the carolingians in central europe, their history, arts and architecture

8/6/2019 The Carolingians in Central Europe, Their History, Arts and Architecture

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THE CAROLINGIANS IN CENTRAL EUROPE,

THEIR HISTORY, ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE


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CULTURES, BELIEFS

AND TRADITIONS

medieval and early modern peoples

Editorial Board:

william brinner, University of California at Berkeley

florike egmond, Leiden University

gustav henningsen, Danish Folklore Archives

mayke dejong, University of Utrechtmiri rubin, Pembroke College, Oxford University

eliyassif, Tel Aviv University

VOLUME 18


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THE CAROLINGIANSIN CENTRAL EUROPE,THEIR HISTORY, ARTSAND ARCHITECTUREA Cultural History of Central Europe, 750-900

BY

HERBERT SCHUTZ

BRILLLEIDEN BOSTON

2004


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This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataSchutz, Herbert, 1937-

The Carolingians in Central Europe, their history, arts, and architecture : cultural history

of Central Europe, 750-900 / by Herbert Schutz.

p. cm. (Cultures, beliefs, and traditions ; v. 18)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 90-04-13149-3

1. Carolingians. 2. Europe, CentralHistory. 3. Civilization, Medieval. 4. Culture

diffusionEurope, Central. 5. Art, Carolingian. 6. Architecture, Carolingian. 7. Learning

and scholarshipHistoryMedieval, 500-1500. I. Title. II. Series.

DJK4.S38 2003943'.0009'02dc21

2003052330

ISSN 13825364ISBN 90 04 13149 3

Copyright 2004 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored ina retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written

permission from the publisher.

Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personaluse is granted by Brill provided that

the appropriate fees are paid directly to The CopyrightClearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910

Danvers MA 01923, USA.Fees are subject to change.

printed in the netherlands


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To my brother Hart


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CONTENTS

List of Illustrations ...................................................................... ixList of Maps ................................................................................ xxiForeword .................................................................................... xxiiiAcknowledgements ...................................................................... xxix

Introduction ................................................................................ 1

Part A The Carolingian RealmsI. Reaching for the crownContinuity and change

in the realms of the Franks ...................................... 17II. Towards Empire ........................................................ 49III. Charlemagnes successors .......................................... 82IV. Towards the partition of the Empire ...................... 113V. The emerging profile of Central Europe ................ 118

VI. The last unification of the Empire .......................... 125

Part B Books, Gems and IvoriesVII. The recapitulation of origins .................................... 135VIII. Carolingian scribal culture ........................................ 147IX. Religious literature .................................................... 171X. Secular literature ...................................................... 203XI. The cloister arts ........................................................ 216XII. Illuminated manuscriptsEvangelists ...................... 221

XIII. Illuminated manuscriptsRuler Portraits ................ 248XIV. Illuminated manuscriptsChrist in Majesty .......... 261XV. Illuminated manuscriptsNarrative style ................ 264XVI. Engraved crystals ...................................................... 277XVII. Ivories ........................................................................ 281XVIII. Gems, precious metals and bronzes

Liturgical art .............................................................. 299

Part C Palaces and BasilicasXIX. ArchitecturePalaces ................................................ 323XX. ArchitectureWall painting .................................... 333XXI. ArchitectureBasilicas .............................................. 340


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Conclusion .................................................................................. 369

Selected Bibliography ................................................................ 391

Index ............................................................................................ 397


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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Color Plates

(Pls. 1a33c can be found in Part B, between the pages 224 and 225)

Plate 1a. Picto-poem of Christ the Savior from Hrabanus MaurusDe laudibus sancti crucis, Fulda. Inv. Codex 652, fol. 6v. (Vienna, ster-

reichische Nationalibliothek).Plate 1b. Dedicatory page from Hrabanus MaurusDe laudibus sancticrucis, showing Hrabanus and Alcuin presenting the book to Otgarof Mainz, Fulda. Inv. Cod. 652, fol. 2v. (Vienna, sterreichischeNationalbibliothek).

Plate 1c. Dedicatory page from Hrabanus MaurusDe laudibus sancticrucisshowing the emperor Louis the Pious as Soldier in Christ. Fulda.Inv. Cod. 652, fol. 3v. (Vienna, sterreichische Nationalbibliothek).

Plate 2a. Display initial of the 51. Psalm, Folchart Psalter, c. 864/872.Inv. Cod. 23, fol. 135. (St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek).

Plate 2b. Irish Gospel, c. 750, confronting pages showing a crosspage and an initial page. Inv. Cod. 51, fols. 6, 7. (St. Gallen, Stifts-bibliothek).

Plates 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d. Irish Gospel, c. 750, the Evangelists John andMarc, Matthew and Christ. Inv. Cod. 51. fols. 2, 78, 208, 266. (St.

Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek).

Plates 4a, 4b, 4c, 4d. Codex millenarius, the Evangelists Matthew, Inv.Cim. 1, fol. 17v, 18r. and Marc, Inv. Cim. 1, fol. 109v, 110r) withtheir emblems. (Stiftsbibliothek, Kremsmnster) (Millenarius: PhotoP. Amand Kraml, copyright Stift Kremsmnster).

Plates 5a, 5b, 5c, 5d. Codex millenarius, the Evangelists Luke, Inv.Cim. 1, fol. 174v, 175r. and John, Inv. Cim. 1, fol. 276v, 277r. withtheir emblems. (Stiftsbibliothek, Kremsmnster).

Plates 6a, 6b, 6c, 6d. Enthroned Evangelists with tetramorphs fromthe Godescalc Gospels, c. 781783, Palace School of Charlemagne,


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AachenMatthew, Inv. lat. 1203, fol. 1r, Marc, Inv. lat. 1203, fol.1v, Luke, Inv. lat. 1203, fol. 2r, John, Inv. lat 1203, fol. 2v. (Paris,

Bibliothque Nationale de France).Plate 7a. Enthroned Christ, from the Godescalc Gospels, c. 781783,Palace School of Charlemagne, Aachen. Inv. lat. 1203, fol. 3r. (Paris,Bibliothque Nationale de France).

Plate 7b. Fountain of Life, from the Godescalc Gospels, c. 781783,Palace School of Charlemagne, Aachen. Inv. lat. 1203, fol. 3v. (Paris,Bibliothque Nationale de France).

Plate 8a. Fountain of Life, from the Gospel from Saint-Mdard,Soissons, Palace School of Charlemagne, Aachen. Inv. Lat. 8850,fol. 6v. (Paris, Bibliothque Nationale de France).

Plate 8b. Veneration of the Lamb, from the Gospel from Saint-Mdard, Soissons, Palace School of Charlemagne, Aachen. Inv. lat.8850, fol. 1v. (Paris, Bibliothque Nationale de France).

Plate 8c. Canon Table, from the Gospel from Saint-Mdard, Soissons,

Palace School of Charlemagne, Aachen. Inv. lat. 8850, fol. 7v. (Paris,Bibliothque Nationale de France).

Plate 9a. Evangelist Marc with lion emblem, from the Gospel fromSaint-Mdard, Soissons, palace School of Charlemagne. Inv. lat. 8850,fol. 81v. (Paris, Bibliothque Nationale de France).

Plate 9b. Initial page to the Gospel of St. Mark, from the Gospelfrom Saint-Mdard, Soissons, Palace School of Charlemagne. Inv.lat. 8850, fol. 82r. (Paris, Bibliothque Nationale de France).

Plate 10a. Writingfigure, 6th century (Brussels, Bibliothque Royale).

Plate 10b. The Four Evangelists with tetramorphs, from the AachenGospels, Palace School of Charlemagne. fol. 14v. (Domkapitel Aachen.Photo: Ann Mnchow).

Plates 11a, 11b, 11c, 11d. The Four Evangelists from the AdaGospelsMatthew, Marc, Luke and John, Palace School of Charle-magne. Hs. 22 Ada, fol. 15v, fol. 59v. fol. 85v, fol. 127v. (Trier,Stadtbibliothek).

Plates 12a, 12b, 12c, 12d. The Evangelists Matthew, Marc, Lukeand John, from the Coronation Gospels, Palace School of Charlemagne,


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Aachen. Inv. SKXIII/18, fol. 15, fol. 76v, fol. 117, fol. 178v. (Vienna,Kunsthistorisches Museum, Treasury).

Plate 13. Charles the Bald as King David, miniature preceding theBook of Psalms, Vivian Bible, c. 845/46. Inv. lat. 1, fol. 215v. (Paris,Bibliothque Nationale de France).

Plate 14a. The enthroned emperor Lothair I, from the Gospels ofLothair, c. 850, Tours. Inv. lat. 266, fol. 1r. (Paris, BibliothqueNationale de France).

Plate 14b. The enthroned emperor Lothair I, from the Psalter of

Lothair, Palace School of Lothair, c. 850. Inv. Add. 37768, fol. 4.(London, British Library).

Plate 15a. Dedication page showing the enthroned Charles the Baldreceiving the Vivian Bible, c. 845/46. Inv. lat. 1, fol. 423r. (Paris,Bibliothque Nationale de France).

Plate 15b. St. Gregory from theMetz Coronation Sacramentary, c. 870,Palace School of Charles the Bald, St. Denis (?). Inv. lat. 1141, fol.3r. (Paris, Bibliothque Nationale de France).

