the concept of an altithermal cultural hiatus in northern plains prehistory

The Concept of an Altithermal Cultural Hiatus in Northern Plains Prehistory

BRIAN REEVES University o f Calgary

The concept of a cultural hiatus, when it i s believed the Northern Plains was essentially abandoned by prehistoric bison-hunting cultures because o f extremely adverse climatic conditions in the interval 5500-3000 B.C. has become generally entrenched in archaeological thought and literature. However consideration of the current palynological data and climatic models indicate that a grassland environment which supported a viable bison population existed at this time. Examination o f the archaeological data indicates the lack o f evidence for human occupation is a result of sampling, geological variables and nonrecognition of the artifact types in surface collections. It is concluded that the area supported a viable human population at this time whose primary adaptive strategy centered around the communal hunting of bison.

THE AREA (Fig. 1 ) under consideration in this paper is the Northern Plains, defined as the grassland areas of Alberta, Saskatche- wan, Manitoba, Montana, North and South Dakota, Minnesota, Wyoming, and Nebraska. The grassland communities within it are divided into two groups, the shortgrass plains generally lying west of 100" longitude and the prairies surrounding the shortgrass plains on the east and north.

Within this region a number of authors have speculated that a cultural hiatus occurred in prehistoric times. This event is believed to be linked to climatic fluctuations and is thought t o have occurred between 5500 and 3000 B.C.,' as there is a lack of radiometrically or typologically dated sites/components from the Northern Plains for this temporal interval, the time equivalent of the first half of the Altithermal (6000-1500 B.C.).

The possible occurrence of a climatically induced cultural hiatus in Northern Plains Prehistory between the Late Early Prehis- toric and the Early Middle Prehistoric periods (Fig. l), was first proposed by Mulloy in 1952 (Mulloy 1958:208-209).2 However, in this and subsequent works (Mulloy 1954:433) he cautioned, that this hiatus may simply be the result of sampling. Wheel-

Accepted for publication October 18. 1972

er (1958) took a similar position. In contrast, while Jennings (Jennings and Norbeck 1955; Jennings 1957) saw n o cultural hiatus, he postulated, on the basis of the hypothesized nature of the Altithermal climate (An- tevs 1955) and the similarities between sites such as the McKean site in northeastern Wyoming (Mulloy 1954) and Danger Cave (Jennings 1957) in the Great Basin, that the Great Basin Desert culture was characteristic of the plains during the Altithermal.

This concept was further developed by Wedel (1961:254), who considered that the northwestern Plains largely reduced to a desert resulting in the displacement of all na- tive game animals. Man either abandoned the area or became reduced to the status of a forager subsisting on anything that was ed- ible. However, Wedel cautioned that this concept should not be applied everywhere in the area, as certain areas such as the Saskat- chewan Basin may have supported bison hunting populations during this time.

Hurt (1966), in the only paper t o deal specifically with the problem of the Altither- ma1 cultural hiatus, concluded that while the human and game populations were probably extremely small, it was doubtful that the area was totally abandoned, as remaining human populations would probably develop other subsistence strategies. Stephenson

1221

1222 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [ 75,1973

AGE

500 B.C.

1000 B.C.

1500 B.C.

2000 B.C.

2500 B.C.

3000 B.C.

3500 B.C.

4000 B.C.

4500 B.C.

5000 B.C.

5500 B.C.

6000 B.C.

6500 B.C.

7000 B.C.

7500 B.C.

8000 B.C.

CLIMATIC EPISODE

SUB-ATLANTIC

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P R

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Figure 1. Northern Plains climatic episodes and cultural periods, 8500-500 B.C.

(1965:692), on examination of the evidence, concludes that the idea of abandonment of the Plains can no longer be supported and that the Plains supported a substantial occupation during this time. Connor (1968), in considering the apparent lack of evidence for occupation, suggests that it is more apparent than real when one considers the small number of sites sampled, C-14 variation, and other ecological factors. Despite these more

reasonable attitudes (Davis 1968), the idea of essentially total abandonment by bison hunting cultures has become entrenched in the thinking, teaching, and often the writing of many northwestern Plains prehistorians (e.g., Arthur 1968; Bryan 1967; Forbis 1968a, 1968b; Frison 1968, 1970; Husted 1968, 1969a, 1969b, 1970; Mallory 1968; Malouf 1958; Syms 1969; Wedel et al. 1968; Wormington and Forbis 1965). As a result,

Reeves ] ALTITHERMAL CULTURAL HIATUS 1223

this concept often appears in general texts on North America Archaeology (e.g., Willey 1966:313, Fig. 5-70).

CLIMATIC MODELS

The climatic interval within which the hypothesized cultural hiatus occurred is commonly called the Altithermal (ca. 6000-1500 B.C.) (Antevs 1955). The Atlan- tic climatic episode (ca. 6300-2700 B.C.) generally correlates in time with the early part of the Altithermal, the period when the plains were supposedly abandoned. The term Atlantic rather than Altithermal is used in this paper.

Bryson (Bryson e t al. 1970) distinguishes two models of climate change. The indistinct transitional model which postulates a grad- ual warming t o a xerothermic (Sears 1942) or hypsithermal maximum (Deevey and Flint 1957), or Altithermal Peak (Antevs 1955)-the latter accompanied by maximum a r i d i t y occurring between 5000-2000 B.C.-then a slow decline t o present conditions. The second, the episodic model postulates a number of quasi-stable climatic episodes, each exhibiting a characteristic climate. Rapid and distinctive climatic changes occur between each episode.

The latter model is used in this paper, for as Bryson points ou t (Bryson e t al. 1970:55) the indistinct transition model, while of ini- tially some value is based on false premises as the atmosphere simply does not behave in such a way that the world or even a con- tinent gets everywhere warmer o r dryer, colder or wetter, as the climate changes even though the world mean may change that way. While the change is global, direction of the change is not everywhere the same.

His point is demonstrated, for example, by Wrights (1968) study of the Prairie Pen- insu la . D u r i n g t h e Altithermal (ca. 6000-2000 BE.) the peninsula extended further east in Illinois suggesting the presence of a dry warm climate. To the east in Ohio and New England the time equivalent period

is considered t o be warm and moist and the subsequent period warm and dry.

The episodic model as developed by Bryson and his co-workers (Bryson 1966, 1970; Bryson and Wendland 1967; Bryson et al. 1970; Cole 1969; Webb 1970) for the Holocene, postulates that past variations in climate as seen in the paleoecological record can be largely explained by the geographic variations of the seasonal mean frontal positions of the various air masses which control the continental climate. The changes which occur are the result of stabilized, spatial shifts of the these seasonal mean positions as a function of general world-wide changes in the circulation of the atmosphere.

Since environmentally significant radiocarbon dates show a world-wide temporal correlation (Bryson e t al. 1970), Bryson has proposed the adoption of the European Blytt-Sernander terminology for North Am- erica, a practice followed in this paper. The climatic episodes considered herein are the Boreal (8700 * 240 - 6500 k 320 B.C.), the Atlantic (6500 - 2730 * 490 B.C.) and the Sub-Boreal (2730 - 9 4 0 ? 510 B.C.). Each of these is divided into sub-episodes (Bryson et al. 1970, Table 3). The character of the four Atlantic sub-episodes-I. (6500 - 5780 k

(5100 - 4030 * 530 B.C.), and IV. (4030 - 2730 * 440 B.C.) - is not well known, and consequently is not discussed in any detail in the following paper.

