the cambridge history of canadian...

the cambr idge h i story of

CANADIAN LITERATURE

From Aboriginal writing to Margaret Atwood, this is a completeEnglish-language history of Canadian writing in English and Frenchfrom its beginnings. The multi-authored volume pays special atten-tion to works from the 1960s and after, to multicultural andIndigenous writing, popular literature, and the interaction of anglo-phone and francophone cultures throughout Canadian history.Established genres such as fiction, drama, and poetry are discussedalongside forms of writing which have traditionally received lessattention, such as the essay, nature-writing, life-writing, journalism,and comics, and also writing in which the conventional separationbetween genres has broken down, such as the poetic novel.Writtenby an international team of distinguished scholars, the volumeincludes a separate, substantial section discussing major genres inFrench, as well as a detailed chronology of historical and literary/cultural events, and an extensive bibliography covering criticism inEnglish and French.

Coral Ann Howells is Professor Emerita at the University ofReading and is currently Associate Fellow, Institute of EnglishStudies, University of London. She has published widely on thetopic of Canadian literature, especially on contemporary Canadianwomenwriters includingMargaret Atwood and AliceMunro. Editorof The Cambridge Companion to Margaret Atwood (Cambridge, 2006),she has twice been the recipient of theMargaret Atwood Society BestBook Prize, in 1997 and 2006. She is a Fellow of the Royal Society ofCanada.

Eva -Marie Kroller is Professor in the Department of Englishat the University of British Columbia, Vancouver. Her numerouspublications on Canadian literature include Canadian Travellersin Europe, 1851–1900 (1987), George Bowering: Bright Circles of Colour(1992), and The Cambridge Companion to Canadian Literature (2004).She was editor of Canadian Literature (1995–2003) and she is aFellow of the Royal Society of Canada.

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Cambridge University Press978-0-521-86876-1 - The Cambridge History of Canadian LiteratureEdited by Coral Ann Howells and Eva-Marie KröllerFrontmatterMore information

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THE CAMBRIDGE

HISTORY OF

CANADIAN LITERATURE

*

Edited by

CORAL ANN HOWELLSand

EVA-MARIE KRÖLLER






cambr idge un iver s i t y pre s s

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo, Mexico City

Cambridge University PressThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 8ru, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

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© Cambridge University Press 2009

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exceptionand to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,

no reproduction of any part may take place withoutthe written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2009

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

isbn 978-0-521-86876-1 hardback

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Contents

List of plates page ixList of maps xi

List of contributors xiiAcknowledgments xiii

Chronology xiv

Introductioncoral ann howells and eva-marie kroller 1

part one

OLD AND NEW WORLD, LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE,

THE CANADAS, DOMINION OF CANADA 7

1 . Native societies and French colonization 9barbara belyea

2 . Reports from la Nouvelle-France: the Jesuit Relations, Mariede l’Incarnation, and Élisabeth Bégon 29

e . d . blodgett

3 . Migrations, multiple allegiances, and satirical traditions: fromFrances Brooke to Thomas Chandler Haliburton 47

marta dvor ak

4 . Writing in the Northwest: narratives, journals, letters,1700–1870 67

bruce greenfield

v






5 . Literature of settlement 87carole gerson

6 . History in English and French, 1832–1898 104e . d . blodgett

part two

THE POST-CONFEDERATION PERIOD 125

7 . Post-Confederation poetry 127d. m. r . bentley

8 . Writing by Victorian naturalists 144christoph irmscher

9 . Short fiction 166gerald lynch

10 . Bestselling authors, magazines, and the international market 185michael peterman

11 . Textual and social experiment in women’s genres 204janice f iamengo

12 . Canada and the Great War 224susan fi sher

part three

MODELS OF MODERNITY,

POST-FIRST WORLD WAR 245

13 . Staging personalities in modernism and realism 247irene gammel

14 . E. J. Pratt and the McGill poets 272adrian fowler

Contents

vi






15 . The 1940s and 1950s: signs of cultural change 289coral ann howells

16 . The Centennial 312eva-marie kroller

17 . Forms of non-fiction: Innis, McLuhan, Frye, and Grant 335david staines

part four

AESTHETIC EXPERIMENTS, 1960 AND AFTER 355

18 . Quartet: Atwood, Gallant, Munro, Shields 357robert thacker

19 . The short story 381w. h. new

20 . Canadian drama: performing communities 402anne nothof

21 . Poetry 422kevin mcneilly

22 . Poetry, drama, and the postmodern novel 441ian rae

23 . Comic art and bande dessinée: from the funnies to graphic novels 460jean-paul gabill iet

24 . “Ghost stories”: fictions of history and myth 478teresa gibert

25 . Indigenous writing: poetry and prose 499lally grauer and armand garnet ruffo

