto, a gradua1 increase in coherence with the model was clear. Through
each of the pieces of landscape architecture, the manifestation of tirne, space, action, and
truth and reality became more dominant than in the preceding examination. This dorninance
was realized in the degree of coherence with the model, in the language, and in a greater
reflection of the model in the information examined. Through this increasing dorninance,
many concIusions about the social transformation about landscape architecture c m be
posited; however, the purpose of this study is to understand postmodernism as cultural logic
through the examination of the social transformation of landscape architecture within the
metropolis of Toronto.
This transformation occurred incrementally and predictably- As the cultural logic of
postmodernism was realized in each successive design competition, the Ianguage of
postmodernism was further developed, At the advent of the Dundas Square design
competition, the social transformation of landscape architecture in the conception of time and
space was realized not only within the design brief, but also within the jurors' cornments.
The transcendence of such cornrnents indicates that the language of posbriodernism had
become part of the cultural logic of the metropolis and, more specifically, landscape
architecture. Landscape architecture has realized the completion of the prirnary language6' of
postmodemism within the Dundas Square competition, although the containment
characterization of the design using that language was not absolute. A completion of the
67 The primary language of postmodemism refers to the potential of the language to continue to grow and develop, while at the same tirne realizing that the language has developed to an extent that it is a full and working dialogue.
primary Ianguage, however, can be accessed through the various levels of information
regarding Dundas Square. Dundas Square is thus the culmination point in the development
of postrnodern language, the point where the prïmary language is realized and M e r
development of the language will be in degree of complexity as opposed to completion.
Dundas Square, however, is not the cultural realization of the social transformation of
landscape architecture.
The language that exists within the sources of information closest to the park, the
City of Toronto design brief, and the written submission by Brown and Storey, clearly
indicate a more complex use of the language than the other levels of information. T 'us , the
language of postmodern landscape architecture (as detennined by the coherence with the
model) is not readily understood within postmodern Toronto. The metropolitan individual
within Toronto is not yet able to read the text6* of landscape to provide an understanding of
the intent and parameters of design. The Ianguage that provides access to the theory of
landscape architecture, and its social transformation, must reintegrate itself within the
rnetropolitan existence. This reintegration will alIow the vocabulary of landscape to be
infùsed within the greater language of postrnodernism, and thus reopen the access of the
cultural products of postmodern society to the understanding of al1 cultural experiences by
the metropolitan individual.
The metropolis of Toronto is consequently at a curious position for providing an
understanding of the social transformation of landscape architecture. Landscape
architecture's social transformation is realized, but not conceivable by those who do not
68 This use of the word text is in reference to the use of the language of posûnodernism and is different from the text of literature.
already possess a language of the postmodem as it was developed within other areas of
cultural production69. The social transformation of landscape architecture is thus still
separable frorn the totality of the metropolis's cultural logic. This is because of the failure of
Toronto's landscape architecture to reintegrate postmodemist language into the greater
cultural logic of the rnetropolis at the point in time of this paper.
The proposed mode1 was intended to provide the foundation for the complete
realization of the social transformation within the complete cultural logic of postmodernism.
Ahhough the rnodel allowed the cornmentary necessary to understand the social
transformation of landscape architecture, it could not complete the goal of presenting a
metropolis with the consistent social conception of postmodernism as a cultural logic.
Cultural Logic of Landscape Architecture
The social transformation of landscape architecture in Toronto begins to complete the
cultural logic of postrnodernism for it provides the begiming of what is conceivably the final
stage within the developrnent of the language of postrnodernism. Within the North Amencan
context, an awareness of this language by the metropolitan individual is undeniable. The
language, to the extent that it can explain the psychological transformation of the
metropolitan individual, is complete and perceived by the metropolitan individual and
manifested within the shift in experience within the postrnodem city. This shift in experience
is the intellectual access to the language that makes the social and cultural production
occumng today fundamentally unique and different f?om the evolution of the metropolis
69 As seen in the results of the comrnunity meeting within the Court House Square Park.
during modem times- Consequently, the failure to discuss landscape architecture within the
contemporary language of postmodernisrn is also the subsequent failure to recognize that
landscape architecture exists in a hndarnentally different way than in modernism.
