the best guide to ielts writing

NGUYEN KHAC THUC _IELTS_WRITING

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THE BEST GUIDES TO IELTS WRITING


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FORMAL AND INFORMAL WORD LIST

Rules for formal writing are quite strict, though often unstated. Formal writing is used in academic and

scientific settings whenever you want to convey your ideas to a wide audience, with many possible backgrounds

and assumptions. Unlike casual conversation or emails to friends, formal writing needs to be clear,

unambiguous, literal, and well structured.

Table 01:

Ord

INFORMAL/EVERYDAY

FORMAL/ACADEMIC

VIETNAMESE MEANING

01 a lot of/ loads of/ plenty of a great deal of /numerous/ several nhiu

02 a bit Somewhat (before adj. or adv.)/ slightly mt cht t

03 to get together to collaborate with sbd on smth cng tc

04 to start/to begin to initiate/to commence smth/v-ing bt u khi u

05 big large (number/percentage), considerable ln, to ln

06 thing device/object vt dng/vt th

07 stuff material cht liu, vt liu

08 to find out to ascertain/discover tm ra, tm thy

09 to do again to repeat lp li


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10 to do well to succeed thnh cng

11 to set up to establish thit lp

12 to cut down on to reduce gim bt

13 to go up to increase tng ln

14 to come up with to create to ra

15 to look into to investigate iu tra

16 to go up and down to fluctuate dao ng

17 to bring up a question to raise a question a ra vn

18 to get rid of to eliminate loi b

19 to turn down smth to refuse t chi

20 to turn out smth to produce lm ra, to ra

21 to take smth back to retract (a statement) rt li

22 to put off smth to postpone smth hon li

23 to put up with to tolerate chu ng

24 to put away smth to save tit kim, dnh

25 to put down to smth to attribute to quy cho, gn cho

26 to come about to occur xy ra

27 to give up to relinquish t b

28 to go back/give back return to swh/ smth tr li/ tr li

29 to give off smth to produce (heat) sn sinh, to ra

30 to give away to betray tit l, phn bi

31 to carry out smth to conduct tin hnh

32 to seem to appear hnh nh, dng nh

33 to climb to ascend i ln, tng ln (s lng)

34 to help to assist/ aid gip

35 to stop to cease dng li

36 to use to consume dng, tiu dng

37 to shorten to decrease/ to abbreviate gim bt/ rt ngn

37 to show to demonstrate ch ra, chng minh

38 to go to depart i, khi hnh


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39 to want to desire mong mun

40 to end to finish/ to terminate kt thc

41 to tell to inform thng tin, cho bit

42 to keep preserve/ retain gi gn/ gi

43 to say no to reject t chi

44 to free to release/ to liberate tr t do, phng thch

45 to mend/ to fix to repair sa cha

46 to need to require cn

47 to live to reside ti, tr ti

48 in the end finally/ultimately cui cng

49 at once immediately ngay lp tc

50 at the same time simultaneously/ concurrently ng thi, cng lc

51 at first initially u tin

52 on and off intermittently gin on, lc c lc khng

53 mainly principally/primarily ch yu

54 next subsequently tip theo

55 again and again repeatedly lp i lp li

56 so therefore/ consequently v th, v vy

57 understanding comprehension s hiu

58 lack deficiency s thiu ht

59 chance opportunity c hi, dp

60 sweat perspiration m hi

61 house residence ni c tr (count)

62 sight vision kh nng nhn, th gic

63 friendly amiable thn mt

64 whole complete ton b

65 lively energetically/animated y sinh lc/ sng ng

67 lucky fortunate may mn


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68 childish immature/ infantile nh tr con (tnh cch)

69 wrong incorrect/questionable sai/ c vn

70 worse inferior to thp km hn

71 cheap inexpensive r

72 dim indistinct khng r rng, m

73 mad insane in

74 to lay back to relax th gin

75 in charge of responsible for chu trch nhim

76 enough sufficient y

77 better superior to tt hn, gii hn

78 clear transparent r rng

79 empty vacant trng khng

80 to ask for to require/ to request i hi, yu cu

81 hot (topic) controversial ang gy tranh ci

82 more and more Increasingly/ unceasingly/non-stop tng ln khng ngng

83 to get to obtain/ to receive t c, ly , mua

84 bad disappointing ti t, ng tht vng

85 to get worse to deteriorate tr nn xu i

86 horrible unacceptable khng th chp nhn, kinh khng

87 to come in to enter i vo

88 to talk about to discuss tho lun

89 to go down to descend i xung, gim xung

90 to come up with to suggest gi , a ra

91 to look at to examine xem xt

92 to pin down to determine quyt tm , dt khot

93 to experience the influence of to be influenced chu nh hng

94 Lets consider It is important to consider hy cn nhc, xem xt

95 I love/like/prefer Personally, I favour Ti thch, ti ng h

96 On top of that Another point is mt im khc na l


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97 Government must make laws There is a need for laws cn c lut v