26 . Contemporary Aboriginal theater 518helen gilbert

Contents

vii






27 . Transcultural life-writing 536alfred hornung

28 . Multiculturalism and globalization 556neil ten kortenaar

part five

WRITING IN FRENCH 581

29 . Poetry 583robert yergeau

30 . Drama 605jane moss

31 . Fiction 629re jean beaudoin and andre lamontagne

Bibliography 652

Index 706

Contents

viii






List of plates

1. Louis Nicolas, “Capitaine de la nation illinois. Il est armé de sa pipe et deson dard.” (“Chief of the Illinois nation. He is armed with his pipe and hisspear.”) Codex canadiensis (c. 1700). Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa, OK.

page 21

2. “Carte dressée sur le rapport du nommé Onouatary, Sauvage Oneyoutte,établi, à la Présentation le 13 février 1756, dans Journal de la campagned’hiver de Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegros de Léry, 1756.” (“Map drawn upfrom the account of the aforesaid Onouatary, an Oneida Savage, recorded,at the presentation of 13 February 1756, in Gaspard-Joseph Chaussegrosde Léry’s journal of the winter campaign, 1756.”) Musée de la civilisation,collection du Séminaire de Québec, fonds Viger-Verreau. P32/O-94D/L-71.

22

3. Eric Gill, “The Martyrdom of Jean de Brébeuf,” in The Travels and Sufferingsof Father Jean de Brébeuf Among the Hurons of Canada as Described by Himself,ed. and tr. Theodore Besterman (London: Golden Cockerel Press, 1938).Bruce Peel Special Collections Library, University of Alberta.

36

4. a) and b) Gospel of St. Mark in English and Mohawk, tr. Joseph Brant,1787. British Library Board. All Rights Reserved 222.h.17 Rare Books.

56

5. Thomas Chandler Haliburton, The Clockmaker (London: Richard Bentley,1839). Koerner Library, the University of British Columbia.

63

6. Plate III from Catharine Parr Traill and Agnes Fitzgibbon, CanadianWildflowers (1868): “Yellow Adder’s Tongue (Erythronium Americanum),Large White Trillium (Trillium Grandiflorum), Wild Columbine (AquilegiaCanadensis).” Reproduced from the Rare Book Collection of the CanadianMuseum of Nature, Ottawa, Ontario.

149

7. “Prairie Hen (Cupidonia Cupio),” chromolithograph from W. Ross King,The Sportsman and Naturalist in Canada (1866). Courtesy the Lilly Library,Indiana University, Bloomington.

155

8. E. E. S. (i.e. Evvy Smith), “Princess Louise or Woolverton. For theCanadian Horticulturalist,” from The Canadian Horticulturalist 11.9 (1888),frontispiece facing [p. 193]. Author’s collection.

160

9. “Pear Tree, Showing Pendulous Habit Caused by Weight of Fruit,”illustration from photograph in J. T. Bealby, Fruit Ranching in BritishColumbia, 2nd edn. (1911), facing p. 192. Author’s collection.

161

10. Baroness Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven in Costume, c. 1920. GeorgeGrantham Bain Collection, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.

250

ix






11. F. P. Grove and Family, Lake Winnipeg, 1923. Leonard and Mary Grove,Toronto, Ontario.

254

12. Cover image, Robert J. Stead’s Grain (1926). George H. Doran Company. 258

13. L.M. Montgomery, “Myself in 1902,” self-portrait photograph taken in herbedroom in Cavendish. L.M. Montgomery Collection, Archival and SpecialCollections, University of Guelph Archives. L. M. Montgomery is a trademarkof Heirs of L. M. Montgomery Inc.

266

14. Graeme Taylor, John Glassco, and Robert McAlmon on the beach at Nice,c. 1928. PA 188182. Library and Archives of Canada. Courtesy of WilliamToye, literary executor for the estate of John Glassco.

270

15. “Nelvana of the Northern Lights,” drawn by Adrian Dingle, front coverTriumph-Adventure Comics, c. 1945. Copyright Nelvana Limited. Usedwith permission. All rights reserved. Copyright Library and ArchivesCanada. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Public Worksand Government Services Canada (2008).