Plate 15c. Ruler flanked by bishops, probably Charles the Bald,MetzCoronation Sacramentary, c. 870, Palace School of Charles the Bald, St.Denis (?). Inv. lat. 1141, fol. 2v. (Paris, Bibliothque Nationale deFrance).

Plate 16a. Dedication page showing the enthroned Charles the Bald,Codex Aureus from St. Emmeram, Palace School of Charles the Bald.Inv. Clm. 14000, fol. 5v. (Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek).

Plate 16b. Veneration of the Lamb, Codex Aureus from St. Emmeram,Palace School of Charles the Bald. Inv. Clm. 14000, fol. 6r. (Munich,Bayerische Staatsbibliothek).

Pate 17a. Crucifixion, showing Ludwig, the German, embracing theCross. Psalter of Louis the German. Inv. Ms. Theol. lat. fol. 58,120r. (Berlin, Stiftung Preuischer Kulturbesitz, Staatsbibliothek).

Plate 17b. Initial page of Psalm 1 of the Psalter of Ludwig theGerman, before c. 850, Saint-Omer. Inv. Ms. Theol. lat. fol. 58, 3r.(Berlin, Stiftung Preuischer Kulturbesitz, Staatsbibliothek).

Plate 17c. Christ in Majesty, Vivian Bible, c. 845/46. Inv. lat. 1, fol.329v. (Paris, Bibliothque Nationale de France).


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Plate 18a. Christ in Majesty with pagan references, Metz CoronationSacramentary, c. 870, Palace School of Charles the Bald, St. Denis (?).

Inv. lat. 1141, fol. 6r. (Paris, Bibliothque Nationale de France).Plate 18b. Ornamented capital initial T with crucified Christ, MetzCoronation Sacramentary, c. 870, Palace School of Charles the Bald, St.Denis (?). Inv. lat. 1141, fol. 6v. (Paris, Bibliothque Nationale deFrance).

Plate 18c. Crucifixion from the Gospels of Otfrid von Weissenburg,c. 868. Cod. 2687, fol. 153v. (Vienna, sterreichische National-bibliothek).

Plate 18d. Christ in Majesty with seraphim,Metz Coronation Sacramentary,c. 870, Palace School of Charles the Bald, St. Denis (?). Inv. lat.1141, fol. 5r. (Paris, Bibliothque Nationale de France).

Plates 19a, 19b, 19c, 19d. Ornamented capital Initials C, D, C andT,Drogo Sacramentary, c. 850855. Inv. lat. 9428, fols. 24v, 58r, 71v,15v. (Paris, Bibliothque Nationale de France).

Plate 20a. Story of Adam and Eve. Garden of Eden scenes from

the Grandval Bible, Tours, c. 840. Inv. 10546, fol. 5v. (London, BritishLibrary).

Plate 20b. Stag allegory, with Psalm 41, 2, Stuttgart Psalter, c. 820830,Saint-Germain-des-Prs. Inv. Cod. bibl. fol. 23, 53v. (Stuttgart,Wrttembergische Landesbibliothek).

Plate 20c. Annunciation, with Psalm 71:6, Stuttgart Psalter, c. 820830,Saint-Germain-des-Prs. Inv. Cod. bibl. fol. 23, 83v. (Stuttgart,

Wrttembergische Landesbibliothek).Plate 20d. The Three Kings, with Psalm 71:1011, Stuttgart Psalter,c. 820830, Saint-Germain-des-Prs. Inv. Cod. bibl. fol. 23, 84v.(Stuttgart, Wrttembergische Landesbibliothek).

Plate 21a. Crucifixion, with Psalm 68:22, Stuttgart Psalter, c. 820830,Saint-Germain-des-Prs. Inv. Cod. bibl. fol. 23, 80v. (Stuttgart,Wrttembergische Landesbibliothek).

Plate 21b. Weighing the souls, with Psalm 9:5, Stuttgart Psalter, c. 820830, Saint-Germain-des-Prs. Inv. Cod. bibl. fol. 23, 9v. (Stuttgart,Wrttembergische Landesbibliothek).


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Plate 21c. Christ triumphant, with Psalm 90:13, Stuttgart Psalter, c. 820830, Saint-Germain-des-Prs. Inv. Cod. bibl. fol. 23, 107r. (Stuttgart,

Wrttembergische Landesbibliothek).Plate 22a. The prophet Samuel anoints David, Golden Psalter, c. 890.Inv. Cod. 22, fol. 59. (St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek).

Plate 22b. Joabs campaign, Golden Psalter, c. 890. Inv. Cod. 22, fol.140. (St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek).

Plate 22c. Siege and surrender of a city, Golden Psalter, c. 890. Inv.Cod. 22, fol. 141. (St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek).

Plates 23a, 23b. Obverse and reverse, Enger reliquary, before c. 785.Inv.-Nr.: 88, 632. (Berlin, Preuischer Kulturbesitz, Kunstgewerbe-museum).

Plate 24. Reliquary associated with St. Stephen, c. 830, Aachen. Inv.SCHK XIII/26. (Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Schatzkammer).

Plate 25a. Tassilo Chalice, c. 768/69, perhaps later (Kremsmnster,Stiftsbibliothek). (Photo Elfriede Mejchar, copyright Stift Kremsmnster).

Plate 25b, 25c, 25d. Ornamental detail of the Tassilo Chalice(Krems-mnster, Stiftsbibliothek).

Plate 26a. First (back) Cover of the Lindau Gospel, c. 770830. Inv. MS1(New York, Pierpont Morgan Library, Photography: David Loggie).

Plate 26b. Second (front) Cover of the Lindau Gospel, c. 870. Inv. MS1(New York, Pierpont Morgan Library, Photography: David Loggie).

Plate 27a. Direct view of the golden, gem encrusted gospel cover of

the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, c. 879, featuring the architectureof the gospel cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, c. 870. Inv.Clm. 14000, VD. (Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek).

Plate 27b. Oblique view of the golden gem encrusted gospel coverof the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, c. 879, featuring the architectureof the gospel cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, c. 870. Inv.Clm. 14000, VD. (Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek).

Plate 28. Portable altar, the Arnulf Ciborium, c. 870 (Munich,Schatzkammer der Residenz, Bayerische Verwaltung der staatlichenSchlsser, Grten und Seen).


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Plate 29. St. Johann, exterior, Mstair, Graubnden, Switzerland.

Plate 29a. Mural, Ascension, St. Johann, Mstair. Inv. LM-11990.

(Schweizerisches Landesmuseum, Zrich).

Plates 29b, 29c, 29d. Murals offigures from the north wall. Mural

in the Apse with majestas. Mural of Peter and Paul before Nero; St.

Johann, Mstair. (Stiftung Pro Kloster St. Johann in Mstair, Foto

S. Fibbi-Aeppli).

Plates 30a, 30b, 30c, 30d. Murals of St. Gregory (top right), flogging

of the Philistines (bottom left), founder portraits (bottom right). St.

Benedict, Mals, valley of the Adige, Italy.

Plates 31a, 31b, 31c, 31d. St. Gregory, Christ flanked by cherubim,

St. Stephen in niches. Religious and secular patrons between the

niches. St. Benedict, Mals.

Plate 32a. Mural of cattle. St. Prokulus, Naturns.

Plate 32b. St. Paul being aided in his escape from Damascus. St.

Prokulus, Naturns.

Plate 32c. Gated hall at the abbey at Lorsch.

Plate 32d. Rotunda, St. Michaels, Fulda.

Plate 33a. Palace Chapel, interior, Aachen. (Domkapitel Aachen.

Photo: Ann Mnchow).

Plate 33b. Legendary pelican feedings its young with its own heart.

19th century mosaic. Interior, Palace Chapel, Aachen. (Domkapitel

Aachen, Photo: Andreas Herrmann).

Plate 33c. Octagon interior, upper level, marble throne, marble

sheeted pillars, porphyry columns. Palace Chapel, Aachen. (Domkapitel

Aachen. Photo: Ann Mnchow).

Figures

(Figs. 139b can be found in Part A, between the pages 64 and 65)

1. Hollow altar with Carolingian candle sticks in the crypt of

Regensburg Cathedral. Formerly the high altar of the Carolingian

cathedral.


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2. The emperor shown leading the horse of the pope to support thepapal claim of the Constantinian donation. Fresco in the oratorium

of St. Sylvester in Santi Quattro Coronati, Rome. (Bildarchiv FotoMarburg).

3. Inscribed lead plate found in a sarcophagus, 8th/9th century,pointing to the missionary activity of Fulda. The inscription readsOTTO XPIAN DE PAGANO ONO OCT, meaningOtto become Christiandied on the nones (7th) of October. (Fulda, Dommuseum).

4a. Christ with the emperor Constantine and pope Sylvester I. Re-stored mosaic originally installed by pope Leo III. Lateran Palace, Rome

(Photo P. Wilson).

4b. St. Peter with Charlemagne and pope Leo III. Restored mosaicoriginally installed by pope Leo III. Lateran Palace, Rome (PhotoP. Wilson).

5. Roman marble sarcophagus showing the mythical abduction ofProserpina, c. A.D. 200, taken to have been Charlemagnes coffinfor 400 years. It was probably among the columns and other classicalobjects transported north following his campaigns in Italy. (Aachen,Treasury of the Cathedral).