It is the continued connection to rnodemism, however, which appears to be
responsïble for Iandscape architecture's incomplete evolution into a postmodem cuItural
production, Landscape architecture, in academia, focuses on rnodemism to a present the
contemporary icons within the design profession. It is this hornage to modem times which
continues to hamper the transformation of landscape architecture into a postmodem form of
cultural production. An understanding of the existing metropolitan condition will provide a
context within education for students to integrate postrnodern into their design own culture.
With so many professors having practiced during the modern era, however, a complete
understanding of postmodernisrn within education becomes difficult. Landscape Architects
who still consider their design as modem do not represent the contemporary situation within
academia to an extent that the student c m adequately comprehend the current cultural
condition of the metropolis.
It is important to recognize Iandscape architecture's social differences within the
postmodem era because the influence of this understanding is directly reflected in the
practices of the designer. Recognizing that the sphere of human condition that is understood
through a postmodern definition of space, tirne, action, and tmth and reality, responds to a
dominating psychology that has cornpletely transformed the metropolitan individual is
fùndamental and should be addressed within the education of landscape architects. As
presented earlier, this is the defining characteristic of the state of unconnectedness of the
metropolitan individual. This unconnectedness provides the foundation for a tenuous
relationship between the metropoiitan individual and the metropolis.
The contemporary connection of the metropolitan individual and the metropolis is
complex but necessary within both the discussion of postmodernisrn and the design of
cultural production. One of the dominatîng critiques of Jarneson's work was the inability to
recognize the connection of the social aspect of the posûnodern city and the production
within the metropolis. The use of Hannah Arendt's work in elucidating the theme of
unconnectedness and reintegrating the social aspect of postmodernisrn into Jarneson's mode1
provides the clues of the contemporary cultural condition which education lacks. Both
Jameson and acadernia try to provide a scientific explanation of postmodernisrn and fail
because it over simplifies the concept and removes the integral understanding of the social
evolution. Although a social understanding of the contemporary condition is difficult for
postmodernisrn continues to evolve, both academics and professors need to regard the
inherent cultural connection of landscape architecture to the social reaIrn to avoid Jarneson's
downfall. As sophisticated as his critique of society was, Jarneson's work did not allow for
the unique social situation of landscape architecture.
Landscape Architecture and the Metropolis
The conternporary metropolis has lost its essential features of urban life because the
metropolitan individual ". . .no longer succeeds in getting an overview of the ever more
complicated Iife of the city as a whole." (Habermas 199 1, p. 1 59) Although the language of
postmodernisrn wiZ1 provide the intellectual tools for the overview of the cuhral production
of the rnetropoIis, it is not sufficient to uni3 the elements of the metropolis in a coherent
manner. The postmodern metropolitan individual's unconnectedness to the greater context is
perpetuated through the language of postmodernisrn. It will provide the vocabulary, but not
the conceptual sphere for the use of the language in a holistic manner. The language itself is
hgmented by the relationship of truth and reality within the postrnodern existence, This is
the inescapable paradox of the current cultural logic, that the tnrth and reality of the Ianguage
fùrther perpetuate the removal of the imperatives of truth and realiw in favor of the
instantaneous and fluid context in which tmth and reality now exist. The conflation between
the absolute and the perceived within postmodern culture ". . mark the emergence of a
postmodemist aesthetic of undecipability where in it becomes increasingly difficult to
distinguish between art and artificiality, culture and comrnodity, imagination and reality."