465

16. Steven Keewatin Sanderson, Darkness Calls. Healthy Aboriginal Network,Vancouver, 2006.

466

17. Margaret Atwood, “Survivalwoman.” Copyright Margaret Atwood,This Magazine, 1975.

470

List of plates

x






List of maps

1. Canada page xlvi2. Tribal distributions in and near Canada at time of contact xlvii

xi






List of contributors

RE J EAN BEAUDO IN University of British ColumbiaBARBARA BELYEA University of CalgaryD. M. R. BENTLEY University of Western OntarioE. D. BLODGETT University of AlbertaMARTA DVOŘ A K Sorbonne NouvelleJ AN ICE F IAMENGO University of OttawaSUSAN F I SHER University of the Fraser ValleyADR IAN FOWLER Sir Wilfred Grenfell College, Memorial University of NewfoundlandJ EAN -PAUL GAB I LL I ET Université de BordeauxIRENE GAMMEL Ryerson UniversityCAROLE GERSON Simon Fraser UniversityTERESA GIBERT Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, MadridHELEN GILBERT Royal Holloway College, University of LondonLALLY GRAUER University of British Columbia OkanaganBRUCE GREENF I E LD Dalhousie UniversityALFRED HORNUNG Johannes-Gutenberg-UniversitätCORAL ANN HOWELL S University of Reading / University of LondonCHR I STOPH IRMSCHER Indiana UniversityNEIL TEN KORTENAAR University of TorontoEVA -MAR I E KR O LLER University of British ColumbiaANDR E LAMONTAGNE University of British ColumbiaGERALD LYNCH University of OttawaKEV IN MCNE I LLY University of British ColumbiaJ ANE MOS S Colby College / Duke UniversityWILL IAM H. NEW University of British ColumbiaANNE NOTHOF Athabasca UniversityMICHAEL PETERMAN Trent UniversityIAN RAE King’s University College at The University of Western OntarioARMAND GARNET RUFFO Carleton UniversityDAV ID STA INE S University of OttawaROBERT THACKER St. Lawrence UniversityROBERT YERGEAU University of Ottawa

xii






Acknowledgments

We thank the contributors for their fine work and collegiality, the Universityof British Columbia and the Foundation for Canadian Studies in the UnitedKingdom for financial support, Laura Potter and Melanie Sanderson for excel-lent research assistance, Dominique Yupangco and Miranda Clifford for experttechnical help, and Patricia Lackie and Carol Wong for efficient clerical sup-port. Robin Howells, David Staines, André Lamontagne, Réjean Beaudoin,Lally Grauer, and Gordon Bölling gave generous scholarly advice. We alsothank the individuals who assisted us with the illustrations, and acknowledgeespecially Robert Desmarais of the Bruce Peel Special Collections Library at theUniversity of Alberta and Sean Muir of the Healthy Aboriginal Network,as well as Tim Ford for his work on the illustrations in Christoph Irmscher’schapter.We thank Rebecca Jones and RosinaDiMarzo at Cambridge UniversityPress, and our copy editor, David Watson. Sarah Stanton was, as always, aninspiring editor.

xiii






Chronology

Year Historical Literary and Cultural

c. 12,000 BCE Asiatic migrants cross landbridge in the Bering Sea toNorth America

c. 11,000 BCE Bluefish Caves (Yukon): earliestevidence of human habitationin North America currentlyrecorded

10,000–8000 BCE Cordilleran and Laurentian icesheets retreat

Fluted Point and EarlyMicroblade cultures spreadacross North America

8000–4000 BCE Plano people: first recordedcremation burial

4000–1000 BCE Maritime Archaic people: usetoggling harpoon and largewatercraft; construct burialmounds containing funerealgifts; Laurentian Archaic andShield Archaic people: leavegifts, some elaboratelycrafted, with the dead

1000 BCE–CE 500 Point Peninsula / Meadowood /Saugeen people: earth-mound burial; silverornaments

Middle Northwest Coastpeople: development ofelaborate artifacts

Late Palaeo-Eskimo: boneand ivory carvings

xiv







CE 500–Europeancontact

Northern Algonquin (includingBeothuk) and Late Nesikep:rock art

985/986 First European sighting of BaffinIsland (“Helluland”), Labrador(“Markland”), and the Gulfof St. Lawrence (“Vinland”),as recounted in BjarnoHarjulfsen’s GraenlendingaSaga

1000 Viking Settlement inNewfoundland

1390–1450 Iroquois Confederacy1497 John Cabot sails to

Newfoundland1545 Jacques Cartier, Bref récit et

succincte narration de lanavigation faite en MDXXXV etMDXXXVI par le CapitaineJacques Cartier aux îles deCanada, Hochelaga, Saguenayet autres

1534 Jacques Cartier sails to the Gulfof St. Lawrence

1556 First map of New France, byGiacomo Gastaldi, publishedin Giovanni Ramusio’sNavigationi e viaggi, anaccount of Cartier’s 1534voyage