98 In a nutshell To state it briefly/ In brief tm li

99 Every coin has two sides There are advantages and disadvantages to mi vn u c u im v nhc im

100 by chance Incidentally nhn tin

101 to try to attempt/ to endeavor c gng

102 to swap to exchange trao i

103 as far as x goes in respect of / with respect to i vi, v phn

104 to skip omit/not attend smth b qua, khng tham d

105 by accident accidentally ngu nhin, tnh c

106 kids infants/offsprings tr em

107 O.K acceptable/ satisfactory c, chp nhn c

108 to make up for to compensate for n b, b li

109 to catch on smth to understand nm bt, hiu

110 to go down with a disease to contract a disease mc bnh

111 to go up to increase tng ln

112 to get in touch with to contact lin h. lin lc

113 to let somebody know to inform cho bit

114 to call off to cancel hu b, bi b

115 to sort out to resolve gii quyt, i n quyt nh

116 to deal with to handle/ to address gii quyt, x l

117 small minimal/limited/ modest nh, b

118 to think of to conceive of/imagine ngh v, suy tnh

119 about an estimated, approximately, roughly khong chng

120 to do (research) to carry out, perform, undertake tin hnh (nghin cu), m nhim

121 hard difficult, problematic,challenging kh khn

122 to keep up to maintain duy tr

123 a lot a substantial amount, a considerable sum nhiu

124 stand for denote, represent ch, thay cho

126 next adjacent k cn


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127 prove confirm khng nh

128 rich affluent, wealthy, prosperous giu c

129 the same as equivalent to ging nhau, tng ng

130 drink beverage (count) ung

131 man male n ng

132 old people senior citizens, retirees ngi cao tui

133 crooks offenders, lawbreakers ti phm

134 great, awesome preferable, desirable tuyt vi, ng ao c

135 sick of, fed up with dissatisfied with khng hi lng

136 feature characteristic c im

137 before Prior to trc

138 to think (that) to assume (that) cho rng

139 Because Owing to or due to the fact that/As a result of v

140 Nobody can say It is impossible to predict Khng c th d on trc

141 I think that It seems that/ It could be argued that nNi ta ni rng

142 About Regarding/ Concerning V, v phn

143 And as well as cn, cng nh

144 but while/whereas nng, khi m

145 to write a cheque to issue a checque vit t ngn phiu

146 carefull/cautious prudent (imprudent)/prudential cn thn, thn trng

147 to check to verify kim tra

148 to agree with to be bound by ng vi

149 to go over exeed vt qu, qu mc

150 to hand / to give to submit trnh ln, np

152 In accordance with Pursuant to Ph hp vi

153 to involve to entail ko theo, km theo

154 lost inadvertently mislaid v tnh tht lc

155 to make sure to ensure m bo rng

156 to order to authorise u quyn


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157 to pay to settle tr tin, thanh ton

158 to supply to furnish cung cp

159 to take away to withdraw ly ra, rt (tin) ra

160 when we get On receipt of Khi nhn c

161 Whenever we like / want Without prior notice Khng bo trc

162 One after the other At regular intervals u n

163 There are no big differences between No significant differences emerges between Khng c s khc bit ng k no

164 This shows that This demonstrates that iu ny ch ra rng

165 to put smth into action To be implemented/ carried out c tin hnh, c a vo hot ng

166 etc./ and so forth./ and so on. among other examples v v.v

167 i.e namely, / that is, tc l, chng hn

168 e.g For example, v d

169 vs. versus/as apposed of chng li, ngc vi

170 nice/ cute attractive hp dn, li cun

171 smart intelligent thng minh

172 come arrive n

173 lifestyle way of life / manner of life li sng

174 19th century The nineteenth century Khng vit tt

175 workmate colleague ng nghip

176 tired exhausted mt mi

177 drunk intoxicated b say ru

178 sad dejected bun, chn nn

179 who whom ( i t tn ng, sau gii t) ai

180 to get your money back refund your payment ly li tin

181 to pay your bills to settle your account tr tin ho n mua hng, thanh ton

182 really extremely cc k, v cng

183 to go up to to reach ln ti (con s), t ti

184 to work to function hot ng

185 breathing respiration s h hp


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186 meat-eater carnivore ng vt n tht