6. Idealized royal figures of the Hungarians. Budapest (Photo H.Hermann).

7. Porphyry column and Corinthian capital. Aachen, cloisters of theCathedral.

8. The Lords Prayer from the Abrogans, an Old High German dic-tionary. Codex Sangallensis911. fol. 320. (St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek).

9. Genesis scenes from theBamberg Bible, c. 850. Inv. A.I.5, fol. 7v.(Bamberg, Staatliche Bibliothek).

10. Illustration to Psalm 38, showing a crowned personage, UtrechtPsalter, c. 820, Hautvillers. (Utrecht, University Library).

11. Illustration to Psalm 77, showing a crowned personage, UtrechtPsalter, c. 820, Hautvillers. (Utrecht, University Library).

12. Illustration to Psalm 1, a man in meditation day and night sit-

ting under a fastigium, Utrecht Psalter, c. 820, Hautvillers. (Utrecht,University Library).

13. Illustration to Psalm 23, itemizing all details of the text, UtrechtPsalter, c. 820, Hautvillers. (Utrecht, University Library).


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14. Illustration to Psalm 43, analogy of a besieged city, Utrecht Psalter,c. 820, Hautvillers. (Utrecht, University Library).

15. Illustrations to Psalm 12, pictorial interpretation of text, UtrechtPsalter, c. 820, Hautvillers. (Utrecht, University Library).

16. The Lothair crystal, carved with the story of Susanna, c. 865,Vausort. Inv. 1855, 1201.5. (London, British Museum).

17. Crucifixion crystal, c. 867, St. Denis. Inv. 1855, 0303.1. (London,British Museum).

18. Crucifixion crystal, c. 850/870. On loan Erzbischfliches Diozsan-museum. Inv. DM-K013/D (Freiburg, Augustiner Museum).

19. Ivory throne of St. Maximian, early 6th century. (Ravenna,Archiepiscopal Palace).

20. Angel, ivory panel, 11th century copy, style of Palace School ofCharlemagne, Aachen. Inv. Kg: 102. (Darmstadt, Hessisches Landes-museum).

21. Ivory front cover, Lorsch Gospels, Three Kings before Herod and

with the Virgin and Child, c. 810, Aachen (Rome, Museo SacroVaticano, Bildarchiv Fotomarburg).

22. Ivory back cover, Lorsch Gospels, Nativity, c. 810, Aachen. Inv.JX 856 (London, Victoria and Albert Museum).

23. Scenes following the Resurrection of Christ, ivory diptych, c. 810,Palace School of Charlemagne, Aachen. (Domkapitel Aachen. Photo:Ann Mnchow).

24. Ascension, c. 810, Palace School of Charlemagne, Aachen. Inv.Kg. 54:217. (Darmstadt, Hessisches Landesmuseum).

25. Christ in majesty, ivory panel, c. 900, Maastricht/Lige. Inv.Kg. 54:208. (Darmstadt, Hessisches Landesmuseum).

26. Crucifixion Ivory, covering panel of theBook of Pericopes of HenryII, c. 820/30. Inv. Clm. 4452, fol. VD (Munich, BayerischeStaatsbibliothek).

27. The Temptation of Christ, ivory book cover of the DrogoSacramentary, c. 850, Metz (Frankfurt a. M., Liebighaus).

28. Liturgical ivory comb, c. 850, Metz, from St. Heribert in Cologne(Cologne, Schntgenmuseum, Rheinisches Bildarchiv Kln).


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29. Christ in Majesty, front ivory book cover from the Tuotilo Gospels,

c. 900, St. Gallen. Cod. 53. (St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek).

30. Ascension of Mary, back ivory book cover from the Tuotilo Gospels,

c. 900, St. Gallen. Cod. 53. (St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek).

31. Ivory panel book covers from Wrzburg, after c. 850. Inv. M. p.

th. f. 67 (Wrzburg, Universittsbibliothek).

32. Ivory pyx with nativity. Inv. ANSA X42 (Vienna, Kunsthistorisches

Museum).

33. Reliquary casket of walrus ivory, 8th century, from Gandersheim.

Inv. MA58 (Braunschweig, Anton-Ulrich-Museum).

34. Scenes from the life of Christ, ivory casket, c. 880. Inv. MA59

(Braunschweig, Anton-Ulrich-Museum).

35. Scenes from the life of Christ, ivory casket, c. 880. Inv. MA59

(Braunschweig, Anton-Ulrich-Museum).

36. Silver beaker from Pettstadt, late 8th, early 9th century (Nrnberg,

Germanisches Nationalmuseum).

37. Detail from the roof of the Arnulf Ciborium, c. 870 (Munich,

Schatzkammer der Residenz, Bayerische Verwaltung der staatlichen

Schlsser, Grten und Seen).

38. Portable red porphyry altar from Adelhausen. Earliest of its

kind, c. 800, made of oak, silver, cloisonn and niello on gold

foil. Inv. 12133. On loan Adelhauserstiftung. (Freiburg, Augustiner-

museum).

39a. Equestrian statue of a Carolingian emperor, 9th century, oneof the Palace Schools, Metz. Inv. OA8260. (Paris, Muse du Louvre).

39b. Equestrian statue of a Carolingian emperor, 9th century, one

of the Palace Schools, Metz. Inv. OA8260. (Paris, Muse du Louvre).

(Figs. 40a83 can be found in Part C, between the pages 352 and 353)

40a, 40b, 40c. Main portal door panels and details of the coffered

sections. Aachen, Palace Chapel.

41. Roman bronze casting of a wolf in the entrance to the Palace

Chapel, Aachen.


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42. Bronze pinecone in the entrance to the Palace Chapel, Aachen.

43a, b, c, d. Sections of railing from the upper level of the interioroctagon of the Palace Chapel in Aachen. (Domkapitel Aachen. Photo:Ann Mnchow).

44a, b, c. Sections of railing from the upper level of the interioroctagon of the Palace Chapel in Aachen. (Domkapitel Aachen. Photo:Ann Mnchow).

45. Foundations of the Carolingian (bottom) and later palaces atPaderborn. (Paderborn, Kaiserpfalzmuseum).

46. Fragments of a Carolingian sandstone capital from the churchnave (Paderborn, Kaiserpfalzmuseum).

47. Decorated plaster, palace walls, c. 799 (Paderborn, Kaiser-pfalzmuseum).

48. Suggested reconstruction of the Pfalzat Ingelheim. according toA. Corboz, Frhes Mittelalter, p. 5.

49. Damaged Corinthian capital from the palace at Ingelheim. Inv.

S469 (Mainz, Landesmuseum).

50. Decorative stone panel showing a winged horse from theCarolingian palace church, St. Wigbert, at Ingelheim. Inv. S3023.(Mainz, Landesmuseum).

51. Remains of a window architecture, limestone and sandstone7th8th centuries. Inv. S3027ad. (Mainz, Landesmuseum).

52. Plan of the Pfalz at Aachen according to Corboz, Mittelalter,

p. 183.

53a. Restored Carolingian colonnade, Aachen.

53b. Original masonry of the palace complex at Aachen.

54. Suggested reconstruction of the westwork of the Palace Chapelat Aachen according to Corboz, Mittelalter, p. 53.

55. Flanking angels. St. Prokulus, Naturns, valley of the Adige, Italy.

56. Einhard Basilica, Steinbach. Model.

57. Einhard Basilica, Steinbach. Plan with indication of crypt andaltar screen, according to Corboz, Mittelalter, p. 112.


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58. Einhard Basilica, Steinbach, present interior view of the nave.Note the walled-in arcades.

59. Einhard Basilica, Steinbach, present exterior view. Note thewalled-in arcades near the entrance.

60a. Einhard Basilica, Seligenstadt. Exterior view of the nave.

60b. Einhard Basilica, Seligenstadt. Interior view of the nave,Carolingian brickwork laid bare.

61. St. Justinus, Hchst. Carolingian colonnades and capitals.

62. St. Justinus, Hchst. Detail of a Carolingian capital.63. Carolingian composite capital, Aachen, cloisters of the Cathedral.

64. Fragment of ornamental altar stone, c. 800840, Lorsch. Inv.Pl. 33:4. (Darmstadt, Hessisches Landesmuseum).

65. Original plan of the Benedictine abbey at Lorsch, according toCorboz,Mittelalter, p. 34.

66. Gated hall at the abbey at Lorsch. Note the gentler slope of the

original roof and the ornamental details.

67a, 67b. Gated hall at the abbey at Lorsch. Detail of the arches,capitals and pilasters.

68a. Altar screens from St. John, Mstair, Graubnden, Switzerland.

68b. Altar fragment from Lauerach. (Bregenz, Vorarlberger Landes-museum).

68c. Carolingian altar screen from the convent at Frauenchiemsee(Munich, Archologische Staatssamlung, Museum fr Vor- undFrhgeschichte).

68d. Carolingian altar screen from St. Johannis, Mainz. Recoveredfrom the church floor. Inv. S3090 (Mainz, Landesmuseum).

69. Corvey. Proposed appearance of the original westwork accord-ing to Corboz, Mittelalter, p. 50.

70a. Corvey. Present appearance of the westwork.

70b. Close-up and consecrating inscription on the westwork.