1576, 1577, 1578 Martin Frobisher’s Arcticexpeditions

1605 Founding of Port Royal1606 Marc Lescarbot’s Le Théâtre de

Neptune performed in PortRoyal harbor

1608 Quebec founded by Samuelde Champlain

1610 Henry Hudson sails to HudsonBay

Jesuit Relations (published1632–73) begin with PierreBiard’s letters from Acadia

1613 Les Voyages du Sieur deChamplain Xaintongeois

Chronology

xv







1624 First written treaty (Algonquin–French–Mohawk Peace)

1627 Creation of the Compagnie descent associés

1632 Gabriel Sagard, Le Grand Voyagedu pays des Hurons; Marie del’Incarnation begins her Écritsspirituels (1632–1654)

1642 Ville Marie (Montreal) founded1639 Marie de l’Incarnation sails for

Quebec1659 Pierre-Esprit Radisson and

Médard Chouart deGroseilliers travel to LakeSuperior and Michigan

1664 François du Creux, in Historiaecanadiensis, seu Nova-Franciae,describes an “immensity ofwoods and prairies”

Pierre Boucher, Histoire véritableet naturelle des mœurs etproductions du pays de laNouvelle-France

1670 Hudson’s Bay Company beginsoperations

1680 Death of Kateri Tekakwitha(beatified in 1980)

1694 L’Affaire Tartuffe1697 Louis Hennepin’s Nouvelle

découverte d’un très grand paysfeatures the first publishedillustration of Niagara Falls

1701 Peace of Montreal1703 Louis-Armand de Lahontan,

Nouveaux voyages de M. lebaron de Lahontan dansl’Amérique septentrionale;Mémoires de l’Amériqueseptentrionale (1703);Supplément aux voyages duBaron de Lahontan (1704)

1713 Treaty of Utrecht1744 Pierre-François Xavier de

Charlevoix, Histoire etdescription générale de laNouvelle France

1748 Marie-Elisabeth Bégon(1696–1755) writes letters to

Chronology

xvi







her son-in-law, published asLettres au cher fils (ed. NicoleDeschamps) in 1972

1751 First printing press in NovaScotia

1753 Peter Kalm’s Travels publishedin Sweden (English version:1770)

1755 Deportation of the Acadians1756 Seven Years’ War begins

(1756–63)1759 Battle of the Plains of Abraham1763 Treaty of Paris1764 First printing press in Quebec:

La Gazette de Québec beginspublication

1769 Frances Brooke, The History ofEmily Montague

1775 American War of Independencebegins (1775–83)

1776 American Declaration ofIndependence

1778 James Cook in Nootka Sound Gazette littéraire de Montréalbegins publication (1778–9)

1792 Captains George Vancouverand Dionisio Alcalà Galianoon the West Coast

1783 An estimated 40,000 Loyalistsemigrate from the UnitedStates to Maritimes andCanada

1789 French Revolution; AlexanderMackenzie travels toBeaufort Sea (1793 expeditionfrom Canada to Pacific,arriving at the Bella CoolaRiver)

1812 War of 1812; Selkirk Settlementon Red River founded

1819–22 First Franklin overlandexpedition

1821 Completion of Lachine Canal Thomas McCulloch, Letters ofMephibosheth Stepsure; Julia

Chronology

xvii







Hart, St. Ursula’s Convent; or,The Nun of Canada

1825 Oliver Goldsmith, The RisingVillage

1829 Shanawdithit (known as Nancyor Nance April), the lastknown Beothuk, dies

1832 John Richardson, Wacousta; or,The Prophecy

1833 First Canadian steamship, theRoyal William, crosses theAtlantic

1836 Catharine Parr Traill, TheBackwoods of Canada; ThomasChandler Haliburton, TheClockmaker, or The Sayings andDoings of Samuel Slick ofSlickville

1837 Rebellion, Upper Canada,Lower Canada

Aubert de Gaspé fils, L’Influenced’un livre

1838 Literary Garland (1838–51); AnnaJameson, Winter Studies andSummer Rambles in Canada

1839 Lord Durham’s Report1841 Act of Union (Upper and

Lower Canada)1844 Institut canadien founded;

Toronto Globe establishedAntoine Gérin-Lajoie, “UnCanadien errant: le proscrit”

1845 François-Xavier Garneau,Histoire du Canada depuis sadécouverte jusqu’à nos joursbegins publication: 4 vols.(1845–8)

1845 Last sighting, in July, of Sir JohnFranklin’s second overlandexpedition in Baffin Bay;Franklin’s disappearancetriggers some forty-twoexpeditions into the ArcticNorth between 1847 and 1879

1846 Patrice Lacombe, La Terrepaternelle

1847 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow,Evangeline, a Tale of Acadie

Chronology

xviii







1848 James Huston, Le Répertoirenational, ou Recueil delittérature canadienne; PierreBoucher de Boucherville, Unede perdue, deux de trouvées

1852 Susanna Moodie, Roughing itin the Bush

1853 Moodie, Life in the Clearings;Olivier Chauveau, CharlesGuérin

1854 Seigneurial system abolished;Reciprocity Treaty betweenCanada and the United States(the first international freetrade agreement)