260 B.C.), 11. (5780 ~ 5100 * 200 B.C.), 111.

PRESENT CLIMATIC PATTERNS

Before turning t o a climatic model for the Atlantic it is pertinent briefly t o summarize the modern climatic characteristics of the Northern Great Plains (Borchert 1950; Bryson 1966; Collins 1969; Trewartha 1961). Three air masses, the Arctic, Tropical Maritime, and Mild Pacific, characterize the continental interior. Of these, the dry, Mild Pacific air dominates the plains for more than fifty percent of the time (Bryson 1966). Borchert (1950) considers this the


prime reason for the maintenance of the plains grassland. The Mild Pacific varies in its mean seasonal frontal position, and while characteristic of the whole area in winter, in summer it is restricted to the shortgrass plains, being displaced from the prairie area first by Arctic air in early spring, then by Tropical Maritime air which continues to dominate the prairies until October. These seasonal variations in the spatial distribu- tions of the air masses control both the precipitation patterns and the values, and are the controlling factors in the distribution of the shortgrass plains and prairies.

The dominance of Mild Pacific air in winter results in low winter precipitation values over all of the plains. These values increase sharply northward to the Boreal Forest, dominated by Arctic air in winter, and southward to the deciduous forest, dominated by Tropical Maritime air in the winter.

Spring (May-June) precipitation is characteristic of both the shortgrass plains and the prairies. In both areas it results from the intrusion of the Arctic and Tropical Mari- time air masses. Total precipitation values are lower in the shortgrass plains during this season in comparison to the prairies, as the Tropical Maritime air mass intrusions are less frequent.

The summer distribution of the air masses results in a major difference in summer precipitation values between the shortgrass plains and the prairies. In the prairies, characterized at this season by Tropical Maritime air, the amount received during this period may be equal to or above that of the spring. The shortgrass plains, dominated by Mild Pacific air, receive very little summer rainfall. A steep rainfall gradient therefore exists between the shortgrass plains and the prairies reflecting both the differences in spring precipitation values and the summer rainfall pattern. The latter is considered to be the controlling factor for the distribution of the shortgrass and prairie grasslands.

Borchert (1950) has demonstrated that the historically observed drought cycles (ultimately controlled by sun spot activity)

are related to variations in the seasonal distribution of the air masses. Precipitation patterns in these periods are characterized by a high summer variability in rainfall, sixty to seventy percent of normal. In contrast, spring rainfall is eighty to ninety percent of normal. These changed values are the result of dominance of the Mild Pacific air mass over the prairie area during the summer season, which thereby causes the Tropical Mari- time air mass to miss the grasslands, and results in the failure of summer rains.

Mean temperatures also rise during drought because of the failure of the rains, the loss of cloud cover and the intrusion of hot dry westerlies accompanying the Mild Pacific air.

In summary, the edge of the shortgrass plains on the east, coinciding with a steep rainfall gradient and low summer rainfall pattern, marks the mean summer frontal positions of the Mild Pacific and Maritime Tropical air masses. The prairies, characterized by high summer rainfall lie within the latters summer frontal position. When drought occurs, therefore, it is due largely to the failure of the summer rains. It is brought about by the intrusion of the Pacific air mass into the prairie area. The drought pattern in this area is characteristic of the normal pattern in the shortgrass plains, and we can therefore expect a more noticeable response to drought in prairie plant communities than in those of the shortgrass plains which are adapted to low summer rainfall values. Also, the Boreal Forest is less affected by drought, since a steep summer rainfall gradient which is coincident with seasonal frontal positions occurs between the Northern Plains and the Boreal Forest even in drought years.

THE ATLANTIC CLIMATIC PATTERN

A model of climatic conditions for t h e Atlantic climatic episode, based on the climatic patterns occurring during periods of drought, has been proposed by Borchert (Borchert refers to the period as the Climatic Optimum). The essential feature of this

Reeves] A L TITHERMAL CULTURAL HIA TUS 1225

model is the year round dominance of the Mild Pacific air mass over the present prairies of the Great Plains, which, Borchert postulates, resulted in the extension eastward and southeastward of the shortgrass plains and climate, and the displacement in front of it of the prairie climate and plant communities.

Borcherts model is supported in the paleoecological data which has been assem- bled in the last two decades. These studies (Table I, Fig. Z), principally palynological in

nature, have been confined to the prairies, the adjacent parkland or savannah land, and the coniferous or deciduous forests. Com- plete sections are not available for the present shortgrass plains area.

Along the eastern periphery, studies of sites such as Woodworth Pond (McAndrews et al. 1967) and Sebald (Cvancara et al. 1971), North Dakota; Pickerel Lake (Watts and Bright 1968), South Dakota; and Kirch- ner Marsh (Watts and Winter 1966), Minne- sota; indicate an arid summer climate during

TABLE I. PALEOECOLOGICAL SITES*

Site Reference Site Reference

Baker, Minn.

Bog D. Minn. Chicoq, Minn. Colo Bog, Iowa Cooking Lake, Alta. Crestwynd, Sask. Cub Creek, Wyo.

Duffield, Alta. Edson, Aka. Hackberky Lake, Neb. Hafchuk, Sask.

Herbert, Sask. Itasca, Minn. Jasper, Aka. Jewel1 Bog, Iowa Kirchner Marsh, Minn.

Lofty Lake. Alta. McCullogh Bog, Iowa Madelia, Minn. West Glacier, Mont. Webber Lake, Minn.

Shay 1967

McAndrews 1965 Shay 1967 Brush 1967

Hansen 1949a

Ritchie 1966 Waddington and Wright 1970 Hansen 194913 Hansen 1949b

Sears 1961 Ritchie and DeVries 1964 Kupsch 1960 Shay 1971 Heusser 1956

Brush 1967 Wright et al. 1963, Watts and Winter 1966 Lichti-Federovich 1970

Brush 1967 Jelgersma 1962

Hansen 1948

Fries 1962

Martin Pond, Minn. Mirror Pond, N.D. Myrtle Lake, Minn. Pickerel Lake, S.D. Porcupine Mtn., Man. Qually Pond, Minn. Riding Mtn., Man. Rosebud, S.D. Russell, Man. Seminary Pond, N.D. Siebold, N.D.

Sisters Hill,

Stevens Pond, Minn. Terrell Pond, Minn. Thompson Pond, Minn. Tiger Hills, Man. Woodworth Pond, N.D. Yellowstone Lake, Wyo.

wyo.

McAndrews 1966

McAndrews 1967

Janssen 1968 Watts and Bright 1968

Nichols 1969

Shay 1967 Ritchie 1964, 1969 Watts and Wright 1966 Ritchie 1967

McAndrews 1967 Cvancara et al. 1971 Haynes and Grey 1965

Janssen 1967

McAndrews 1965

McAndrews 1965 Ritchie and Lichti- Federovich 1968 McAndrews et al. 1967

Baker 1970

*Only selected sites listed for Minnesota. For more locales see Wright (1970). Cushing (1967), and Shay (1965, 1971).

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this episode (or parts thereof), suggesting the extension of the shortgrass plains climate and vegetation into these prairie areas.

The changes in precipitation reflected in these various profiles indicate a geographic shift in the mean seasonal frontal position of the air masses as demonstrated by Cole (1969) and Webb (1970), from statistical analysis of the pollen spectra from Kirchner Marsh in Minnesota. The variation in the pollen frequencies in the interval 6000-2000 B.C. at Kirchner Marsh can be accounted for by postulating the dominance of Pacific air for six to seven months of the year, unlike the present winter pattern, representing a shift in the mean summer frontal position of the Mild Pacific air mass on the order of 200-400 miles. Temperatures only varied three to four degrees Fahrenheit at Kirchner Marsh and can be easily accounted for by the changes in seasonal air mass dominance.