(Kearney 1988, p. 300)
As the paradoxical relationship of the postmodern condition and its language
continues to perpetuate, the rnetropolitan individual continues to psychologically reintegrate
the language into rnetropolitan existence. This reintegration, however, does not provide
fùrther definition to the metropolitan individuaI, but rather produces homogeneity of
perception and conception. This homogeneity lives within ". . .the fallen body of the
Cpostmodern] city-dweller - with clogged and diminished senses, therapeutically lowered and
adjusted fee1ers and organs of perception, maimed Ianguage and shoddy, standardized mass-
produced feelings ..." (Jarneson 1997, p. 267) and projected in the distopias of the utopian
media image.
Landscape architecture, if it is to escape the artifice of the media's utopia, must
realize how to utilize the Ianguage of postrnodemism to develop discourse within the current
cultural logic. The unconnectedness of the metropolitan individual permits the ability to
psychologically relate to the language of the postrnodern rnetropolis, including postmodern
Iandscape architecture, but does not provide the foundation of being psychologically
engaged. TIiroughout the social transformation of landscape architecture, the rnetropolitan
individual has become increasingly unconnected and psychologically detached £kom
landscape. Landscape architecture desigris space and provides a truth and reality distinct
kom that which had previously existed, and so it is a part of the cultural production of
society. For the postmodern metropolitan individual to identify with this form of social
production, the paradox of the bruth and reality of the language fùrther removing the
imperatives of truth and reaIity, must be reconciled to the extent that the tmth and reality of
the design be accessible to psychology of the metropolitan individual. The social
transformation of Iandscape architecture has thus created the necessity not only to
comprehend the evolving language of the cultural logic of postmodernism and its ability to
provide the vocabulary of postmodern Iandscape architecture, but also the necessity to
recognize the ability to design landscape architecture which the metropolitan individual can
psychologically engage.
Postrnodern landscape architecture which can be engaged, which overcomes the
unconnectedness of the metropolitan individual to the landscape architecture except within a
depthless and flattened experience recognizes the full vocabulary of cultural logic. It is
apparent that, as the postmodern tnith and reality create conditions that fùrther removes the
metropolitan individual fiom tmth and reality, the subsequent manipulation of the parameters
of the physical manifestation of that truth and reaIity is increasingly alienated from reality
and hrther contained within the sphere of image and artifice. Cultural production, which
would fail without the metropolitan individual engaging in the presented reality, provides the
desired products of engagement within the production itselfi7' Landscape architecture must
also provide an alternative conception of design culture to engage the metropolitan individual
70 This is clear when regarding the use of music and imagery in movies to provide the emotions that propel the movie fom~ard. Movies within contemporary culture do provide the text that previously existed between the lines so that the engagement of the individual to the level that this unwrïtten text could be perceived is no longer necessary.
within the intent of the landscape architecture. Tkis alternative conception, however, must
necessarily recognize the hazards of emotional manipulation through the vehicles of
nostalgia, pastiche and fetish so cornmonly found withui postrnodern society. Landscape
architecture within postmodem society, to stay true to the ability of providing an alternative
reality that is dynamic and dimensional must reintegrate emotions through design product to
provide a story for the postmodem rnetropolitan individual. It is then that the metropolitan
individual will realize how to psychologically engage the landscape architecture of the
current cultural logic, postmodernism.
Landscape architecture and the metropolitan individual wili not be able to becorne
psychologically engaged before the relationship with modemisrn in society is cornpletely
dismissed as nothing more than artifice. The relationship of the metropolitan individual to
rnodemist design is archeological by nature but still present within society. It is possible that
the condition of unco~ectedness is being fùrther exacerbated in that many landscape
architects are still consumed by the modernity project. The project of rnodernity had not
achieved its goal of the universal 'tmth' or 'idea' when postmodemism began to influence
the cultural production of society. Without the realization of the end of modemity, a decisive
point of departure, many remnants of modem design ideals continue to manifest themselves
within landscape architecture. Landscape architecture students are presented with a
predominantly modemist education that deals with postmodernism as a design swle7'. When
it is realized that the space and time occupied by landscape architecture are no longer
modem, then the language of postmodemisrn will begin to be integrated into the academia of
7 1 A main influencing factor on this research was that postmodern cultural production is far more than a design style.