1856 Charles Sangster, TheSt. Lawrence and the Saguenay

1857 Ottawa named capital ofCanada; Palliser and Hind-Dawson expeditions toNorthwest

1862 Octave Crémazie, “Promenadede trois morts”; Gérin-Lajoie,Jean Rivard, le défricheurcanadien

1863 Aubert de Gaspé père, LesAnciens Canadiens; GoldwinSmith, The Empire

1864 Rosanna Leprohon, Antoinette deMirecourt; Antoine Gérin-Lajoie, Jean Rivard,économiste; Arthur Buies,Lettres sur le Canada; CharlesTaché, Forestiers et voyageurs;Revue canadienne beginspublication (1864–1922)

1865 Ernest Gagnon, Chansonspopulaires du Canada

1866 Napoléon Bourassa, Jacqueset Marie

1867 British North America Act;Confederation; ConstitutionAct recognizes English andFrench as official languages in

Chronology

xix







Parliament and Canadiancourts; Sir John MacdonaldPrime Minister (1867–73;1878–91)

1868 Canada First Movementfounded

Catharine Parr Traill and AgnesMoodie Fitzgibbon, CanadianWild Flowers

1869 Red River Rebellion(led by Louis Riel)

Canadian Illustrated News beginspublication (1869–83)

1870 Manitoba and NorthwestTerritories joinConfederation

1871 British Columbia joinsConfederation

1872 Creation of the Public Archivesof Canada

1873 Prince Edward Island joinsConfederation

1875 Honoré Beaugrand, Jeanne laFileuse begins publication inLa République

1876 Indian Act1877 William Kirby, The Golden Dog:

A Legend of Quebec1880 Calixa Lavallée composes

“O Canada” (wordsAdolphe-Basile Routhier)

Ch. G. D. Roberts, Orion andOther Poems

1882 Royal Society of Canadafounded by the Marquis deLorne, Governor-General ofCanada

1884 Standard Time Zone systemintroduced; potlatchceremony prohibited; RielRebellion(1884–5)

Laure Conan, Angéline deMontbrun; Isabella ValancyCrawford, Old Spookses’ Pass,Malcolm’s Katie and OtherPoems

1885 Canadian Pacific Railwaycompleted; ChineseImmigration Act

1887 Louis Fréchette, La Légende d’unpeuple; Saturday Nightmagazine begins publication(1887–2001)

Chronology

xx







1888 Archibald Lampman, Among theMillet; James de Mille, AStrange Manuscript Found ina Copper Cylinder; The Weekbegins publication (1888–95)

1889 William D. Lighthall, Songs ofthe Great Dominion

1890 Manitoba Schools Act1892 Louis Fréchette, Originaux et

détraqués1893 Canadian Magazine (combined

earlier Massey’s Magazine andCanadian Magazine of Politics,Science, Art and Literature)begins publication (1893–1937)

1895 L’École littéraire de Montréalfounded; Jules-Paul Tardivel,Pour la Patrie

1896 Sir Wilfrid Laurier PrimeMinister (1896–1911)

Gilbert Parker, The Seats of theMighty; Ch. G.D. Roberts,Earth’s Enigmas; Maclean’sMagazine begins publication;Edmond de Nevers, L’Avenirdu peuple canadien-français

1897 Women’s Institute established William Drummond, TheHabitant and Other FrenchCanadian Poems

1898 Yukon Territory formed Ernest Thompson Seton,WildAnimals I Have Known

1899–1902 Boer War causes divisivenessbetween English and FrenchCanadians

1901 Ralph Connor, The Man fromGlengarry

1904 Sara Jeannette Duncan, TheImperialist; Émile Nelligan etson œuvre, ed. Louis Dantin;Rodolphe Girard, MarieCalumet; Charles ab derHalden, Études de littératurecanadienne-française;Pamphile Le May, LesGouttelettes

Chronology

xxi







1905 Alberta and Saskatchewanbecome provinces

1906 Camille Roy gives his firstcourse in Canadian literature;Alfred Garneau, Poésies

1907 Robert Service, Songs of aSourdough; Albert Lozeau,L’Âme solitaire; Camille Roy,Essais sur la littératurecanadienne; Tableau del’histoire de la littératurecanadienne-française

1908 L.M. Montgomery, Anne ofGreen Gables; NellieMcClung, Sowing Seeds inDanny; Martin AllerdaleGrainger, Woodsmen of theWest

1909 Canadian Commission ofConservation established

1911 Pauline Johnson, Legends ofVancouver; “Lettres deFadette” begin in Le Devoir;Paul Morin, Le Paon d’émail

1912 Public Archives Act Stephen Leacock, SunshineSketches of a Little Town

1913 National Gallery of Canada Act Marjorie Pickthall, The Driftof Pinions; BlancheLamontagne-Beauregard,Visions gaspésiennes