In contrast to the eastern peripheries and prairies, the Mild Pacific air mass did not expand markedly to the north. The southern Boreal Forest border today is marked by relatively stable mean frontal positions and rainfall values, and by a steep rainfall gradient between it and the plains area, none of which vary markedly in drought years. On this basis, one would therefore suggest that the forest border remained relatively stable during the Atlantic. Support for this state- ment is seen from the profiles at Riding Mountain (Ritchie 1964, 1969) and Porcu- pine Mountain (Nichols 1969), Manitoba and Lofty Lake, Alberta (Lichti-Federovich 1970). These show slightly more arid summer conditions to have existed during parts of the Atlantic, suggesting a northward extension of the prairies on the order of fifty to seventy-five miles from its present position.

From the foregoing, precipitation patterns in the Northern Plains during the At- lantic would seem to approximate those of the shortgrass plains today-a spring domi- nant rainfall pattern with values perhaps analogous to those occurring in recent drought years, about eighty percent of nor-

mal. Values may, however, have approximated those occurring in normal years today. The palynological evidence, noted above, indicates that the southern boundary of the Boreal Forest and therefore the winter position of the Arctic Front shifted only a matter of fifty to seventy-five miles northward at this time. Consequently, the Plains/ Boreal Forest spring precipitation gradient remained essentially stable in Atlantic times. Therefore, the spring precipitation component reflected in the modern rainfall gradient did not change appreciably. Further, the protracted existence of the Cochrane Ice Mass probably also affected the precipitation patterns and values in central Canada (Bry- son 1966). These factors may have offset the loss of precipitation due to decreased Mari- time Tropical air intrusions.

Brief mention should also be made of the characteristics of the Boreal and Sub-Boreal climatic episodes. During the Boreal, Bryson (Bryson 1970; Bryson et al. 1970) postulates that the mean summer frontal position of the Pacific Air mass was further east than today, and therefore the grasslands were more extensive. If correct, the differences between the Boreal climate and the Atlantic is less than that between todays climate and the Atlantic. Climatic conditions during the Sub-Boreal (Bryson et al. 1970) are not equivalent to todays patterns, as the Pacific Front during the Summer was located further to the west. While the climate of the Atlantic Sub-episodes is not well known, radiometrically controlled data indicate that Atlantic 111-IV show the most marked vege- tational change in the edge of the Boreal Forest (cf. Ritchie 1969; Nichols 1969; Lichti-Federovich 1970).

RESPONSE OF THE GRASSLAND COMMUNITIES TO THE ATLANTIC CLIMATE

Since climatic conditions analogous to historic droughts on the prairies have been postulated for the Atlantic, one may ex- amine the response of modern grassland

1228 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST [75,1973

communities to the stress of drought (cf. Coupland 1958; Dix 1964; Borchert 1950; for summaries of previous studies).

The shortgrass communities of the Plains are adapted to the climatic and soil moisture conditions which result in drought in the Prairie region-i.e., low summer rainfall-and the effects of drought are more marked in the prairie grass communities which require summer rainfall to sustain their forage yield. Forage yield in the shortgrass communities correlates only with the May/June precipitation maximum (Coupland 1958; Smoliak 1956) and not with sunlight, number of hours of daylight, wind, or seasonal mean temperatures. The immediate result of decreased precipitation is a decrease in the height of growth, followed after a prolonged drought by a decrease in basal cover. Other effects include reduction in seed stocks, increased predation by grasshoppers, and over grazing by herbivores. Community composi- tion may also change to a higher percentage of xeric species (e.g., Ellison and Woolfolk 1937).

From the above, it follows that the main change in the grassland communities in the Atlantic Climatic episode was a vast increase in the area of shortgrass plains accompanied by a general decrease in forage yield due to various changes within the communities in response to changed spring precipitation values. The magnitude of the change in forage yield is dependent on the spring precipitation values, which may have approximated those of normal years today.

RESPONSE OF THE BISON POPULATIONS

TO THE ATLANTIC CLIMATE

Decreased forage yield would, of course, directly affect the carrying capacity of the range land. In considering these effects, one is faced-to the authors knowledge, at any rate-with a total lack of published quantita- tive studies on estimates of bison population size and densities based on carrying capaci- ties of different range land conditions. A

rough estimate of the population, however, can be made. Utilizing data for cattle (Lodge et al. 1971), the most adverse shortgrass forage conditions of the 1930 droughts (Coup- land 1958) and allowing a fifty percent car- ryover in forage, the Northern Plains bison population is estimated to have been between five and ten million animals during the Atlantic climatic episode. This estimate is probably too low, as it would be ecologic- ally unsound not to assume that the bison population size and density was adapted to the cycles of drought characteristic of historical times, such as those of the 1840s and 1860s when vast herds of bison were observed on the plains.

Another factor to consider is that bison are best adapted to the shortgrass plains (Johnston 1951; Larson 1940). Mature shortgrass has a 1:6 protein-carbohydrate ra- tio which is not only higher than that of the prairies grass, but corresponds to the protein-carbohydrate balance required by bison. Further, the shortgrass have a higher reten- tion rate for protein when dry. Consequent- ly, bison thrive best on the shortgrass plains. This fact is substantiated by the historical literature which indicates that the shortgrass plains supported the larger bison populations while the prairies contained small herds and scattered individuals.

During the Boreal climatic episode plains bison populations were large and formed the prime subsistence base for Late Early Prehis- toric populations (Irwin 1967). If Brysons hypothesis on the Boreal pattern is correct then late Boreal bison populations would al- ready be adapted to a forage yield which is decreased in comparison to present day conditions. Since the shortgrass plains increased further ,,during the Atlantic, this increased area may well have compensated for the decreased forage yield, and the population would have remained relatively stable. In fact, it is plausible that if mean precipitation values were not as low as those occurring during modern droughts in the shortgrass plains, the total bison population in the Northern Plains may have exceeded that of any subsequent time.

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RADIOCARBON DATED FOSSIL BISON NATURAL VEGETATION ZONES

(After Kuchler 1964 & W a t t s 1960)

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SHRUB BRUSH STEPPE B OCCDENPWS

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a OAK SAVANNA LAND Scale m Miles ? 5000 '5000

Figure 3. Northern Plains and adjacent areas radiocarbon dated fossil bison sites, ca. 6000- 2500 B.C.


Radiocarbon dated bison crania (Table 11, Fig. 3) from the interval 6200-2500 B.C. are all identified as extinct species, either B. crassicornis or B. occidentalis. While this sample is admittedly small it would suggest that the evolution of the modern species (Bi- son bison) occurred not in response to the ecological stress of the Atlantic, as is usually supposed, but because of subsequent population pressures occurring in the Sub-Boreal when the shortgrass plains were greatly reduced in area.

From the preceding discussion one may conclude that the shortgrass plains were not reduced to a hot, dry desert incapable of supporting a viable bison population during the Atlantic climatic episode. While more arid than today, spring precipitation patterns were not significantly lower and temperatures did not fluctuate greatly.

In response to this changed climate, the shortgrass plains expanded markedly. While forage yield was reduced, the decreased carrying capacity was probably offset by the increased area, with the result that the bison population may not have been significantly lower than that of late Boreal times when they formed the principal resource base for prehistoric man. Even with a minimum population of five to ten million animals, they would still constitute a sufficient resource base to be exploited by communal hunting techniques, the common pattern in antecedent and subsequent times. Allowing for maintenance of the herd at this level (Watt 1968) a minimum human population of ten to twenty thousand could be supported.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SAMPLING VARIABLES

Archaeological research programs in this area have largely been crisis oriented projects, undertaken in areas proposed for resource or industrial development, or at sites endangered by illicit digging or natural ero- sion. Problem oriented research programs have been, and continue to be, generally lacking. Further, many of the sites excavated in noncrisis oriented projects have simply

been examined because of their location or age, rather than as part of an integrated research design.