Iandscape design. This may not occur unti1 the last of the modernists are no Ionger
practicing, but psychoIogically the need for the understanding of the current cultural logic is
increasing rapidly. Postrnodernism and landscape architecture may never be able to restore
the connection of the modem individual with society and cultural production, but the
psychology ofthe metropolitan individual will continue to subconsciously dernand this
recomection.
Bibliography
Arendt, Hannah, me Hzrman Condition, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 19%.
D e ~ n , Norman K., & Lincoln, Yvonna S., The Landscape of Qualitative Research: Theorïes and Issues, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, 1998.
Demda, Jaques, "Point de Folie - maintenant I'architecture", in Rerhinking Architectrrre: A Reader in Cultural Yheory, Routledge, London, 1997
Eisenman, Peter, "Architecture in a Mediated Environment" in Architectural Associations: The Idea of the City, Ed. Robin Middleton. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1996.
Habermas, Jurgen, Communication and the Evolution of Society, Beacon Press, Boston, 1979.
Habermas, Jurgen, n e Structrrral Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiv into a Category of Bourgeois Society, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 199 1.
Habermas, Jurgen, "Modem and Postmodem Architecture" in Rethinking Architecture: A Reader in Cultural Theory, Routledge, London, 1997
Harvey, David, The Condition of Postmodernity, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1989
Hays, Michael K., ed., Architecttrre / neory /Since 1968, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 2000.
Jameson, Frednc, "Postmodernism and Consumer Society" in H. Foster (Ed.), Postmoclem Culture, Pluto Books, London, 1983.
Jameson, Frednc, Postmodemism. or, The Culfural Logic of Late Capitalisrn, Duke University Press, Durham, 199 1.
Jameson, Frednc, "The Politics of Theory: Ideological Positions in the Postmodern Debate" in m e ideologies of lleory. Essays, 19 71 - 1986: Vol. 2 Dze Syn fax of History, Routledge, London, 1988.
Kearney, Richard, The Wake of the Imagination, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1988.
Kemmis, Stephen, "Methodology and Epistemology in Educational Research" seminar prepared for the annual meeting of the Australian Association for Educational Research, Geelong, Victoria, November 22-26, 1992.
Koolhaas, Rem, "Atlanta" in Architecttiral Associations: The ldea of the Ci@, Ed. Robin Middleton. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1996.
Leach, Neil, Rethinking Architecture: A Reacler in Czrltural Theory, London, Routledge, 1997.
Lynch, Kevin n e Image of the City, Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press, 1960.
Mitchell, William J., Space, Place, and the Infobaah: City of Bits, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1999.
Perez-Gomez, Alberto, Architecture and the Crisis ofModem Science, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1996.
Rothe, Peter J., Qaulftative Research: A Practical Guide, RCYPDE Publications, Toronto, 1993.
Simmel, Georg, "The Metropolis and Mental Life", in Rethinking Architecture: A Reader in Cultural Theory, Routledge, London, 1997
Simon, Julian, Basic Research Methods in Social Sciences, Random House, New York, 1978.
Touraine, Alain, Critique of Moderniry, Basil Blackwell, Massachusetts, 1995)
Vattirno, Gianni, The End of Modemity, The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1985.
Virilio, Paul, "The Overexposed City", in Rethinking Architecture: A Reader in Cultural Theory, Routledge, London, 1997
Yin, Robert K., Case Study Research, Sage Publications, Beveriy Hills, 1984.