1914 First World War begins; WarMeasures Act; KomagataMaru Incident

Adjutor Rivard, Chez nous;Arsène Bessette, Le Débutant;film: Edward Curtis, In theLand of the Head Hunters

1915 John McCrae’s “In FlandersFields” published in Punchmagazine

1916 Voting rights to women inManitoba, Saskatchewan,Alberta

Louis Hémon, MariaChapdelaine, serialized in LeTemps (France), 1914; MarcelDugas, Psyché au cinéma

1917 Halifax Explosion; ConscriptionCrisis; Battle of Vimy Ridge

Chronology

xxii







1918 First World War ends Albert Laberge, La Scouine; LeNigog founded (twelveissues); Camille Roy, Manueld’histoire de la littératurecanadienne-française

1919 Winnipeg General Strike;Immigration AmendmentAct

Lionel Groulx, La Naissanced’une race; Marie-Victorin,Récits laurentiens; CanadianBookman begins publication(1919–39)

1920 Group of Seven founded; RayPalmer Baker, A History ofEnglish Canadian Literature toConfederation; Jean-AubertLoranger, Les Atmosphères

1921 Mackenzie King Prime Minister(1921–6, 1926–30, 1935–48)

Canadian Authors’ Associationfounded; Léon Petitjean andHenri Rollin, Aurore, l’enfantmartyre

1922 Prix Athanase-David founded1923 Chinese Exclusion Act1924 Lionel Groulx, Notre maître le

passé1925 F. P. Grove, Settlers of the Marsh;

Martha Ostenso, Wild Geese;McGill Fortnightly Reviewbegins publication (1925–7);Robert Choquette, À traversles vents

1927 Old Age Pensions Act F. P. Grove, A Search for America;Mazo de la Roche, Jalna

1928 Chatelaine beginspublication

1929 Persons Case; Wall Street Crash Alfred Desrochers, À l’ombre del’Orford

1931 Statute of Westminster Jovette Bernier, La Chairdécevante; Albert Pelletier,Carquois

1933 Claude-Henri Grignon, Unhomme et son péché (radioserial 1939–62); AlainGrandbois, Né à Québec;Charles G. D. Roberts, Eyesof the Wilderness

Chronology

xxiii







1932 Jean Narrache, Quand j’parl’ toutseul

1934 Morley Callaghan, Such Is MyBeloved; Jean-Charles Harvey,Les Demi-Civilisés; AlainGrandbois, Poèmes; MédjeVézina, Chaque heure a sonvisage; Simone Routier,La Tentation

1935 John Buchan (LordTweedsmuir) Governor-General (1935–40)

1936 Canadian BroadcastingCorporation established asindependent Crowncorporation; Trans-CanadaAirlines (changed to AirCanada 1965)

First Governor General’sLiterary Awards; MorleyCallaghan, Now That April’sHere and Other Stories; A. J. M.Smith et al., New Provinces

1937 Donald Creighton, TheCommercial Empire of theSt. Lawrence, 1760–1850;Hector de Saint-DenysGarneau, Regards et jeux dansl’espace; Félix-Antoine Savard,Menaud, maître-draveur;Gratien Gélinas, Fridolinades

1938 Ringuet, Trente arpents1939 Canada enters the Second

World WarNational Film Board founded;Anne Marriott, The Wind OurEnemy; Irene Baird,WasteHeritage; Léo-Paul Desrosiers,Les Engagés du Grand Portage

1940 Unemployment Insurance Act;voting rights granted towomen in Quebec (the lastprovince to do so)

A.M. Klein, Hath Not a Jew;E. J. Pratt, Brébeuf and HisBrethren

1941 Pearl Harbor Emily Carr, Klee Wyck; SinclairRoss, As For Me and My House;Hugh MacLennan, BarometerRising

1942 Dominion Plebiscite Act;Conscription Crisis;Internment of JapaneseCanadians

Earle Birney, David and OtherPoems

Chronology

xxiv







1943 A. J.M. Smith, News of thePhoenix; Book of CanadianPoetry: A Critical and HistoricalAnthology; E. K. Brown, OnCanadian Poetry; Félix Leclerc,Adagio

1944 Donald Creighton, Dominionof the North; GwethalynGraham, Earth and HighHeaven; Roger Lemelin, Aupied de la pente douce; YvesThériault, Contes pour unhomme seul; Alain Grandbois,Les Îles de la nuit

1945 Germany capitulates; nuclearbombs dropped onHiroshima and Nagasaki;Japan capitulates

Gabrielle Roy, Bonheurd’occasion (1947 Prix Fémina);Hector de Saint-DenysGarneau, Journal; GermaineGuèvremont, Le Survenant;Hugh MacLennan, TwoSolitudes; Elizabeth Smart,By Grand Central Station I SatDown and Wept