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71. Corvey. Crosscuts of the westworklower level (rt.), upper level(lt.) according to Corboz, Mittelalter, p. 76.

72a. Corvey. Columns and pillars of the crypt at the lower level.

72b. Corvey. Spacial arrangement of the chapel of St. John at theupper level.

72c. Corvey. Traces of wall paintingthe chapel of St. John.

73a, 73b. Corvey. Composite foliage capital and cornice.

74a. Carolingian capitals, after 744, comparable to the column cap-

ital in the crypt at St. Michaels in Fulda. From the monastery churchfounded by Sturmius at Fulda. (Fulda, Dom Museum).

74b, c. Carolingian capitals from the nave of the Ratgar Basilica,c. 800 (Fulda, Dom Museum).

75a. St. Michaels chapel, Fulda. Exterior view.

75b. St. Michaels, external view of the rotunda section.

76. Supporting column in the crypt of St. Michaels, Fulda.

77. St. Michaels, Fulda. Reconstructed crosscut, according to Corboz,Mittelalter, p. 174.

78a, 78b, 78c, 78d. Capitals from the rotunda, St. Michaels, Fulda.

79a. Westwork of the Palace Chapel at Aachen.

79b. Octagon of the Palace Chapel at Aachen.

80a. San Vitale, Ravenna. Exterior view of the octagon.

80b. San Vitale, Ravenna. Interior view of choir.

80c. San Vitale, Ravenna. Interior view of niches.

81. Lower (l.) and upper (r.) levels of the Palace Chapel at Aachen,according to Corboz, Mittelalter, p. 52.

82. Cross-section of the Palace Chapel at Aachen, according toCorboz, Mittelalter, p. 53.


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LIST OF MAPS

Map 1. The Carolingian Empire ............................................ 31Map 2. Secular Locations in the Carolingian Empire .......... 58Map 3. The Partition of the Carolingian Empire

following the Treaty of Verdun 843 .......................... 115Map 4. The Partition of the Carolingian Empire

following the Treaty of Meersen 870 ........................ 117Map 5. The Partition of the Carolingian Empire

following the Treaty of Ribmont 880 ...................... 128Map 6. Religious Establishments under the Carolingians ...... 167


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FOREWORD

The literature concerning the Carolingians has reached nearly unassess-able proportions. An attempt to offer a comprehensive treatment willbe frustrated. Even though the sources concerning this period aremuch less archeological and more decidedly literary, new directionsand approaches, new specializations, new emphases, even new find-ings have lent to the body of traditional knowledge a kaleidoscopicquality. Since this book is a continuation of much previously pub-lished work, especially The Germanic Realms in Pre-Carolingian CentralEurope, 400750and Tools, Weapons and Ornaments, Germanic MaterialCulture in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, the conditions preparing theadvent of the Carolingians have already been outlined. The bookcontinues to be an investigation into the material culture against anintroductory background to historical developments tracing the for-mation of the Carolingian realm, at the end of which the beginnings

of a coherent cultural history of Central Europe will begin to crys-tallize. The attempt will be made to trace the consolidation of theirholdings, observe their establishment of the realm, their very com-plex attempts to expand, unify and maintain it as a Christian domin-ion, only to accommodate the internal and external crises by resortingto an administrative partition of their empire in order to maximizethe available regional resources. Only as a result of the partition willthe eastern kingdom evolve towards an identifiable Central Europeanentity. As was pointed out earlier, the advent of the Carolingians

also entails a horizon in the funerary inventories: with the completedChristianization the funerary inventories have been discontinued. Asa result the material evidence has changed. In contrast with the pre-vious volumes, which dealt primarily with artifacts and generallyunwritten evidence, this book will examine pictorial aspects of theilluminated literature. Instead of the earlier portable art, which waspart of grave inventories, the emphasis now rests on the products ofthe more private cloister arts deposited in the libraries and treasuriesof Central Europe. These represent primarily the portable arts ofthe monastic, scribal culturelargely religious, illuminated manu-scripts, surviving examples of secular literature, and such examplesof Carolingian liturgical art as is represented by ivories, engraved


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crystals, gems and work with precious metals in the service of agrandiose idea. A reform of the church, the priesthood and of the

liturgy was to help realize the Imperium Christianum on earth. However,the church hierarchy was a branch of the aristocracy and hencerestrictions were imposed as barriers to the laity, limiting the accessand participation to those in the service of the church. The widerpublic had to be content with architecture, such public edifices asthe interiors of churches, basilicas and any wall paintings to helpthem bring key images of their faith to life while at the same timealtar screens and ring crypts denied the common folk close involve-ment with the mass and with the saints and their relics other thanas distanced spectators. The splendor of the palace interiors wouldagain have been reserved for the select few.

The attempt is made here to focus as much as is possible on thecontributions of the eastern parts to the whole of the Carolingianempire, on those parts, which will come to constitute the East FrankishKingdom. This attempt will not be totally successful owing to themuch greater availability of West Frankish resources. Because of itspast, the west was the much richer part. In some sectors the east

was to come to play important roles. In such areas as the supply ofhuman and material resources and the provision of staging areas ofoperation, in the thrust of eastward expansion, missionary work andthe consolidation of the economic utilization of and the urbaniza-tion in the new eastern territories, the east rendered its share. Inthe establishment of new missionary and civilizational centers there,and the interrelationship among these eastern centers, their contri-bution to the advancement of Christianity, literacy, scholarship, schol-arly and diplomatic leadership for the entire realm was mani-fold.

The eastern monastic establishments shared in the preservation, mul-tiplication and distribution of the Classical literary heritage and madenoteworthy original contributions to the secular and vernacular lit-erature of the East Frankish Kingdom.

Contained within the historical mantle this book offers an illus-trated investigation of the artistic, literary and architectural activitiesin Carolingian Central Europe. The choice of illustrations was madein accordance with certain themes and materials, without any claimto completeness. Nor can the claim be made that all of the objectsdiscussed originated in Central Europe. Some of the portable objectsare clearly West Frankish and have merely ended up in the EastFrankish realm owing to their own particular circumstances. Archi-


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tectural examples were of course limited in this regard to CentralEurope, though links and influences to other locations can be demon-

strated. In some instances the evidence itself provided the lead. Atall times it was considered that the individual surviving object borea tremendous responsibility, that as individual examples they couldnot convincingly be regarded as typical, yet had to serve that pur-pose. In view of problematic communications it remains an openquestion what influence the various objects could have had on oneanother over time and distance, what effect the words and thoughtsof theologians and politicians could have had on the artists and theirworks, and to what extent they responded to current events.

This book is arranged in three parts. Part A deals with a histor-ical overview concerning the Carolingian rise to power, their aim toestablish the Imperium Christianum by means of a reconfiguration ofthe imperial idea as a realization of the Heavenly Kingdom on earth,culminating in the coronation with a Christian imperial dignity ratherthan that of the Rome of the Caesars. This reconfiguration includedthe elevation of the ruler to the majestic representation of the sac-erdotal personage. A blending of the Christian and secular elements

encouraged a recapitulating continuity of many cultural facets fromthe Germanic and Classical past, in part a restoration, renovationand confirmation of these traditions resulting in the generation of amodified, even original Carolingian identity, the so-called CarolingianRenaissance, an often questioned term. The continuing existence inthe population of the earlier Roman and Germanic cultural elitesfavored this process of transmission and transformation, which includedliturgical, cultural and secular reforms. These included the empha-sis on the heritage of a legitimate continuity of the dynasty, want-

ing to see in it the intervention of the divine will. The effort endedwith crises and the ultimately unsuccessful attempt to establish thesuccession of a single heir to the throne. For administrative reasonsCharlemagnes grandsons divided the unwieldy empire between them.There were occasional reunifications, but the idea of the unitedChristian realm weakened as it lost its practicality and ability torespond to internal and external threats. Nevertheless it was too earlyto see in the eastern part of the realm the beginnings of Germany,even when one of its rulers was called the German.

Part B deals with the confirmation of a cultural identity by engag-ing in a search for an established heritage. It was appreciated thatdeveloping a basis in education was the priority. Beginning with the


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acquisition of such book making skills as the preparation of parch-ment as a writing surface, of inks and pigments, and finally its bind-

ing as a book. Since all this could not be done by any one enthusiasticindividual, a cost efficient context had to come into being with time.Only some monasteries evolved to provide the hierarchical infra-structure, which could secure the materials with which to make abook, the human resources to inscribe it and the technical skills tobind it. In general there were no resources outside the monasticenvironment to accomplish this task. In time the monasteries devotedtheir available skills to the illumination of gospel pages, includingwhole picture pages of evangelists and rulers, and the making of pre-cious book covers, mainly of such liturgical art as gospels, sacra-mentaries, lectionaries and psaltersivories reflected antique models,space filling engravings and gem encrusted metal surfaces. Astonishingis the available supporting wealth and its opportune confluence withmuch extraordinary talent to carry out such work. In the west thecourt and the specific interest of members of the imperial familypromoted the work in the arts. The need for self-justification alongwith the desire to claim continuity with previous traditions may have

contributed to this sponsorship. While this need was less urgentlyexpressed in the East Frankish realm, within a relatively short timethe interrelation between the monasteries there were capable of mak-ing major contributions in all these fields.