The result is that the sample of excavated preceramic sites is spatially skewed, as well demonstrated in Figures 4-6. These indicate the lack of almost any sampling in the vast area of the Upper Missouri, the heartland of the shortgrass plains.

The La te Ear ly Prehi~toric,~ ca. 8000-5500 B.C. (Table 111, Figure 4), is represented in the Northwestern Plains and along the eastern slope of the Rocky Moun- tains by a sample of forty-seven components (Central Plains sites excluded), of which twenty-eight are radiocarbon dated. These represent sixteen site excavations, of which five dated components are from Hell Gap, four from Mummy Cave, and eight from three sites in the Big Horn Canyon. Of the nineteen typologically dated components, eleven are from a series of sites in Waterton Lakes National Park. The types of sites represented include bison kills (N=6), stratified rock shelters (N=6), stratified campsites (N=20), and single component campsites (N=2). All stratified sites contain components which date in the subsequent period.

All the sites mentioned above occur along the western border of the plains, the vast majority being located in inter-montane valleys or basins, on the hilly flanks of the Rocky Mountains, or around highland areas such as the Black Hills. Only three s i t e s Scottsbluff, Bayrock, and Fletcher-can really be considered to be in the plains physiographic area. While there are no excavated sites in the Plains, we know that it was occupied at this time since typologically dated projectile points relatable to these archaeological complexes have been found throughout the area.

The subsequent period, the Early Middle Prehistoric (ca. 5500-1500 B.C.) is, for the purposes of this paper divided into two cultural periods: I., those components dating ca. 5500-3000 B.C. (Table IV, Fig. 5), characterized by side notched atlatl projectile points of specific type varieties; and II., components dating ca. 3000-1500 B.C.


NATURAL EXCAVATED LATE EARLY PREHISTORIC SITES [After Kuchler 1964 &Watts 19601

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No.

D

ated

C

ompl

ex

Age

T

ype

Ref

eren

ce

AG

AT

E B

ASI

N

AL

LE

N

BA

YR

OC

K

BO

TT

LE

NE

CK

I I1 m

CA

RB

EL

LA

E

AG

LE

CR

EE

K

FLE

TC

HE

R

GA

P L

EV

EL

I

GR

EE

N

GR

EY

-TA

YL

OR

HE

LL

GA

P

HO

RN

ER

JIM

MY

AL

LE

N

LIM

E C

RE

EK

M

cHA

FFIE

MA

NG

US

I

M-1

131

0-12

52

C-4

7 1

C-4

71

GSC

-115

8

A-4

84

Gre

y-3

A-5

02

A-5

00

A-7

07

1-24

5 A

-501

U

CL

A-6

97 a

UC

LA

-697

b S1

-79

M-3

04

~

L-5

78a

SI-

101

Cha

rcoa

l A

gate

Bas

in*

Cha

rcoa

l M

edic

ine

Cre

ek**

Unk

now

n

Cha

rcoa

l Pl

ains

/Mou

ntai

n***

C

harc

oal

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain*

* *

Cha

rcoa

l Pl

ains

/Mou

ntai

n***

Pl

ains

/Mou

ntai

n Pl

ains

/Mou

ntai

n C

ody

Cha

rcoa

l Pl

ains

/Mou

ntai

n

Lus

k C

harc

oal

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain

Car

bon

Aga

te B

asin

C

arbo

n H

ell G

ap

Cha

rcoa

l A

lber

ta

Cha

rcoa

l C

ody

Cha

rcoa

l Fr

eder

ick

Bur

ned

Bon

e C

ody

Col

lage

n C

harc

oal

Bon

e Fr

eder

ick

Cha

rcoa

l C

ody

Cha

rcoa

l Pl

ains

/Mou

ntai

n

8040

B.C

.522

5 B

ison

Kill

74

00 B

.C.f4

50

7930

B.C

.f670

C

amps

ite

7217

B.C

.f600

B

ison

Kill

6302

B.C

.518

0 R

ock

She

lter

62

60 B

.C.5

200

Roc

k S

helt

er

6210

B.C

.218

0 R

ock

She

lter

C

amps

ite

Cam

psite

B

ison

Kill

60

50 B

.C.2

150

Cam

psite

5850

B.C

.fll

0 66

50 B

.C.2

250

8250

B.C

.+50

0 82

00 B

.C.5

300

6550

B.C

.*35

0 66

50 B

.C.*

600

6650

B.C

.*38

0 68

00 B

.C.f

l20

6890

B.C

.fl2

0 59

30 B

.C.f

l300

59

50 B

.C.*

400

Cam

psite

R

ock

Shel

ter

Cam

psite

C

amps

ite

Cam

psite

C

amps

ite

Cam

psite

B

ison

Kill

Bis

on K

ill

6139

B.C

.f30

0 C

amps

ite

6740

B.C

.210

0 R

ock

She

lter

Rob

erts

196

1

Hol

der

and

Wilk

e 19

49

Wor

min

gton

and

F

orbi

s 19

65

Hus

ted

1969

b

Hus

ted

1969

b

Art

hur

1966

b

2

h

Art

hur

1966

F

orbi

s 19

68a

2 ?a H

uste

d 19

69b

5 $

Ree

ves

and

Dom

aar

1972

a

Irw

in 1

967

5

Gre

y 19

65:1

7 Q

2

Hay

nes,

Dam

on, a

nd

Irw

in 1

967

Irw

in 1

967

Irw

in 1

967

Irw

in 1

967

Irw

in 1

967

Jeps

en 1

953

Y

Mul

loy

1959

D

avis

196

2 F

orbi

s an

d Sp

erry

g

1952

H

uste

d 19

69b

- 4 cn -3 w

LI

LA

YE

R 4

LA

YE

R 1

0

MU

MM

Y C

AV

E -

LA

YE

R 1

2

LA

YE

R 1

4

UN

DA

TE

D L

AY

ER

S 8,

11

MY

ER

S-H

YN

DM

AN

(S

plit

sam

ple)

PI

CT

OG

RA

PH C

AV

E

RA

Y L

ON

G

RE

D S

MO

KE

SCO

TT

SBL

UFF

SIST

ER

'S H

ILL

SOR

EN

SON

I I1

111

SI-9

8

GA

K-2

07

GA

K-2

634

M-3

70

c-45

4 C

-604

C

-824

C

-824

C

TX

-333

1-22

1

SI-3

08

1-61

2 1-

689

Cha

rcoa

l

Cha

rcoa

l C

harc

oal

Cha

rcoa

l C

harc

oal

Cha

rcoa

l C

harc

oal

Cha

rcoa

l

Cha

rcoa

l C

harc

oal

Cha

rcoa

l W

AT

ER

TO

N L

AK

ES

NA

TIO

NA

L PARK

DgP

m-1

G

X-1

435

Cha

rcoa

l U

ndat

ed S

ites

(N

= 1

1)