1946 Canadian Citizenship Act Félix Leclerc, Pieds nus dansl’aube; Gilles Hénault, Théâtreen plein air; Berthelot Brunet,Histoire de la littératurecanadienne-française; LionelGroulx founds the Institutd’histoire de l’Amériquefrançaise

1947 Chinese Exclusion Act revoked;GATT (General Agreementon Tariffs and Trade)

John Sutherland, OtherCanadians; Malcolm Lowry,Under the Volcano;W.O. Mitchell,Who Has Seenthe Wind; Rina Lasnier, LeChant de la montée; ClémentMarchand, Les Soirs rouges;Robert Charbonneau, LaFrance et nous

1948 Japanese Canadians (as lastAsian Canadians) acquire theright to vote; Universal

Paul-Émile Borduas et al.,Refus global; Gratien Gélinas,Tit-Coq; Roger Lemelin, Les

Chronology

xxv







Declaration of HumanRights, United Nations

Plouffe; Paul-Marie Lapointe,Le Vierge incendié

1949 Asbestos Strike in Quebec;Newfoundland entersConfederation

Françoise Loranger, Mathieu;Robert Giguère, Faire naître;Paul Borduas, Projectionslibérantes; Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau, Poésiescomplètes

1950 Pierre Trudeau and GérardPelletier found Cité libre;Anne Hébert, Le Torrent;Harold Innis, Empire andCommunications; DorothyLivesay, Call My People Home;John Coulter, Riel; GabrielleRoy, La Petite Poule d’eau;Robert Elie, La Fin des songes;Lionel Groulx, Histoire duCanada français depuis ladécouverte, 4 vols.

1951 Indian Act; Report of the RoyalCommission on NationalDevelopment in the Arts,Letters and Sciences (theMassey Report)

A.M. Klein, The Second Scroll;Marshall McLuhan, TheMechanical Bride

1952 Vincent Massey first CanadianGovernor-General; NationalLibrary Act; UniversalCopyright Act

Ernest Buckler, The Mountainand the Valley; E. J. Pratt,Towards the Last Spike; MarcelDubé, De l’autre côté du mur;Emile Nelligan, Poésiescomplètes, 1896–1899, ed. LucLacourcière; Ernest Gagnon,L’Homme d’ici

1953 Historic Sites and MonumentsAct

Anne Hébert, Le Tombeau desrois; Marcel Dubé, Zone;André Langevin, Poussière surla ville

1954 Ethel Wilson, Swamp Angel;Mordecai Richler, TheAcrobats; Hector de Saint-Denys Garneau, Journal; YvesThériault, Aaron

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1954–75 Vietnam War; Canada receivesmore than 125,000 draftevaders from the US

Margaret Laurence, A Tree forPoverty

1955 Gabrielle Roy, Rue Deschambault;music: Glenn Gould recordsBach’s Goldberg Variations;Félix Leclerc records “Moi,mes souliers”

1956 Avro Arrow productioncancelled

Leonard Cohen, Let Us CompareMythologies; Adele Wiseman,The Sacrifice; Sam Selvon,The Lonely Londoners

1957 Lester Pearson receives theNobel Peace Prize; CanadaCouncil Act

New Canadian Library beginspublication under theeditorship of Malcolm Ross;Northrop Frye, Anatomy ofCriticism; John Marlyn, Underthe Ribs of Death; MordecaiRichler, A Choice of Enemies;Jacques Languirand, LesGrands Départs

1958 Yves Thériault, Agaguk;Norman Levine, CanadaMade Me; Marcel Dubé, Unsimple soldat; Jacques Ferron,Les Grands Soleils; Michel vanSchendel, Poèmes del’Amérique étrangère; PrixFrance-Canada founded(1982: Prix Québec-Paris)

1959 Maurice Duplessis, Premier ofQuebec, dies, ending “Lagrande noirceur”; St.Lawrence Seaway completed

Canadian Literature beginspublication under theeditorship of GeorgeWoodcock; Libertéestablished; Mordecai Richler,The Apprenticeship of DuddyKravitz; Sheila Watson, TheDouble Hook; Irving Layton, ARed Carpet for the Sun; HughMacLennan, The Watch ThatEnds the Night; GratienGélinas, Bousille et les justes;Marie-Claire Blais, La BelleBête; Gilbert Langevin, À lagueule du jour

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1960 Quiet Revolution 1960–6;Rassemblement pourl’indépendance nationale(RIN) founded; Status Indiansacquire the right to vote;regular jet-service Toronto–Vancouver