Cecil, Wes, "Book Review of Fredric Jameson : Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism" (No Date) h t tp : / / to rnade .e re .umont rea1 .ca1 ' -g ;uedon/ l (February 10 2000)
Hirakawa, Hideyuki, "Coping with the Uncertainty beyond Epistemic-Moral Inability: Rethinking the Hurnan Self-Understanding with Hannah Arendt's Reflection on Vita Activa" (No Date) http://web.bu.edu~wcp/Papers/Tech/TechHi.h (October 14 2000)
Homer, Sean, "Fredric Jameson and the Limits to Postmodem Theory"(No Date) ~ w . s h e f . a c . u W u n i / a c a d e m i c / N - O / ~ s y s c / s t l (Febmary 10 2000)
McPheron, William, "Fredric Jameson" (September 7 1999) http://prelectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/iarneson (January 27 2000)
McPheron, William, "Postmodernism, or, the CuItural Logic of Late Capitalism" (September 7 1999) http://~relectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/~amesodexcerpts/~ostmod.html (January 27 2000)
"The Westin Bonaventure Hotel and Suites" (1999) http://~vw.westin.com/prope~.taf?~ro~=1004&lc=en (September 27 2000)
General References
Cloud Gardens Park Sources
"Award of Excellence" in The Canadian Architect, December 1992, vol, 37, no. 12, 18-19.
Andrighetti, Rick, "Bay-Adelaide Park, Toronto" in The Canadian Architect, August 1994, vol. 39, no. 8, p. 22-23.
Coolidge, Cal, "Hanging Gardens" in Architectural Review, August 1995.
Hume, Christopher, "Finding a Human ScaIe to Greed" in Toronto Star, Thursday April4, 1996
Freedman, Adele, "Park a Real Scene Stealer", in The Globe and Mail, Friday December 24, 1993.
Freedman, Adel, "Urban Meditation", in Architecture, August 1995, vol. 84, no. 8, p. 62-67.
Fulford, Robert, "A Modern-Day Ruin" in Toronto Lfe, July 2995, p.45-47.
Ledger, Bronwen, "Six Schemes for a Downtown Park", in The Canadian Architect, November 1990, vol. 35, no. I l , p. 30-34.
Mandel, Charles, "Soothing the Urban Soul", in Canadian Geographic, May/June 1998.
Margeret Preist, Artist and design team member in the Cloud Garden Conservatory
Cumberland Park Sources
"Cumberland Park Design Cornpetition: Report of Professional Advisors and Report of Jury", courtesy of the City of Toronto
"Design Brief' courtesy of the City of Toronto
"Stage III: The Five Finalist", courtesy of the City of Toronto
"Written Submission by Schwartz Smith Meyer", courtesy of the City of Toronto
Andrighetti, Ray, "Village of Yorkville" in The Canadian Architect, August 1994, vol. 39, no. 8, p. 20-21.
Griswold, Mac, "Box Set: Cumberland Park", in Landscape Architecture, p. 66-63.
Kahn, Eve, "Controversial Toronto Parks" in Landscape Architecture, July 1994, vol. 84, p. 20, 22.
"1996 ASLA Awards; President7s Award of Excellence", in Landscape Architectz~re, November 1996, p.71-75.
"Concrete Pavers Knit Park into Toronto's Urban Fabric", in Interlocking Concrete Pavement Magazine, August 1997, p. 4-5,23-24.
Courthouse Park Sources
"Court House Square Design Competition: Report of the Jury", courtesy the City of Toronto
"Design Brief' courtesy of the City of Toronto
"Design Brief for the Canadian Society of Landscape Architects Award Subrnission Urban Design Categosp Courthouse Square: Toronto 1997, courtesy Cecilia Paine of the CSLA
Leslie Coates, Horticulture Co-ordinator, Natural Environment and Horticulture Section, the City of Toronto
Dundas Square
"Dundas Square Design Competition", courtesy of the City of Toronto
"Written Submission by Brown and Storey Architects", courtesy of the City of Toronto
"1999 Awards of Excellence", in m e Canadian Architect, Decernber 1999, vol. 44, no. 12, p. 28-29.
"Ten Arquitectos: Brown aad Storey", in Arclzitecture, April2000, vol. 89, no. 4, p. 13 8- 139.
Hume, Christopher, "Big Urban Room a Wimer" in n e Shr, December 2, 1998.