Plai

nslM

ount

ain

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain

Aga

te B

asin

L

usk

Lus

k M

eser

ve/M

edic

ine

Cre

ek

Fred

eric

k C

ody

Hel

l Gap

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain

Plai

ns/M

ount

ain

6740

B.C

.+10

0 R

ock

Shel

ter

7280

B.C

.215

0 R

ock

She

lter

6790

B.C

.kl4

0 R

ock

Shel

ter

6150

B.C

.213

0 R

ock

She

lter

6020

B.C

.221

0 R

ock

Shel

ter

Roc

k S

helt

er

7450

B.C

.*25

0 C

amps

ite

6500

B.C

.+19

0 R

ock

Shel

ter

7430

B.C

.215

0 C

amps

ite

5765

B.C

.276

5 66

20 B

.C.f3

00

7203

B.C

.260

0 C

amps

ite

6020

B.C

.+21

0 66

20 B

.C.2

300

Bis

on K

ill

7700

B.C

.225

0 C

amps

ite

6010

B.C

.215

0 R

ock

Shel

ter

5850

B.C

.+25

0 R

ock

She

lter

56

10 B

.C.2

350

Roc

k S

helt

er

6250

B.C

.524

0 C

amps

ite

Cam

psite

s

Hus

ted

1969

b

Wed

el, H

uste

d, a

nd

Mos

s 19

68

Wed

el, H

uste

d, a

nd

Mos

s 19

68

Wed

el, H

uste

d, a

nd

Mos

s 19

68

Wed

el, H

uste

d, a

nd

Mos

s 19

68

Wed

el, H

uste

d, a

nd

Mos

s 19

68

Lah

ren

1971

Mul

loy

1958

W

heel

er 1

958

Whe

eler

195

8 W

heel

er 1

958

Dav

is 1

962

Schu

ltz and

Eis

eley

193

5 A

gogi

no a

nd

Gal

low

ay 1

965

Hus

ted

1969

b H

uste

d 19

69b

Hus

ted

1969

b

Ree

ves

1972

R

eeve

s 19

71

~~~~

~

*Th

e te

rmin

olog

y of

Aga

te B

asin

, H

ell

Gap

, Alb

erta

, C

ody.

Fre

deri

ck,

Lus

k is

aft

er I

rwin

(19

67).

Ree

ves

(19

69

) **

Aft

er I

rwin

(19

67)

***A

fter

Ree

ves

(197

2)


NATURAL VEGETATION ZONES IAfter Kuchler 1964 & Watts 19601

a SHORT GRASS PLAINS PRAIRIE

SHRUB BRUSH STEPPE

CONIFEROUS FOREST

a ASPEN PARKLAND DECIDUOUS FOREST

a OAK SAVANNA LAND

EXCAVATED EARLY YllDDLE PREHISTORIC II SITE! C.A. $@@@-U5@(81 B.Cm

EARLY OXBOW COMPLEX(CA 3 o r n - 2 ~ ~ ) ~ ~ ) (Oxbow, BlffucW SMI N&hd po/nsJ

LATE OXBOW COMPLEX fC A ~ O - Z O W 6 CJ A mbow PONm OW) a ( O x h , McKrm, Bittermt Side N o k M PaMI) @ OXBOW-MCKEAN COMPLEX (C A 2500-2000 6 C I

LATE MUMMY CAVE COMPLEXCA J O O O - ~ ~ B C ,

foxbow, M C K ~ mints)

(McUm Pohfs OMy)

POWERS- YONKEE

@ MCKEAN CMPL EX ICA 20m-~oo 6 c J

CCWPLEX /c A mw-mo e c )

Scale in Mile9 ? 5000 15000

Figure 6. Northern Plains excavated Early Middle Prehistoric I1 sites.

Reeves ] A L TITHE RMA L CULTURAL HIA TUS 1237

(Table V , Fig. 6), characterized by a variety of side and basaly notched atlatl points.

Early Middle Prehistoric I4 is represented on the peripheries of the Northern Plains by thirty-eight excavated sites. Included in the sample on the western border are nineteen excavated sites in southern Alberta (three of which are radiocarbon dated), twelve excavated sites from the southern Montana/ Wyoming area, and nine radiocarbon dates, six of which are from components at a single site-Mummy Cave. The sites represented include bison kills (N=3), rock shelters (N=5), and open stratified campsites (N=21), fifteen of which are located in Waterton. All stratified sites contain later components.

Seven dated components of this period are represented at five sites in the Central Plains, representing bison kills (N=l), and campsites (N=4). The earliest components, dating ca. 6200 B.C., are time equivalent to the Late Early Prehistoric lanceolate and stemmed point complexes in the Northern Plains.

Along the Northeastern Periphery, two sites of this period are present, Swan River in Manitoba and the Itasca Bison Kill in Min- nesota. The former has not yielded accepted radiocarbon dates; the latter is bracket-dated

The Early Middle Prehistoric 11, ca. 3000-1500 B.C. is represented by 68 components, thirty-one of which are dated. The sites represented include bison kills (N=7), stratified rock shelters (N=14), open stratified campsites in alluvial deposits (N=31), nineteen of which are from Waterton Park, single component sites (N=3), and occupational sites associated with aeolean accumulation deposits (N=5). Site distribution again concentrates along the western border and the northern parkland edge. The period is represented on the plains proper by six site locales (Long Creek, Oxbow Dam, Red Fox, Sitting Crow, Signal Butte and Keyhole Res- ervoir). Twenty-seven of the sites along the western border contain Early Middle Prehis- toric I components, and eighteen sites Late Early Prehistoric components.

to 5000-4000 B.C.

In summary, the preceding discussion has demonstrated the skewed site sampling for the area in the interval 8000-1500 B.C. Re- search has tended to concentrate around the peripheries of the Plains, particularly along the east flanks of the Rocky Mountains and outlying mountainous areas. The majority of the excavated sites occur in the inter-montane valleys and on adjacent hilly flanks. Sites in the true shortgrass environment, far removed from the mountain masses, are limi- ted to only some twelve sites dating in this 6500 year time period. Projectile points which can be typologically cross-dated are found in a number of surface collections from the shortgrass plains, indicating that the area was occupied in Late Early Prehis- toric and the Early Middle Prehistoric 11. Point types which date in the 5500-3000 B.C. interval have not, however, been recognized in surface collections from this area; this situation is a little puzzling since they are known from excavated components from sampled areas on the peripheries of the plains-the east flank of the Rocky Moun- tains, the Central Plains, and the Northeast- ern Periphery.

GEOLOGICAL VARIABLES

Aside from the sampling factor which is, I think, alone sufficient to explain the lack of dated excavated components in the North- ern Plains in the interval ca. 5500-3000 I3.C.-we may also consider the geological context of the excavated plains sites and site locales which have yielded dates ca. 3000-1500 B.C., for the age and nature of the geological deposits within the site will directly control the potential presence or absence of earlier components. For conven- ience, the sites may be grouped into two types: those occurring in alluvial sediments, contained within stream terraces (Oxbow Dam, Long Creek, Red Fox, Castor Creek, and the Keyhole/Angostura Reservoir sites); and those in aeolean sediments (Head- Smashed-In, Harder, Moon Lake, Gant, Sit- ting Crow, and Signal Butte).

TA

BL

E I

V.

EA

RL

Y M

IDD

LE

PR

EH

IST

OR

IC I

EX

CA

VA

TE

D S

ITE

S

site

/ L

ab

Mat

eria

l C

ultu

ral

Rad

ioca

rbon

S

ite

Sit

e C

ompo

nent

N

o.

Dat

ed

Com

plex

A

ge

Typ

e R

efer

ence

BE

NT

ZE

N-K

AU

FM

A"

Gre

y C

harc

oal

ED

GA

R C

AV

E

48C

K46

LE

VE

L I

G

AP - LE

VE

L I1

LE

VE

L 1

11

HE

AD

SM A

SHE

D-I

N

Phas

e I-

Initi

al

HE

LL

GA

P H

ILL

IT

ASC

A

KO

BO

LD

-LE

VE

L I

LA

ND

ER

S L

AN

GR

EN

L

OG

AN

CR

EE

K I

II

MA

NG

US

I1

MU

MM

Y C

AV

E

LE

VE

L 1

6

GSC

-129

8 C

harc

oal

GSC

-125

5 C

harc

oal

GSC

-803

C

olla

gen

A-4

98

Cha

rcoa

l M

-984

SI-

209

Cha

rcoa

l M

-108

1 1-

803

1-8 0

2

M-8

37

Mum

my

Cav

e*

Mum

my

Cav

e M

umm

y C

ave

Mum

my

Cav

e

Mum

my

Cav

e

5025

B.C

.f27

6 R

ock

She

lter

R

ock

She

lter

C

amps

ite

4770

B.C

.fl4

0 C

amps

ite

4110

B.C

.kl4

0

Gre

y 19

62

Coe

195

9 W

heel

er 1

958

b

Ree

ves

and

Dor

maa

r 2

1972

t4

1972

b 2

Ree

ves

and

Dor

maa

r

E.M

P.I*

**

Unk

now

n Si

mon

sen*

* E.

M.P

.I.

Mum

my

Cav