Margaret Avison, Winter Sun;Phyllis Brett Young, TheTorontonians; MargaretLaurence, This Side Jordan;Brian Moore, The Luck ofGinger Coffey; Jean-PaulDesbiens, Les Insolences d’unfrère untel; Gérard Bessette,Le Libraire; Châtelaine beginspublication

1961 Parent Commission beginswork

Margaret Atwood, DoublePersephone; TISH beginspublication (1961–9); JeanLe Moyne, Convergences

1962 Trans-Canada highwaycompleted

Marshall McLuhan, TheGutenberg Galaxy; EarleBirney, Ice Cod Bell or Stone;Rudy Wiebe, Peace ShallDestroy Many; GillesMarcotte, Une Littérature quise fait; Jacques Ferron, Contesdu pays incertain

1963 Lester Pearson Prime Minister(1963–8); Jacques Ferronfounds the Rhinoceros Party;the Front de libération duQuébec (FLQ) plants its firstbomb (at the English-speaking CKGM radiostation)

Solange Chaput-Rolland andGwethalyn Graham, Chersennemis / Dear Enemies;Farley Mowat, Never CryWolf; Leonard Cohen, TheFavourite Game; MargaretLaurence, The Tomorrow-Tamer; The Prophet’s CamelBell; Mordecai Richler, TheIncomparable Atuk; Parti prisbegins publication (1963–8);Pierre Vadeboncœur, LaLigne du risque; GatienLapointe, Ode au Saint-Laurent

1964 Marshall McLuhan,Understanding Media;Margaret Laurence, The StoneAngel; Jane Rule, Desert of theHeart; Earle Birney, Near FalseCreek Mouth; Paul

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Chamberland, L’Afficheurhurle; Terre Québec; ClaudeJasmin, Ethel et le terroriste;Jacques Renaud, Le Cassé;Jean Basile, La Jument desMongoles; film: Gilles Groulx,Le Chat dans le sac; MichelBrault, Pierre Perreault,Pour la suite du monde

1965 Canada adopts the Maple Leafflag

George Grant, Lament for aNation; Carl F. Klinck et al.,Literary History of Canada inEnglish; Hubert Aquin,Prochain épisode; Marie-ClaireBlais, Une saison dans la vied’Emmanuel (Prix Médicis);Claire Martin, Dans un gantde fer; Jacques Godbout, LeCouteau sur la table; RolandGiguère, L’Âge de la parole:poèmes inédits 1949–1960;Jacques Ferron, La Nuit;Jacques Brault, Mémoire; firstperformance of “Mon pays”by Gilles Vigneault; PrixFrance-Québec founded(now France-Québec Jean-Hamelin); Edmund Wilson,O Canada: An American’sNotes on Canadian Culture;film: Gilles Carle, La Vieheureuse de Léopold Z;Arthur Lamothe, Poussièresur la ville

1966 Medical Care Act Leonard Cohen, Beautiful Losers;Réjean Ducharme, L’Avaléedes avalés

1967 Centennial of Confederation;Expo 67 in Montreal; RenéLevesque founds theMouvement souveraineté-association

House of Anansi founded byDave Godfrey and DennisLee; Marshall McLuhan,The Medium Is the Massage;George Ryga, The Ecstasy of

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Rita Joe; John Herbert, Fortuneand Men’s Eyes; P. K. Page,Cry Ararat!; Scott Symons,Place d’Armes; JacquesGodbout, Salut Galarneau!;Glenn Gould, The Idea ofNorth; Yves Préfontaine, Payssans parole; André Prévost,Michèle Lalonde, Terre deshommes (oratorio); MichelBrault, Entre la mer et l’eaudouce; Gérald Godin, LesCantouques; Pierre deGrandpré, ed., Histoire de lalittérature française du Québec,4 vols., begins publication(1967–9)

1968 Pierre Trudeau Prime Minister(1968–79; 1980–4); PartiQuébécois founded

Dennis Lee, Civil Elegies;Margaret Atwood, TheAnimals in That Country; billbissett, awake in the red desert;Alice Munro, Dance of theHappy Shades; MordecaiRichler, Cocksure; MargaretAtwood, The Animals in ThatCountry; Hubert Aquin, Troude mémoire (refuses GovernorGeneral’s Award); PierreVallières, Nègres blancsd’Amérique; MichelTremblay, Les Belles-Sœurs;Denis Héroux, Valérie; RochCarrier, La Guerre yes sir!;Fernand Dumont, Le Lieu del’homme; Victor-LévyBeaulieu begins La Vraie Sagades Beauchemin

1969 Official Languages Act passed;White Paper

Harold Cardinal, The UnjustSociety: The Tragedy ofCanada’s Indians; GeorgeGrant, Technology and Empire;Jacques Ferron, Le Ciel de

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