Furman, Drew, "Dundas Square" (No Date) ~mv.aIIstvlz.com/pa~es/stvIdmiddle mafarc2.htm (August 24 2000)
Johnson, Bernadette, "Dundas Square the 'Stanley Cup' of Outdoor" (June 7 1999) ~~v.strategvrnag,comlarticles/st25778.a (August 4 2000)
Maclean, Susan, 'cArchitects Become More Competitive with CAD" (March 2000) www.cads~stems.corn/proflies/0003R)2.htrnl (August 4 2000)
Walker, Ruth, "Designing Spontaneity into a Public Space" (May 27, 1999) www.csmonitor.com/durable/l999/055/27/~ 14s2.htm (August 24 2000)
Plans for Dundas Square Win Second Architectural Award" (May 16 2000)~w.citv.toronto.on.cahlannindimaes/voun~dundas east2.irig (October 15 2000)
Appendix A: Survey ~uestionnaire'~
Dundas Square Design Cornpetition T O R O N T O , O N T A R I O
Dear: Juror
My narne is Lisa Tamara Wilson and 1 am a graduate student in the Landscape Architecture Program at the University of Guelph. Currently 1 am working on my Master's thesis that in part deals with design competitions in a Metropolitan environment. I have chosen to focus on the successful entry by Brown and Storey for the Dundas Square competition. in order to apply my research to this competition 1 require information regarding the winning entry from the point of view of the jurors who were involved in the competition. I would greatly appreciate it if you could answer the following questions to the best of your ability so that 1 may test my research and predictions against the information 1 am hoping to receive in the responses to the questions.
For my research, I am interested in your perceptions. When answering the questions please write down the first words that corne to mind. Point forrn is acceptable for the questions.
Ideally, 1 would like you to approxirnately 10 minutes cornpleting this questiomaire.
With the tirnelines that 1 am facing with my thesis I appreciate a response to this questionnaire by the end of July. It can be emailed to mittens73(a.vahoo.com, faxed to my attention at (5 19) 767-1686 or mailed to me at 2254 Sussex Court, Burlington, On, Canada, L7P 3R8. I can also be reached by phone at (905) 336-2678.
1 would like to thank you in advance for your cooperation.
Sincerely,
Lisa Tamara Wilson MLA Candidate
72 The questionnaire was ernailed to the jurors of the Dundas Square competition.
These questions pertain to the Dundas Square Cornpetition that was held in Toronto. Please spend approximately 10 minutes to record the first words that corne to mind. Point form answers are welcomed-
Thank you
1. PIease w-rïte down the words which best describe what you believe an individual's
emotional expenence would be within this design.
2. a) Were the types of experience to be had in and around Dundas Square within the Brown and Storey subrnission, fi-om your perception, different f?om the other designs? Yes or No.
b) Please record words that describe the types of expenences to be had in Dundas Square under these two lists. ïhese lists may overlap.
1 Experiences unique to the Brown and 1 Expenences important within Dundas 1
3 . m a t was the main purpose of the design, and how did the Brown and Storey
submission achieve this in your opinion?
Storey design
4. Why was this design unique fkom the other submissions?
Square in your opinion
5. What were the most important elements to you in choosing a design for this site?
6 . How does the expenence in this design differ or relate to the experience of an
individual's Iife in the metropolis?
Please write down the words which best describe what you believe an individual's emotional experience would be within this design.
Arriva1 at the heart of a vital, active city Diversi ty, interest Nighttime - lights, carnera, action A respite by the fountains to hang back and observe
a) Were the types of experience to be had in and around Dundas Square within
the Brown and Storey submission, fiom your perception, different from the other designs? Yes or No.
Yes
Please record words that descnie the types of experiences to be had in Dundas
Experiences unique to the Brown and S torey design Clarity Cornmon ground Positive sequence of arriva1 for subway riders, parkers, and others Orientation Delight Room for serendipity and surprise
Square under these two lists. These lists may overlap. Experiences important within Dundas Square in your opinion
Create a 'heart' to the district Set that 'heart' apart from the high intensity and bustle of area, while allowing enjoymen; of that activity Front door for al1 abutters Distinctive in the family of downtown public spaces Interesting, accessible, safe day and night
What was the main purpose of the design, and how did the Brown and Storey submission achieve this in your opinion?