e E.

M.P

.1

Sim

onse

n Si

mon

sen

Sim

onse

n

Mum

my

Cav

e

Mum

my

Cav

e

3460

B.C

.+20

0 38

90 B

.C.f2

30

5300

B.C

.'300

4330

B.C

.fl2

0 53

00 B

.C.-+

300

4950

B.C

.*28

0 61

75 B

.C.2

250

4683

B.C

.*30

0

Bis

on J

ump

Cam

psite

C

amps

ite

Bis

on K

ill

Cam

psite

C

amps

ite

Cam

psite

C

amps

ite

Cam

psite

Rock

She

lter

5680

B.C

.fl7

0 R

ock

She

lter

2

Ree

ves

1970

b $

Irw

in 1

967

Fra

nkfo

rter

195

9

0

Shay

197

1 b

0

Fris

on 1

970

Q

Whe

eler

195

8 B

row

n 19

67

Y

Kiv

ett

1962

Q %

Kiv

ett

1962

Hus

ted

1969

b

Wed

el, H

uste

d, a

nd -

Moss 1

968

4

tn

w

W 4

W

LE

VE

L 1

8

LE

VE

L 2

0

LE

VE

L 2

1

LE

VE

L 2

4

UN

DA

TE

D L

AY

ER

S 17

, 19

MY

ER

S-H

YN

DM

AN

RA

Y L

ON

G, C

ompo

n-

RIV

A

SlM

ON

SEN

ent A

Are

a C

Lev

els

I1 &

I11

SOR

EN

SON

IV

SWA

N R

IVE

R

25F

T31

W

AT

ER

TO

N L

AK

ES

NA

TIO

NA

L P

AR

K

Und

ated

Site

s (N

= 1

6)

DgP

l-4

GA

K-2

629*

***

GX

-149

0 C

harc

oal

1-79

C

harc

oal

1-69

2 C

harc

oal

M-1

364

Cha

rcoa

l G

X-1

459

Col

lage

n

Mum

my

Cav

e

Mum

my

Cav

e

Mum

my

Cav

e

Mum

my

Cav

e

Mum

my

Cav

e

E.M

.P.I.

E.M

.P.I.

Si

mon

sen

Mum

my

Cav

e M

umm

y C

ave

Sim

onse

n M

umm

y C

ave

5190

B.C

.kl7

0 R

ock

She

lter

3850

B.C

.212

0 R

ock

She

lter

3660

B.C

.228

0 R

ock

She

lter

3440

B.C

.fl4

0 R

ock

She

lter

4000

B.C

.kl5

0 C

amps

ite

2730

B.C

.222

0

Cam

psite

Cam

psite

65

80 B

.C.k

l20

Bis

on K

ill

3525

B.C

.kl9

0 R

ock

She

lter

C

amps

ite

3910

B.C

.kl6

0 C

amps

ite

2980

B.C

.kl6

0 Fi

shin

g S

tati

on

Cam

psite

s,

Fish

ing

Sta

tion

s,

Bis

on K

ills

Wed

el, H

uste

d, a

nd

Mos

s 19

68

Wed

el, H

uste

d, a

nd

Mos

s 19

68

Wed

el, H

uste

d, a

nd

Mos

s 19

68

Wed

el, H

uste

d, a

nd

Mos

s 19

68

Wed

el, H

uste

d, a

nd

Mos

s 19

68

Lah

ren

1971

Whe

eler

195

8

Gan

t 19

61

Ago

gino

and

Fra

nk-

fort

er 1

960

Hus

ted

1969

b

Gry

ba 1

968

Kiv

ett

1961

M

ilne-

Bru

mle

y 19

71

Ree

ves

1971

*Mu

mm

y C

ave

Com

ple

x (R

eeve

s 19

69.

19

72

) **

Sir

nom

en C

ompl

ex-u

sed

to r

efer

to

Cen

tral

Pla

ins

Arc

hai

c

* * *E

.M.P

.I.-

used

to

ref

er t

o th

ose

com

pon

ents

whi

ch h

ave

insu

ffic

ien

t da

ta f

or c

omp

lex

char

acte

riza

tion

**

**S

pli

t sam

ple

r

E3

9.

TA

BL

E V

. E

AR

LY

MID

DL

E P

RE

HIS

TO

RIC

I1

SIT

ES

CA

. 3000-1

500 B

.C.

Sit

e/

Lab

M

ater

ial

Cul

tura

l R

adio

carb

on

Sit

e S

ite

Com

pone

nt

No.

D

ated

C

ompl

ex

Age

5

Pe

R

efer

ence

BE

LL

E R

OC

K

SHE

LT

ER

B

OT

TL

EN

EC

K I

V

CA

RB

EL

LA

C

AST

OR

CR

EE

K

Cha

rcoa

l

Cha

rcoa

l

EA

GL

E C

RE

EK

E

DG

AR

CA

VE

FIL

UK

FISH

ER

48C

K13

-I

48SH

312

GA

NT

GR

AN

D R

API

DS

GR

EY

-TA

YL

OR

I I1

HA

RD

ER

Cha

rcoa

l

1-43

5 C

harc

oal

A4

83

C

harc

oal

Gre

y8

C

harc

oal

A4

85

Gre

y-2

Gre

y-5

Gre

y-8

Gre

y-7

5-40

3 C

harc

oal

Gre

y-4

McK

ean*

R

ock

She

lter

McK

ean

1870

B.C

.+20

0 R

ock

Shel

ter

Lat

e M

umm

y C

ave*

* C

amps

ite

Lat

e O

xbow

* 25

25 B

.C.2

C

amps

ite

Lat

e M

umm

y C

ave

Cam

psite

L

ate

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While the paleohydrological cut and fill sequence for some areas of the Northern Plains, in contrast to the Southwest, is com- plicated by a number of factors relating t o deglaciation of the area, periods of alluvia- tion in the Upper Saskatchewan and Mis- souri Basin seem t o correlate with the re-ad- vance of the Alpine glaciers, occurring at ca. 6000 B.C. and 3000 B.C. a t the beginning and close of the Atlantic climatic episode. These are separated by a major erosional interval in which the streams degraded their floodplains. These data correlate well with that for the Wyoming area and the South- west where the stratigraphic record for the Altithermal time reveals a four-fold of events: (1) weathering under conditions of relatively poor soil moisture before 6000 B.P., (2) arroyo cutting after 7500 B.P., (3) channel filling between 6000 and 4000 B.P., and (4) soil formation and increased soil moisture between 4500 B.P. and 3500 B.P.. (Hay nes 1967: 61 1-61 2).

Major occupational sites in the Northern Plains concentrate in the stream valleys and are, depending on the age, located on the present floodplain or older terraces. One would assume that this would be the characteristic settlement pattern during the Atlan- tic climatic episode. Since floodplain deposits of this age have been destroyed during degradation, or are deeply buried by subsequent infilling of the channels, the sites would either be destroyed or deeply buried.

The components from Long Creek and the Oxbow Dam (the two earliest dated sites) are associated with buried soil horizons enclosed within alluvial sediments suggesting emergent land surfaces a t the time of occupation. The stratigraphy as reported for these sites indicates that alluvial deposits below these components generally lacked buried soils and were deposited in a brief period of time. Consequently, the absence of earlier components a t these two sites is due to the age of the sediment, which probably dates no earlier than 3500 B.C., reflecting the paleohydrological conditions then extant in these basins. While earlier terraces were present a t both sites, they were not sampled.

In the Angostura Reservoir (Wheeler 1958) the Kolterman and Harney sites, dating ca. 2500 B.C., were located on a low flood plain terrace. In contrast, the Ray Long site (ca. 8000-6000 B.C.) was situated on a higher terrace. In one area of this latter site a post-Late Early Prehistoric component was found which could conceivably date in the pre-3000 B.C. interval. The size of the sample, however, is very small. Only one site, Landers, was sampled from the higher terraces. While Wheeler places it temporally equivalent t o Kolterman and Harney, it could predate 3000 B.C. Similarly the sites sampled in the Keyhole reservoir (Wheeler 1958) were not located on surfaces which would yield pre-3000 B.C. dates. One should, however, note that the culturally un- identified component from Hell Gap dating 3800 B.C. was found in an alluvial fill, below a buried soil (Haynes 1967).

The aeolean accumulation sites were with the exception of Head-Smashed-In, Signal Butte, and Sitting Crow, all single component sites. These sites are associated with buried erosional surfaces or soil horizons. There is no necessary reason for the occurrence of earlier or later components a t these sites. At Head-Smashed-In, the earliest component, dating ca. 3500 B.C., directly over- lies a bedrock slump block twenty feet thick. Earlier components, if present, were destroyed when this catastrophic event occurred.

In summary of the preceding sections, it is proposed that the general lack of pre-3000 B.C. radiometrically dated sites in the North- ern Plains, is due to: (1) The very small sampling of archaeological sites in the area. (2) The age of the associated land forms and sediments for sampled sites which have. yielded components dating ca. 3000 B.C. but no earlier. Aside from Hell Gap, the An- gostura Reservoir is the only other locale, to my knowledge, where earlier terraces or sediments have been sampled. (3) The paleohydrological sequence which has destroyed or deeply buried the emergent floodplain surfaces which existed during the interval 5500-3000 B.C.