Part C concentrates on the architectural achievements that canstill be identified. Palatial architecture can only be reconstructed bymeans of the identification of foundation outlines and the occasionalarchitectural fragments. Owing to the continuing exercise of the faith,church architecture demonstrated greater endurance and thus pro-

vides a better residual picture as religious structures have survivedentirely or at least in significant identifiable parts. In some instancesparts or even all of the decorations of the interiors were preserved.Architecture was well suited to illustrate the intellectual and liturgi-cal concerns about the continuity of style from late Classical toCarolingian times, as the Classical orders of columns and capitalswere either imported from the south or replicated. As stone struc-tures in a world of wooden construction, their interiors projectedwell the idea of a celestial dimension on earth.

It is not the intention to examine the theoretical texts of the dayfor their statements concerning the cultural objectives. Rather it is


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the purpose of this project to examine the cloister arts and craftsfor their visual statements and themes and to see if these wordless

texts supported the educational expectations of an intellectually andspiritually projected Imperium Christianum.


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my thanks to Brock University for giving meoffice space and secretarial help to prepare my manuscript. I owespecial thanks to Dean Rosemary Hale and to Prof. J.M. Miller, ourAssociate Vice-President, Research, for making available to me suchfinancial support as was possible.

Once again I would like to recognize my colleague, Professor BarryJoe, for courageously facing each electronic challenge with which Ipresented him and also for preparing the finishing details of thisbook. I am greatly indebted to my cousin A.G. Kahlert, Korneuburg,Austria, who many years ago coordinated my thousands of pho-tographs by means of an effective, cross-referenced, computerizedindex, facilitating greatly the verification and classification of objects,their provenance and present location. My thanks also go to Ms. Julia Babos for much computer imaging during the preparation of

the manuscript.I am also grateful to the staffof the Interlibrary Loan Departmentof our Library for its efficient assistance in obtaining essential sources.I would like to thank Dr. Bruno Reudenbach, Professor of Art Historyat the University of Hamburg, for his quick clarification concerningthe Godescalc Gospel. I would like to regognize the hospitality Ireceived in the Manuscript Collection of the sterreichische National-bibliothek, when examining the work of Hrabanus Maurus. I amindebted to the two anonymous readers for Brill Academic Publishers

whose suggestions greatly helped to improve this volume.I am grateful to Mr. Julian Deahl, Editor, for his interest in this

project and for accepting this book for publication, and to his edi-torial staffat Koninklijke Brill Academic Publishers, Leiden, for guid-ing the manuscript through the production process. Once again Iam especially grateful to Ms. Marcella Mulder, Assistant Editor, forall of her help and encouragement. I would also like to thank Ms.Ingrid Heijckers for meticulous attention to detail.

My wife Alice, an active scholar in her own right, has accompa-nied me on the necessary journeys. In the many months which ittook to complete this book I could at all times count on her for-bearance. Without her patient and constant support, her financial


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compromises, this work would have been much more difficult tocomplete.

I dedicate this book to my brother Hart, whose surgical expertiseand that of his associates has made me physically capable to devotethe hours required to this book.

The completion of an illustrated book depends extensively on thegenerosity and active support of museums and libraries. Withouttheir cooperation, deadlines could not be met. I am grateful to thosedirectors who generously offered corrections and permitted me touse my own photographs. I appreciate the efficiency of the manyarchives which made their materials available for this book. I thankDr. Georg Minkenberg, Domkapitel Aachen. (Plates 10b, 33a, 33c;Figs. 23, 43a, b, c, d, 44a, b, c); the Staatsbibliothek Bamberg (Fig. 9);the Bibliothque Royale de Belgique, Brussels (Plate 10a); N. Ludwig,Bildarchiv, Preuischer Kulturbesitz. (Plates 23a, 23b); D. Lange,Handschriftenabteilung, Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. (Plates 17a, 17b).Dr. R. Marth, Herzog Anton-Ulrich Museum, Braunschweig. (Figs.33, 34, 35); Dr. H. Swozilek, Vorarlberger Landesmuseum, Bregenz;Dr. Th. Jlich, Hessisches Landesmuseum, Darmstadt; Stdtische

Gallerie, Liebighaus, Frankfurt. (Fig. 27); Dr. D. Zinke, AugustinerMuseum, Freiburg (Figs. 18, 38); S.E. Weihbischof J. Kapp, BistumFulda (Plate 32d); Manuela Beer, Curator, Schntgen Museum, Kln;Dr. Hauke Fill, P. Petrus Schuster Benediktinerstift, Kremsmnster.(Plates 4a, 4b, 4c, 4d, 5a, 5b, 5c, 5d, 25a); The British Library,London. (Plates 14b, 20a, Fig. 8); The British Museum, London.(Figs. 16, 17); the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. (Fig. 22);Dr. Heide, Landesmuseum Mainz; Bildarchiv Foto Marburg, (Figs.2, 21); Dr. van Endert, Archaeologische Staatssammlung, Mnchen;

Dr. M. Teichmann, Bayerische Verwaltung der staalichen Schlsser,Grten und Seen, Mnchen. (Plate 28, Fig. 37); Dr. Montag, BayerischeStaatsbibliothek, Mnchen. (Plates 16a, 16b, 27a, 27b, Fig. 26);R. Sennhauser, Stiftung Pro Kloster St. Johann, Mstair, (Plates 29a,29b, 29c); the Pierpont Morgan Library, New York. (Plates 26a,26b); Germanisches Nationalmuseum, Nrnberg, (Fig. 36); Prof. Dr.M. Wemhoff, Museum in der Kaiserpfalz, Paderborn; BibliothqueNationale de France, Paris. (Plates 6a, 6b, 6c, 6d, 7a, 7b, 8a, 8b,8c, 9a, 9b, 13, 14a, 15a, 15b, 15c, 17c, 18a, 18b, 18c, 19a, 19b,19c, 19d); Muse du Louvre, Paris, (Figs. 39a, 39b); StiftsbibliothekSt. Gallen, (Plates 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 3c, 3d, 22a, 22b, 22c. Fig. 8, 29,30); Wrttembergische Landesbibliothek, Stuttgart. (Plates 20b, 20c,


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20d, 21a, 21b, 21c); Dr. R. Nolden, Stadtbibliothek Trier, (Plates11a, 11b, 11c, 11d); Dr. K. Van der Horst, University Library, Uni-

versiteit Utrecht (Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15); KunsthistorischesMuseum, Wien. (Plates 12a, 12b, 12c, 12d, 24, Fig. 32); ster-reichische Nationalbibliothek, Wien (Plates 1a, 1b, 1c, 21d); Dr.H.-G. Schmidt, Universittsbibliothek Wrzburg. (Fig. 31); A. Condrau,Schweizerisches Landesmuseum Zrich (Plate 29d).

Authors plates and figures: (Plates 25b, 25c, 25d, 29, 30a, 30b,30c, 30d, 31a, 31b, 31c, 31d, 32a, 32b, 32c. Figures 1, 3, 6, 7, 19,20, 24, 25, 28, 40a, 40b, 40c, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 53a,53b, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60a, 60b, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 67a, 67b, 68a,68b, 68c, 68d, 70a, 70b, 70c, 72a, 72b, 72c, 73, 74a, 74b, 74c, 75a,75b, 76, 77b, 78a, 78b, 78c, 78d, 79a, 79b, 80a, 80b, 80c).

I am indebted to Patricia Wilson for obtaining Figs. 4a and 4b,while in Rome, and to Helmut Herrmann for photographing Fig. 7,while in Budapest.


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INTRODUCTION

This representation of the cultural history of Carolingian Central

Europe from 750900, is part of an extensive investigation and the

continuation of four earlier books published as The Prehistory of Germanic

Europe, The Romans in Central Europe, The Germanic Realms in Pre-Carolingian

Central Europe, 400750 and Tools, Weapons and Ornaments, Germanic

Material Culture in Pre-Carolingian Central Europe, 400750. The term

Central Europe has been used deliberately in all of my work because

it does not correspond with any traditional political or national bound-

aries or histories. Modern Frontier Studies, but also works of Central

European synthesis, including catalogues of international exhibitions,

endorsed and sponsored by Central European governments, indicate

clearly that boundaries, commonly understood to be national limits,

have not been and are once again no longer clear lines of demar-

cation between peoples and certainly not between cultures.

The material investigation of the earlier periods is to be contin-ued in other areas as the study of Germanic artifacts has been pre-

sented previously and does not warrant a new effort. The lives of

the people providing the background to the earlier investigations

and the lives and the artifacts themselves, such as Frankish pottery,

did not undergo so significant a physical change in style during the

Carolingian period that the differentiations with earlier periods could

be made visible. It has been demonstrated elsewhere that the con-

tinuity of lifestyles with their accomplished cultural and socio-political

achievements of earlier times did not actually merit the designationbarbarian. The isolation of a historical era runs the risk of pro-

moting the view of an increasingly artificial encapsulation. In this

case all sorts of diverse substantial and ornamental elements lived

on from early Celto-Germanic times, while the so-called migration

period generated a Romano-Germanic inventory of authentic objects

of striking beauty, which in their Merovingian guise passed into the

Carolingian period, just as Carolingian aspects did not suddenly end

with the rise to power of the Ottonians. In Central Europe theCarolingian centuries fit not only into a continuous dynastic sequence,

but also into a cohesive, but changing stylistic continuumthe sequen-

tial phases of Roman inspired Romanesque: experimental Carolingian,


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maturing Ottonian, assured Salian and Hohenstaufen Romanesque

as reflected in the stylistic progressions of architecture, wall painting

murals, illuminations, ivories, bronzes, bejeweled gold and the portablearts with their various manifestations in the cloister and secular forms,

making it quite clear that something different, new and multicultural

was crystallizing. Without aiming to present the activities of the sur-

viving Gallo-Roman, Merovingian, related Carolingian culture car-

rying elites exclusively, there is no deliberate attempt here to deal

equally with a cross-section of Carolingian society.