A new, distinctive, galvanizing, sophisticated center for the commercial downtown.
Why was this design unique fkorn the other submissions?
Clarity, simplicity with elegance, room for the flow of urban life, serendipity and variety. Potential to link modes of transportation, handle crowds, lines
etc. Get a sense of the life of the district fiorn a viewpoint a place of cornmon ground, Successfû~ relationship in al1 directions.
S. What were the most important elements to you in choosing a design for this site?
Create a 'heart' to the district Set that 'heart' apart £kom the high intensity and bustle of area, while allowing enjoyment of that activity Front door for a11 abutters Distinctive in the family of downtown public spaces Interesting, accessible, safe day and night
6. How does the experience in this design differ or relate to the expenence of an individual's life in the metropolis?
A place apart Moment cf amval, connections, orientation, aspects on City life
Juror B
1. Please write down the words which best descnbe what you believe an individual's
emo tional experience would be within this design.
Relief f?om commercial environment, interest in participating in available activities.
2. a) Were the types of expenence to be had in and around Dundas Square within
the Brown and Storey submission, f?om your perception, different îrom the other designs? Yes or No.
Yes
b) Please record words that descnie the types of experiences to be had in Dundas Square under these two lists. These lists may overlap.
1 Experiences unique to the Brown and 1 Experiences important within Dundas 1
Participate or observe Variety of choice
Storey design Public character
Participate or observe Variety of choice
Square in your opinion Public character
submission achieve this in your opinion?
Sense of beauty
To provide a strong sense of public character in contrast to the intense commercial environment surrounding the square and to accornrnodate a variety of activities throughout the year.
Sense of beauty
4. Why was this design unique fiom the other subrnissions?
3. What was the main purpose of the design, and how did the Brown and Storey
Bold simplicity of its design
5. What were the most important elements to you in choosing a design for this site?
Design concept, flexibility of use, sense of quality
How does the experience in this design differ or relate to the experience of an individual's life in the metropolis?
Provides a new focal point in the metropolis, actual and syrnbolic.
PIease write d o m the words which best describe what you believe an individual's emotional expenence would be within this design.
Serenity, calm, a kind of unburdening
a) Were the W e s of experience to be had in and around Dundas Square within the Brown and Storey submission, fiom your perception, different fiorn the other designs? Yes or No.
b) Please record words that describe the types of experiences to be had in Dundas Square under these two lists. These lists rnay overlap.
Actually 1 don't see how to separate this into two 'lists7
What was the main purpose of the design, and how did the Brown and Storey submission achieve this in your opinion?
To provide a sort of oasis in the rniddle of a particular chaotic part of the city. They achieve this through a kind of sleek underdesigning - as opposed to the belIs - and - whistles amusement -park feeling of many of the other entries.
Why was this design unique from the other submissions?
Answer stated in #3
What were the most important elements to you in choosing a design for this site?
These questions seern highly repetitive to me
How does the experience in this design differ or relate to the experience of an individual's life in the metropolis?
What do you mean by 'the experience in this design'? 1 guess the answer, already stated above, is that it provides calmness in chaos.
Juror D
Juror D and 1 had many email discussions concerning the survey and the appropriateness of m y course of study during which too 1 was forced to reveal the intent of m y study in a degree of description which would bias his responses. Juror D, however, did provide commentary which was usefil during the analysis of the responses.
The following is an excerpt fiom Our email correspondence of August 3,2000.
"My reaction was that the scheme was deliberately austere, this is a11 1 can Say for certain. Why 1 believe this to be a virtue is precisely that public space should not be over- designed, it needs to be open to accommodate a hugh of varies. of activïty and response. Most of the other schemes did too much and would not, 1 think, have made good public spaces-"
Juror E
Unfortunately Juror E was to be out of the country during the time in which the questionnaires were to be distributed.