Support for this proposition may be seen from sites sampled in the Rocky Mountains. In Waterton and the Upper Yellowstone, for example, land surfaces which were emergent and stabilized since ca. 6000 B.C. have been occupied ever since. In Waterton, twenty- four sites contain Early Middle Prehistoric components (5500-1500 B.C.), seventeen of which contain components of the 5500-3000 B.C. interval; these are all associated with alluvial or lacustrine land forms and usually contain later components as well (ten of these sites are situated in stream valleys and associated terraces). Twelve of these sites also contain Late Early Prehistoric components. Of the twenty-four Early Middle Prehistoric sites, seven which do not contain pre-3000 B.C. components did not become emergent land surfaces until ca. 3000 B.C. The above data, I feel, conclusively demon- strates that when a site locale met the settlement prerequisites of any particular group, it became occupied.

NORTHERN PLAINS TECHNOLOGICAL CONFIGURATIONS,

5600-3000 B.C.

Since surface finds on both sides of the hypothesized cultural hiatus are common throughout the plains area, we should expect, if the above hypotheses are correct, to find evidence for occupation during this interval in surface collections from the plains area. Further, since the Northern Plains and eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains are culturally homogeneous to the extent of sharing, throughout most of the Holocene time, similar stone tool technologies, (Reeves 1972) most easily observed in projectile point styles, we may draw comparisons with projectile points obtained from excavated dated components (ca. 3000 B.C.) in the latter area. These components and those of the Central Plains and Northeastern Peri- phery hold a number of technological items in common, most noticeable of which are the side notched atlatl projectile points.

In the Rocky Mountain area, comparisons

of the Waterton (Reeves 1972) and Big Horn (Husted 196913) data indicate a very close relationship in point, biface and end scraper morphology, and flake core technology, suggesting that they represent local expressions of a regional cultural tradition which I have termed the Mummy Cave C6mplex (Reeves 1969). Comparisons of these data with time equivalent componentsthe Bitterroot Phase (Swanson 1962)-from the Idaho section (Swanson et al. 1964) of the northern Rocky Mountains suggest cultural homogeneity between the east and west slopes of the Rocky Mountains at this time. However, because of the implicit linguistic and ethnic associations inherent in Swansons (1962) Bitterroot culture concept, this nominum has not been applied to the east slope of the mountains. Swansons type nomina-Bitterroot and Sal- mon River Side Notched-have, however, been formally adopted for the Northwestern Plains/Rocky Mountain areas. The former type, Bitterroot Side Notched, seems to be more common in earlier components of the Mummy Cave Complex. However, both types occur associated throughout the sequence. In addition to the diagnostic point types, other corner notched, unnotched, and stemmed points occasionally appear in the pre- 3000 B.C. components of this complex, and Oxbow and McKean types in later components. In the Waterton and the Idaho area, the complex persists until ca. 1500-1000 B.C.

In the Central Plains, the side notched atlatl points are often called Simonsen or Simonsen-like, and date ca. 6200-4000 B.C. Comparisons have been drawn by other writ- ers (Husted 196913) between these and the forms present in the Rocky Mountain area. They are very similar to the Bitterroot Side Notched type. These similarities have suggested to Husted that the two forms are stylistically related, with the latter being dif- fused from the Central Plains.

In the Northeastern Periphery, the points from the Itasca bison kill show a slightly wider range of variation than the Central Plains forms and may be typed as Salmon River and Bitterroot Side Notched. Other similarities also exist with the Rocky Moun-

Reeves] ALTITHERMAL CULTURAL HIATUS 1245

tain sites in biface and scraper forms. In both areas, these two tool types differ con- siderably in form from those published for the Nebraska-Iowa sites.

The Swan River site in Manitoba is also characterized by side notched atlatl points quite comparable to those found in the sites noted above. They are typable as Bitterroot Side Notched. Like Itasca, Swan River has similar biface and scraper forms and a similar flakelcore technology to that of the Rocky Mountain area.

In turning ones attention to the plains area, one may first consider the technological similarities between the earliest dated Oxbow Complex components and the sites discussed above, particularly with the ca. 3000 B.C. Rocky Mountain components, as the latter contain Oxbow points in association with the Bitterroot and Salmon River side notched points. One should note, before proceeding, that the Oxbow point type has become fixed in many workers minds as the Classic form found in the ca. 2600-2000 B.C. Oxbow components. This form is characterized by ears and a deep basal notch or concavity. When one examines some of the illustrated specimens for Long Creek, Level 8, and the Oxbow Dam site, both of which are earlier components, they are hardly classic, and are easily typed into the Bit- terroot and Salmon River side notched types. In the case of the Oxbow Dam site, specific type variants of Salmon River Side Notched are present. Other technological similarities, except for end scraper morphology, are not readily apparent. Later Oxbow components such as Moon Lake, Harder, and Castor Creek are technologically quite dis- tinct from the mountain components.

Projectile point morphometric similarities would therefore suggest that the Oxbow Cultural Complex, as it is known in the Sas- katchewan Plains, developed out of an earlier complex characterized by Bitterroot and Salmon River Side Notched projectile pointsprobably the Mummy Cave Com- plex.

Further to the southeast, in the Dakotas, side notched atlatl points were found at Sit-

ting Crow in a possible association with Ox- bow and McKean forms. Oxbow and side notched forms are found associated at Lan- ders in the Angostura Reservoir (Wheeler 1958). Oxbow-McKean associations occur at a number of sites, including Signal Butte l A , Kolterman, Harney, Gant and Mule Creek B. These all date ca. 2500-2000 B.C. The typi- cal Bitterroot and Salmon River Side Notched points do not appear to be associated with these later Oxbow, Oxbow-Mc Kean, or McKean components from the plains area. The side notched point forms from the Sitting Crow and Angostura Reser- voir sites are similar in form to the Bitter- root and Salmon River side notched types.

Six excavated undated components from the Plains may, on the basis of the projectile point typology predate these later Plains Ox- bow and Oxbow-McKean components. The lowest component in the Kobold site contains side notched forms typable as Salmon River Side Notched. Level I at 48CK46 in the Keyhole Reservoir (Wheeler 1958) is characterized by Salmon River Side Notched and Bitterroot Side Notched points. Levels I1 and 111 from the Riva site, located in northwest South Dakota, also contain side notched points, as did component A from Area C at the Ray Long Site and the Landers Site in the Angostura Reservoir. However, the samples from these last three sites are extremely small.