The existence of a synthesis of the language of important objects

and the language of significant primary and secondary texts has

already been demonstrated in earlier work. In the Carolingian con-

text, this language will find expression in various dialects and become

articulated in various stages of development when considering the

illuminated manuscripts, ivories and gem encrusted book covers. A

dialogue is required in which the viewer is invited to participate opti-

cally, mentally and emotionally, and to respond to the extent that

the objects speak to his condition. Symbolic representations of the

heavenly Jerusalem, whether in art or architecture, will fall short of

their ideal and will require a grasp of their pictorial vocabulary andsyntax, before they can become the intellectual projection of the

material image into the abstract, dematerialized visionary idea. As a

symbol it can never be in reality what it is as a symbol, an idea

beyond itself.

Furthermore, it is the aim here to continue, to the extent possi-

ble, the emphasis on Central as opposed to Western Europe and to

approach the diversity of the cultural contributions of the region

from an interdisciplinary perspective and to attempt to show the

confluence of some areas of specialization usually considered in nearisolation. This is most evident in the extant architecture, which is

in the public domain. However, owing to architectures incomplete

and unrelated record, the simplistic language is that of an early ini-

tiative and not entirely articulate. Too many buildings have been

lost, remodeled, razed and rebuilt, to provide us with a coherent

stylistic statement. Though much has also been lost in the cloister

arts as well, this is less the case in the portable arts, preserved in

museums and in church and state treasuries, such as the rare man-

uscripts and illuminations, which are secured in state and university

libraries. Europe is the beneficiary of its regionalism in the sense


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1 N. Staubach, REX CHRISTIANUS, Hofkultur und Herrschaftspropaganda im ReichKarls des Kahlen. Teil II: Die Grundlegung der religion royale (Cologne, Weimar, Vienna1993), pp. 2ff. for a comprehensive review of the pertinent discussion in the literature.

that many of its regional centers house collections of great impor-

tance by artists working with such luxuries as parchment, precious

stones and metals, with portable and monumental art, with colorsand forms, and in wood, stone or bronze which indicate a conti-

nuity of their own within a widely ranging diversity of the cultural

inventory, but a discontinuity with the Roman past.

The Carolingian period reflects a complex, fertile and often para-

doxical process, full of creative tensions, because of its continuing

proximity to antique Classical models, its sensitivity to its Germanic

heritage and the requirements of Christianity. Great political vio-

lence and individual cruelty coexisted with cultural and spiritual

intentions of the highest order. The investigation of the latter tends

to eclipse the former until a civilizational mosaic is achieved in which

Celto-Germanic attitudes and approaches were reconciled with the

Christian classical heritage. A search of the literature reveals that

older discussions of the period were satisfied to have found a reduc-

tionist common denominator in the Caroliongian link with the Classical

past. While one had once sought historical change as the effectiveness

of the great man, one had similarly attributed the astonishing phe-

nomenon of the Carolingian Renaissance, to the presence of one greatman and his great family, with the individual and collective insight

to value the link with the Christian Classical past. That literature

was judgmental and burdened with the barbarian concept which

denied the Germanic contribution to the early Middle Ages any

merit. In the search for continuity they saw new artistic work as

derivative and unoriginal and sought the validation of the Carolingian

period in its rediscovery of late Roman dynamics, classical values,

rather than as an attempt at social reform by means of educational

reform, hence the emphasis on the component ingredients of the so-called Carolingian Renaissance.1 The very varied regional evidence does

not allow a simplifying label, but despite the nature of the hetero-

geneous evidence a confluence can not be observed. Instead the

dependence on an obvious classical heritage was overly emphasized,

occasional similarities were termed indebtedness to the past, and the

evidence was over-interpreted to support the single-minded histori-

cal purpose that, intent on the creation of a worldly empire, the


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Carolingian courts sponsored only a derivative, self-serving pro-Roman

agenda, which justified the means and intentionally channeled all

military, political and cultural activity toward an end which aimedto establish a unified, homogeneous, Carolingian, sacerdotal, mono-

lithic state in this world, by means of a Roman Revival, of a reno-

vatio imperiiwithin a unifying renaissance as an end in itself within

a given time. One may well ask, how extensive and penetrating this

radiant brilliance of the courtly environment actually shone on the

populace, or whether the patronage was the reserve of a relatively

small circle of initiates. It did not endure for long. The affinity with

the Christian Roman Empire was not entirely appreciated in the lit-

erature, while the inspirational contribution toward an independent,

innovative theological Carolingian inventiveness was largely over-

looked. Admittedly the rupture with late antiquity was not that com-

plete, and a residual admiration of things Roman remained among

the descendant Roman populations, such as that of the surviving

Christian basilicas. But for it to be reborn, an unlikely and intense

attachment to the past would have had to exist which demanded

such a renaissanceto happen. The indications are that the medieval

inhabitants of the old Roman sites were not so awed by the Romanedifices around them that they did not use them as quarries, in order

to obtain building materials for the chapel in Aachen, for instance,

and dismantle even the fortifications of cities for their content of

iron cleats, which instead of mortar, were holding the building stones

together, as they did with the Roman gates in Trier. Had St. Simeon

not walled himself into the Porta Nigra, later to be transformed

into a church, it would not still be standing.

Since the late 1980s new studies have been prepared, which show

that the available material, especially essential documentary evidencehas been subjected to a kaleidoscopic twist and that makes appar-

ent that the Carolingian objective, including the conquests and the

educational reforms, aimed for the establishment of a reformed uni-

versal Christian society on this earth based on spiritually ecclesiasti-

cal Christian values, the Imperium Christianum, toward which the cultural

components constituting the so-called Renaissancewere only a facili-

tating means. Following St. Bonifaces subordination of the East

Frankish church to papal Rome, it follows that the Roman heritage

in its Christian guise would be a strong influence on East Frankish

cultural developments. It appears that the intention to channel all

creative efforts into the realization of a Christian realm became a


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realizable pursuit in Charlemagnes mind following his assumption

of sole power in the realm, toward the middle of the 770s, well

before the start of his political and military actions. To achieve thisend a determined Charlemagne assembled about his own person all

of the activating spiritual, material and energized human resources

available to himthe saints as Soldiers of Christ, religious leaders,

theologians, scholars, especially teachers and designers of curricula,

artists and architects, builders, craftsmen, and all those inspiring orga-

nizers, implementers and facilitators who could give impetus and

coherence to the ideas and ideals and perform the required peda-

gogical task and who would contribute their motivating energies to

the realization of his grandiose design. Charles himself acted as intel-

lectual catalyst to promote its success. The inherent weakness and

practical vulnerability lay in its dependence on the initiator. The

strengths rested on the effective organizational support given to the

educational reforms by the church. The brilliance of the cultural

results was so great that it allowed the objectives and achievements

to be considered a self-sufficient phenomenon to such an extent that

subsequently Charlemagnes actual purpose, the ideal Imperium Christia-

num, was eclipsed by the reality of these achievements. In that viewthe Biblical associations of Carolingian names, the association of the

Franks with the new people of Christ, the Populus Christianus, of Aachen

with a new Athens, a new Rome, a New Jerusalem even, the ele-

vation of an adapted San Vitalein Ravenna to represent the Heavenly

Jerusalem in the palace Chapel of Aachen, were held to be a curi-

ous vanity. Once the idea of an Imperium Christianum on earth is

accepted as a coherent intention, the vanities are no longer curious,

but integral components of the grand cathartic design to reform and

edify society. That it was deemed a success is verified by the cul-mination of Charlemagnes coronation as emperor within the Christian

realm. Unfortunately Louis the Pious was not able to cope with the

challenge to the long term detriment of the united realm.