To summarize the preceding discussion, archaeological complexes dating ca. 5500-3000 B.C. and characterized by side notched atlatl points occur around the peripheries of the plains both contemporaneous with and earlier than the earliest dated (ca. 3000 B.C.) Oxbow Complex components. Associated with these Oxbow components are projectile points which are identical in form to those in the adjacent areas, suggesting that the Oxbow complex developed out of a preceding complex similar to that extant in the Rocky Mountains and the North- eastern Periphery in the interval 5500-3000 B.C. It has also been suggested that certain undated plains components may represent this complex.


Since surface finds relatable to the Late Early Prehistoric and the Early Middle Pre- historic I1 are recognized on the plains, one should expect the side notched forms des- cribed above also to be present. Relatively few reports have been published of surface collections and those which have contained inadequate illustrations; consequently one is forced to use unpublished data. Incidental to another research project (Reeves 1970), a number of spatially documented collections from various areas in the Northwestern Plains were examined by the writer in 1967. These were found to contain Bitterroot and Salmon River side notched points collected from areas such as Glendive, Havre, Wolf Point, Glascow and Broadus in the eastern Montana and Great Falls and Billings areas further west. I have not had the opportunity to observe collections in Wyoming or the Dakotas, In addition to these field observa- tions, both types are very common forms in collections from southern Saskatchewan and southwestern Manitoba held by the Univer- sity of Calgary. In one collection, the Jones collection, which contains some 5000 points, these types are the most common of all atlatl forms of the Middle Prehistoric Per- iod, which is as one should expect since the point types span a three thousand year period in the adjacent Rockies and Central Plains. In addition to the above, Bitterroot and Salmon River Side Notched points have been found in surveys conducted in recent months in southeastern Alberta, an extremely arid area of the Northwestern Plains.

While the above is admittedly poorly controlled data, when combined with other data and postulates presented in this paper, it is, I think sufficient to indicate that the North- ern Plains area was occupied by a cultural complex characterized by side notched atlatl points of the Bitterroot and Salmon River types in the interval 5500-3000 B.C.

The lack of recognition of these side notched points by workers in the area, is, I suggest, the result of their formal nonmetric similarity to the later Plains and Prairie side notched arrow point types. Researchers have simply assumed that these atlatl points were

arrow points and recent in age. While certain overlaps occur in metric and nonmetric variables, the two forms can usually be quite easily separated.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion one might speculate on the nature of the adaptation of human populations to the Atlantic climatic episode. In consideration of this adaptation, one must first note two facts: (1) that the tentative climatic patterns suggested by Bryson for the Boreal indicate a larger area of shortgrass plains and consequently a more arid climate than today, and (2) that the Atlantic climatic episode begins during the Late Early Prehistoric Period when there is abundant evidence of occupation in the Northern Plains.

If the above is correct, then any change which occurred in basic subsistence strategies in response to the changed climatic conditions may (1) have been relatively minor and (2) occurred during the Late Early Pre- historic. However, it should be pointed out that we still do not know the magnitude of climatic change between the Atlantic sub- episodes.

The extent of the change in the subsistence strategies depends entirely on the nature of the shortgrass environment during the Atlantic climatic episode. However, I have postulated that it supported a viable but smaller bison population than today. Consequently, one would expect that the same basic strategy as characterized by sub- seqent and antecedent prehistoric populations, i.e., communal bison hunting, would be the norm. Absolute population numbers, group size, and density would, however, change, but I doubt if a concept of a forager adaptive strategy is applicable then, if at any time, in the Northern Plains (cf. Reeves 1970).

NOTES

' The secular variations in radiocarbon dates (Suess 1970; Stuiver 1970; Tauber

Reeves ] A LTITHERMA L CULTURAL HIA TUS 1247

1970; Vogel 1970) from the interval 5500-1500 B.C. are not considered here because of the problem of correlation of radiocarbon dates to absolute chronology before 5000 B.C.

The general cultural sequence in the Northern Plains has been segmented in different ways by various workers (see Reeves 1970 for summary). The most widely used is the basic scheme developed by Mulloy (1958; subsequently modified by Wheeler 1958; Reeves 1970, 1971) which segments the prehistoric cultural sequence into three basic cultural periods-The Early, Middle and Late Prehistoricreach characterized by distinctive weapon systems (throwing and stabbing spear, atlatl, bow and arrow). These basic periods are further broken down into Early and Late periods on the basis of distinctive projectile point styles.

While two temporally equivalent or se- quential archaeological components may share the same projectile point style, there is no necessary cultural relationship between them. The latter must be established on the basis of examining the whole artifact assemblage to determine the degree of similarity or dissimilarity in all tool types. If similar they may be designated as a complex-usually named after the distinctive projectile point type found associated, or the type site. Complexes are the basic archaeological units and their formulation is based on the whole artifact assemblage, not projectile points alone.

If insufficient data is available for any particular component to allow for assign- ment to a cultural complex, it is simply assigned to the cultural period in which it occurs. While there is considerable variation between the cultural complexes referred to in this article, these are cultural historical matters, and not relevant to ,the major concern of this paper.

Late Early Prehistoric cultural complexes include Agate Basin, Hell Gap, Alber- ta, Frederick, Lusk, and Medicine Creek on the Northern Plains (Irwin 1967; Reeves 1969) and Plains/Mountain on the east flank of the Rocky Mountains from Wyoming to Alberta (Reeves 1972).

4Early Middle Prehistoric I cultural complexes include Mummy Cave (Reeves 1969, 1972) distributed along the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains from Wyoming to Southern Alberta, and Simonsen in the Cen- tral Plains.

Early Middle Prehistoric I1 cultural complexes include McKean, Oxbow (Early and Late) (Reeves 1969, 1970, 1972), Oxbow/

McKean, Powers-Yonkee on the Plains, and Mummy Cave (Reeves 1971, 1972) along the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains. The Plains cultural sequence is complex, it appears the Late Oxbow complex in the Sas- katchewan Basin is time equivalent t o Mc- Kean in the Missouri Basin. The status of the Oxbow/McKean complex is unknown.

REFERENCES CITED

Agogino, G. A., and W. D. Frankforter 1 9 6 0 A Paleo-Indian Bison-Kill in

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