It is the intention here to continue the exploration of the com-

plex blending of the religious and secular relationships in their diver-

sity set against an historical background. These diverse and apparently

diverging intercultural relationships are reflected in some of the extant

architecture, the arts and crafts commissioned primarily within the

context of the culture conscious court and by the culture-carrying

institutions and the various levels of society as the cultural heritage

of the Christian Roman Empire and of the Celto-Germanic north


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6

were each reconfigured by the other. That is not to say that a uni-

form set of directives for focused artistic production issued from the

courts, however Charlemagnes will was to constitute the catalyst forthe creative crystallizations. Except for the underlying will of the

king, it was rather a pluralistic, loosely coordinated recapitulating

expression of the diverse social interests, which made up the culture-

carrying elites. Its apparent coherence is a product of history. During

the Carolingian Period the centuries-old, non-verbal Celto-Germanic

decorative styles, which already had adapted Roman, chip carved,

ornamental patterns, are replaced only gradually. Instead of contin-

uing the largely incomprehensible, ornamental northern intertwine

of abstract, curvilinear, vegetative and animal complexes of surface

covering and space-filling ornamentation, already found on some

Roman military metal work, Germanic personal ornaments and

portable art, the Celtic, Anglo-Saxon and other Germanic Styles

found use on the largely private art of Christian religious vessels

and in the exquisitely illuminated gospels containing the continuous

texts of the evangelists, and sacramentaries containing the texts of

prayers and ritual directives of the mass. The so-called Carolingian

recapitulation blurred the contours of the component northern,Christian and Classical elements till there developed comprehensi-

ble, often original, creative summarizing emphases on the imaging

principles of representational art for educational purposes. These,

however, were not on behalf of learning for learnings sake, but on

behalf of learning for the sake of the Christian People, for Christianitys

sake. The cultural inventory could be recycled if its utility within the

grandiose design was no longer evident. Heavily influenced by the

admiration of the art forms of the Romano-Mediterranean cultures,

this discovery and recovery served a wide range of cultural activi-ties, or better Renovatio. It favors the didactic, pedagogical use of an

innovative, anthropomorphic, homocentric, representational narrative.

It is engag, message-oriented religious, Christian, and political art,

best illustrated on coins after 804 and cut seals, as part of a Mediter-

raneanization during the Christianizing revolution of the Carolingian

and later Ottonian renaissances. The Christian message, of course,

was primarily based on the spoken and written word, hence the

emphasis on the sumptuous page covered with the precious and

sacred Word, thereby presenting the reader with a reciprocity of over-

whelming visual and edifying intellectual effects. As part of the litur-

gical reform, Christian religious art, the images of Christ and the


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Evangelists, was intended to help focus the attention of the Christian

People on the audible message of Christs death for the sake of their

salvation, a dogma proclaimed through the Word in the Scriptures.A central factor was the reform of the worldly and hence faltering

Merovingian Frankish church toward that end and the replacement

through the Romanization, or what was perceived to be the Roman

rite, of the Merovingian liturgical practice as part of the Carolingian

liturgical reforms and their effect on all aspects of an individuals

cultural, physical and spiritual life, on ideas concerning death and

on all society. The Carolingian church, especially in the Eastern

realm, even in Bavaria, was to be the chief support of the state in

a symbiotic relationship. Hence the key factor for the Renovatio is to

be found within this reform. It was to provide the recapitulating

framework within which the diverse cultural pluralism could evolve

its particular divergent ways. A total rupture with the past had not

occurred. A directed program, promoted by a few individuals at

court, conceiving an undivided political and cultural entity is not

necessary, to praise the cultural accomplishments during the Carolingian

period. That is not to say, that a universalist vision, derived from

the admiration of Romano-Christian examples, played a motivatingrole, for not all held that vision. Such political unity as came into

being within the complex framework of the Carolingian realm allowed

for considerable originality, as well as the recapitulatory continuity

and relative freedom to modify the cultural diversity within it. In

the eastern parts of the Frankish realm there can be no question of

a rebirth, as one can observe adoption, adaptation and innovation

because there was little commensurate indigenous substantive her-

itage on which to draw, other than a probable Germanic worldview.

Yet the region to the east of Austrasia and the Rhine was not acultural void. It had encountered Christianity on various occasions.

Those regions, which had once been part of the Roman Empire,

retained pockets of Christianized Latini. Tribal areas within the

Ostrogothic sphere of influence will have introduced the various tribal

groups to Arianism. Subsequently integrated into the Merovingian

kingdom Christianity was reintroduced by the individual efforts of

such peregrinating Hiberno-Scots as Columban, Kilian and Gallus,

until displaced by successfully coordinated Anglo-Saxon missionaries

and the comprehensive missionary church organization of St. Boni-

face, sanctioned by the papacy. Open to a variety of influences, the

regions link with Christian Rome was consolidated. Interspersed by


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Carolingian holdings the region was quickly ready with the supply

of human and material resources and offered staging areas of oper-

ation in the conversions of pockets of paganism, and the expansivethrusts against Saxons and Avars. Bavaria especially had begun to

play a leading role in its relations with the Lombards and the south-

ern Slavs and papal Rome. The East Frankish lands rendered their

own, indigenous share during the pursuit of missionary work and

the consolidation of the military and economic utilization of and the

urbanization in the new eastern territories. In the foundation of new

Frankish missionary, civilizational centers and schools there, and the

interrelationship among these eastern Frankish centers, their contri-

bution to the advancement of Christianity, literacy, learning, scholarly

and diplomatic leadership for the entire realm was extensive and

very soon shared in the preservation, multiplication and distribution

of the Classical literary heritage. Simultaneously the great names

made noteworthy contributions to theology and the interpretation of

the religious texts and the secular and even vernacular literatures

of the East Frankish kingdom. Shortly following the establishments

of such monastic sites as Fulda, Lorsch, Wrzburg, Reichenau, St.

Gallen, Salzburg and Kremsmnster, prayer communities linked thefoundations, while their schools and scriptoriae made scholars and

teachers available even to the court, brought masters and students

together, while a communications network facilitated the circulation

of the few manuscripts in a loan system to other scriptoriae and

libraries. In less than a century these efforts were to provide to this

region the socio-cultural and political basis on which to assume its

own administrative responsibilities over the region. Within two gen-

erations scholarship no longer needed to rely on scholars from abroad,

but on scholars trained within the Frankish realm.In the pursuit of ideality, the Carolingians did not overlook real-

ity. To demonstrate imperial continuity and hence the legitimacy

and divine authority of the Carolingian dynasty, this transformation

saw the Carolingians leaning on a Rome- and Ravenna/Byzantine-

related symbolism representing the power of the state. This was most

overtly demonstrated ideologically in some architecture, inspired by

Christian Rome, supported by less obvious literature, secular and

such religious art as manuscripts and newly carved ivories, and a

general body of ideas related to Classical, Christian models. However,

the illumination of books in codex-form was not entirely based on

late Roman examples, but was very much an innovation, just as


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ivories were the Carolingian rediscovery of an abandoned Roman

art form. Already queen Theodelindas gospel cover had provided

evidence of the conversion to a classical sense of rational and con-trolled surface ornamentation. The Vitaeof saints, missionaries and

king/emperors followed earlier classical examples; the symbolism of

catacomb and basilica art as well as the pagan (Roman) personifications

were adopted, actually reinvented by the Carolingians in such Christian

art as the ivory carvings. The style of representing majesty or ele-

vated status was borrowed from the mosaics of Roman prototypes;

the transfer of the idea of the Cosmocratorfrom Roman imperial rep-

resentations to the Majestas effigies of Christ, as illustrated on the

Lombardic helmet band of king Agilulf, and the return of this Roman

representation of the imperial pictorial image under the heirs of

Charlemagne and to a Byzantine version under the descendants of

Otto I. The introduction of the abstract sacerdotal concepts in the

new and universal Imperium Christianum displaced the concrete Mero-

vingian notion of the kingdom as personal property. The strategy of

applying such symbolic practices as the anointing of the Carolingian

imperial head, of Charles the Bald, for instance, who was never actu-

ally shown to be Bald, was a deliberate attempt to develop at ahigher level the continuity associations with the Old Testament kings,

first appreciated by those around his grandfather Charlemagne. The

liturgical imperial acclamation formulas echoed Germanic/Roman

tribal/military practices, while the ever-increasing emphasis on a bril-

liant, official, iconographic depiction of imperial ruler portraits on

propagandistic display pages in manuscripts and on coins. These

served to elevate the image, the ideal of the medieval imperial ruler

in the tradition of the Roman emperors and reestablish earlier ideas

of the sacerdotal essence of the ruler, in the Imitatio sacerdotii. In theFrankish realms the Gallo-Roman cultural elites had survived in the

church and come to dominate its institutions where they succeeded

in the transmission of at least some of the Classical ideals of culture

and civilization in their Christian end phase, resulting in that syn-

ergetic collaboration between church and state, so that already in

Merovingian times the scriptoriaof the great monasteries could sup-

ply the rulers with resplendent, dedicated manuscripts.

Charlemagne appears to have attempted to emphasize the legiti-

macy of his rule and its continuity from earlier imperial times by

drawing links with Theoderic the Great, Roman Patricius and Viceroy

of the emperor in Constantinople, and transporting his equestrian


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statue along with the Classical porphyry columns and the general

symbolic plan of the Byzantine church of San Vitale in Ravenna,

named after the bishop Vitalius, the last capital of the West RomanEmpire, to Aachen, Charlemagnes own capital. All were erected in

the new palace complex, the church to become his palace church.

These concerns found expression in other architectural examples as

well. Later emperors deliberately emulated Charlemagne and fos-

tered this show of continuity with him, with the late Roman emper-

ors Constantine, Theodosius and Justinian and especially with favorable

rulers of the Old and New Testaments. Nor is there evidence that

Charlemagne intended to renew the Rome of the early Caesars, and

he had no consistent policy in place to promote the cohesive pro-

gram of a Roman restoration. These are just some of the themes,

which were seen to have contributed to the intellectual concerns of

the Carolingian Renewal. Were the concerns for continuity and legit-

imacy the motivating factors for the generous patronage, which sup-

ported the Renovatio? While other intangible considerations were most

probably involved, the concerns over legitimacy offer an acceptable

rationale, especially if clothed in the motivation aiming to establish

the Imperium Christianum. To bolster the concerns over the justificationof the usurpation of the Frankish throne, the possibilities provided

by tradition and the glory of association with such an admirable goal

as a projected glorious society on earth, which included the inspi-

ration offered by Classical Christian examples was seen to have led

the dynasty to use and emulate past achievements. It is significant

that hitherto the support of the arts had been attributed to the imme-

diate members of the dynasty, of the Carolingian courts and their

respective creative centers, the so-called Palace Schools, of the Caro-

lingian church and its foundations. The court may not deserve tobe singled out as the sole driving force of the renewal. This is par-

ticularly the case when considering the prolific court school of Charles

the Bald and its catering to his representationally flamboyant tastes,

when compared to the modest taste of his brother Ludwig, the

German, a designation given him by the much later Humanists. The

flattering image of the enthroned Charles created by the artists who

supposedly surrounded him is in marked contrast to his vengeful,

cruel and barely mediocre deserts as a monarch. Ludwig will appear

to be the much better ruler, despite a lack of image making. In the

service of the dynasty is it therefore just to speak of Carolingian

Art? A need for image, to express continuity with past greatness


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and to use it as a means to claim and promote new greatness may

have spurred a nostalgic sense of heritage in the search for equal-

ity with Classical Rome. Role models were readily available, as wasthe talent to be assembled with which to implement the transfer

from Roman times. Classical texts and their copies preserved in the

monasteries provided the necessary directives for use in an inventive

rediscovery of early Christian antiquity. As the copies were passed

from site to site, they became models and stimulated imitation and

emulation. For some early works the models appear to have been

lost, though stylistic comparisons point to their former existence. One

frequently, perhaps needlessly, looks for them in Byzantium or north-

ern Italy. The same question is often raised concerning the origin

of the artists.

In at least one sense the idea of a classical renewal was a (mod-

ern?) intellectual trap. On the one hand the nostalgic wish to redis-

cover the splendid past and mold it to establish continuity with it,

became a dominant cultural preoccupation of modern historians. On

the other hand, latent contrary, discontinuous and divergent ten-

dencies remained to surface at unexpected moments, to be registered

with surprise. With these one tried to make the case for disconti-nuity brought on by the Germanic reconfiguration of the successor

kingdoms, recurrences of style, the recall of heroic generation myths,

made to equal those of the Romans, a dissociation from the distant

pagan Roman Empire, the former Imperium Romanum, and for a new

Germanic Imperium Christianum, in which the Franks had displaced

the Romans and now played the select role of the chosen people,

the people of the New Covenant, of the New Israel. In more or

less subtle ways these tenacious, seemingly contrary tendencies did

not let themselves be extinguished but remained as the combinedforces, which provided the justifications for the Carolingian empire.

Erroneously it is frequently seen as an attempted end phase of the

Roman Empire and confused with the later Holy Roman Empire,

as if the three were a continuum. The Carolingian empire is quite

distinct from either. Each of them placed its own particular accents.

The idea of a centralized Carolingian empire, equally unified

throughout is something of a fiction, which was only the intention

of some and did not survive its own inner tensions. It should not

be overlooked that since Merovingian times, tribal law codes, such

as those of the Bavarians, Alemans and Lombards provided the legal

basis for regional identities, so that the divisions did not resemble


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12

chaotic disintegrations. The circumstances of an early withdrawal

from the active world and a series of premature deaths made Charle-

magne and Louis the Pious sole successors, not a deliberate design.Subsequent regional problems in an overextended realm required

regional responses, for instance, to deal with the very many coinci-

dent attacks by Scandinavians, Slavs, Hungarians and the forces of

Islam. As a result of the inner weaknesses, which in part invited the

external attacks from the north, east and south, the center of Europe

was reconstituted by division into sub-kingdoms in order to deal with

the needs of each region more effectively within the construct of the

united empire. The persuasion that even kingdoms were again per-

sonal property to be treated accordingly when needs of inheritance

were to be met, as well as the need for regional administrative

efficiency played a significant role in the various partitions. The

objective was the welfare of the whole and its community of inter-

ests through the effective rule over its parts. Similar to its Roman

predecessor, the Carolingian empire benefited as long as its econ-

omy received such infusions as spoils of conquest could provide.

While looting the Saxons will have contributed relatively little, with

the transfer of the entire and immense treasure of the Avars intoFrankish hands, the benefits will have been extensive, especially con-

tributing to the upward mobility within the ranks of the aristocracy.

Expansion by conquest, too much, too quickly, destabilized the socio-

economic and social structures. When the conquests were halted,

these structures revealed their weaknesses as the inadequate and

overextended system of communications failed, and as the central

authority lost its power of territorial apportionment to its great lords,

who now in nearly hereditary positions turned on one another, as

particular interests gained priority over those of the realm and asthe uncoordinated regions became vulnerable. Strong enough to

harass one another, left to their own resources, they lacked adequate

human, material and communicative means to respond effectively to

attacks from outside. The idea of the universal empire survived as

Imperium Christianum, in which the pope came to play the role of

Pontifex maximus, the supreme ruler.

Against a generally familiar historical background, but with a view

to presenting an interdisciplinary study of the social and cultural

development of Central Europe up to the beginning of the 10th cen-

tury, it is the purpose of this study to discuss the material with the

scribal cultural evidence from Carolingian times, 750900, as pre-


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served in that area of Central Europe which had once constituted

the Carolingian empire and its spheres of influence and to suggest

that at its end, a coherent cultural entity began to come into being.It is this material evidence, which is fundamental to my methodol-

ogy of reading and interpreting the language of significant objects

as a complementary commentary on the language of significant texts.

While objects are characterized by certain disinterestedness, texts are

prone to be tendentious. The inventories are rich with the archeo-

logical evidence of rural and urban settlements deposited in muse-

ums, the churches and museums contain extensive and masterful

collections of decorative friezes, portals, figures, animals and column

capitals in the round and as reliefs, on altar screens, for instance, of

such religious portable art as altars, gem-encrusted crosses and book

covers, reliquaries, monstrances, enamels, utensils, ivories and wall

paintings. In the libraries sufficient rare illuminated manuscripts have

been preserved to allow extensive insights into the work of the great

scriptoriaof the area and of the individual masters working east of

the river Maas and north of the Alps to proclaim the early gloria et

victoria of their imperial, royal or religious patrons. Even fragments

of secular texts have survived to indicate a direction taken by thatliterature. Owing to the circumstance that the portable arts using

ivory, parchment, pigments, gems and precious metals are most

closely linked with the very complex and expensive production of

religious books, such could not be produced as a whim, but required

a supportive network of patrons and sponsors. As will become appar-

ent below, some exemplary books were prepared as royal and epis-

copal commissions, others as gifts for the princes of the state and

church by wealthy individuals, many others were prepared by the

network of monastic scriptoria from available manuscripts as copiesrequested by other religious institutions, coupled with an advanced

supply of raw materials. This was a very elaborate process indeed.

The artistry of the scribes, illuminators, the gold- and bronze smiths

and the ivory- and glass carvers, as well as the architects, have left

spectacular examples of their skills in the service of the church, the

state and their representatives. A review, analysis and discussion of

these works attempts to provide a basis for stylistic comparisons in

order to suggest an image of the period. Because the scribes were

often identical with the illuminators, the terms will be used inter-

changeably, though the work of the scribes, some of them are even

known by name, the script, in the production of a manuscript is not


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our concern, while the work of the illuminator/miniaturist invari-

ably is. It is on the pages of text, however, that the coexistence of

Celto-Germanic ornamentation of the capital display initials of theincipit pages of the Coronation Gospels, for instance, appears in the

context of classical lettering of the text.

Secular architecture in stone is extant in only a few meager exam-

ples from the period under investigation. Wood was the usual build-

ing material of choice. By tracing the excavation of stone foundations

archeology has been able to rediscover the outlines, but can only

conjecture about the superstructures, mainly of the royal residences.

However, even these were subject to neglect and decay, or chang-

ing tastes. The earlier fortifications, called mottes, consisting of raised

mounds surrounded by wooden palisades and moats have generally

not survived as such, having been abandoned and hence eroded or

been integrated into later fortifications. By necessity then, stone archi-

tecture in the service of the church and its institutions will bear the

emphasis of the discussion allowing for the fact that the surviving

examples seem to be examples of immature abilities which have

come to bear perhaps an undue burden of responsibility. Stone archi-

tecture is, of course, an evident link with Rome.This representation of cultural history tries to discuss the coexis-

tent arrangement of this vast, complex array of material. The mod-

ern tendency has been the presentation of specialized studies of

illustrations, art or architecture, or political history and so forth,

allowing stand-alone investigations to exist in isolation. This inter-

cultural/interdisciplinary study, dealing with the socio-cultural his-

tory of this central region, especially in the context of the reconfigured

United Europemainly eastern France, Germany, Italy, and Switzer-

landaims to examine many aspects pertaining to this period ofabout one hundred and fifty years. The teaching and writing of

History is drifting away from the preoccupation with chronology and

national histories.

The book is organized in several parts dealing with a selection of

the available evidence associated with the Carolingians. As a depar-

ture from the method of the previous volumes, this book will not

ret

the carolingians in central europe, their history, arts and architecture

Documents