187 chance opportunity c hi

188 wrong erroneous sai st

189 died out extinct tuyt chng

190 relevant pertinent thch ng, ng ch

191 relatives kindred h hng thn tc

192 copy imitate bt chc

193 break fracture p v

194 mix blend pha trn

195 preference predilection s thin v

196 to come across to find tm thy

197 to do away with to abolish bi b

198 to build up to accumulate tch lu

199 to finish off to conclude kt lun

200 to back up to support/to advocate ng h

201 to put forward propose xut, ngh

202 to put across to express biu l, by t

203 to obey a law to comply with a law tun th php lut

204 poor country developing country nc ngho

205 Thats why/ why For this reason, / the reason for V l do ny

206 new novel mi

207 dependence surbodination s ph thuc

208 quarrel debate/dispute Ci nhau

209 In the same way Similarly, Tng t nh vy

210 to look for to seek Tm kim

211 way manner/solution gii php

212 money currency tin t

213 to imagine to conceive / conceivably tng tng

214 place location ni, v tr


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215 viewpoint stance lp trng, quan im

216 fast/quickly rapidly/ as a matter of urgency nhanh

217 how much to what extent (not applicable to price or amount) ti mc no

218 when (conj) At the time of Khi m

219 In/For many years During a considearble period of years Trong nhiu nm

220 to make smth better /to get better to improve/to upgrade ci thin, lm cho tt hn

221 To put on weight to gain weight Tng cn

223 verb + not + any + noun verb + no + noun khng (ci g)

224 verb + not + many/much + noun verb + few/little + noun khng (ci g)

225 to give to provide a cho, cung cp

226 as you can be seen as can be seen nh ta c th thy

227 wood timber g

228 to describe to depict m t

229 to learn by heart to memorise ghi nh

230 to go on to continue tip tc

231 may be possibly, perhaps c l

232 somehow in a certain way bng cch no

233 job occupation ngh nghip

234 to take on employ thu

235 to give donate, contribute cho, tng

236 dad father b

237 plane aeroplane my bay

238 (not) smoke. to refrain from smoking khng ht thuc

239 to follow these guidelines. to adhere to these guidelines. theo s ch dn

240 gran/granny/nana grandmother b

241 every year/ each year annually hng nm

242 glasses spectacles knh eo mt

243 shop retail outlet ca hiu

244 fridge refrigerator t lnh


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245 TV/ telly television tivi

246 boss employer ng ch

247 change transform chuyn i

248 phone you back return your call gi in li

249 bin man refuse collector ngi thu rc

250 and so on. / and so forth / etc. among other examples. / or avoid using them v.v.

Academic Language

The term academic language commonly refers to the language that is used in formal situations such as

classrooms, college or universities. Moreover, it is the language of textbooks and exams. Academic language is the

language used by teachers and students in order to acquire new knowledge and skills. It differs in structure and

vocabulary from language used in daily social interactions. This means that academic language includes

specialized vocabulary, as well as conventional text structures such as the use of nominal groups, i.e., groups of

words that provide more information about particular concepts. For example, the language of linguistics includes

words like morphology, language acquisition, or language learning.

Features of Academic Language

The uses of specific linguistic features depend on the discipline for which an assignment is written. For

example, an essay in history may contain a number of past tense verbs than a paper that discusses the dialects

spoken by a particular speech community in which the present tense verbs are used. The three features of academic

languag are lexical, grammatical, and discourse.


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IELTS Writing Task 2: Useful Language

Memorising set phrases for use in the IELTS test is a highly effective way of achieving a higher score. Try

learning the following signposting language which will make you sound more confident and sophisticated when

writing an opinion or argument essay in Task 2.

Introducing the topic

Some people argue that Have you ever considered ? The question raises the issue of

Stating an opinion (thesis statement)

I believe that It is my belief that This essay will argue that

Indicating the scope of the essay

In this essay, I will state This essay will examine will be covered in this essay.


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Giving reasons

One reason for this is that This can be explained by This can be attributed to the fact that

Giving further reasons

Not only that, but A further reason is It should also be stated that

Citing general opinions

It has been claimed that It is widely believed that There is a widespread belief that

Refuting opinions

I would dispute this, however. However, this is not necessarily the case.

There are some faults with this reasoning, however. Hedging strategies

It could be argued that One explanation might be that


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This suggests that Strengthening an argument

There can be no doubt that Therefore, we can say beyond any doubt that These are just some of the reasons why

Concluding and summarising

To sum up, / In summary, / In short, Overall, / On the whole, To return to my original idea,


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IELTS Writing Task 1: Useful Language

1. THE LANGUAGE OF APPROXIMATION

In report writing it is good style to use approximation. Approximation means describing numbers or

statistics by using a fraction that is similar to the exact number. There are a number of reasons for doing this.

Firstly, it is easier for people to understand and remember. Secondly, the numbers or statistics may be more

detailed than necessary.

Table 02:

Ord numbers/statistics similar fractions Ord numbers/statistics similar fractions

1 65 % about two-thirds of 13 1,043 over a thousand

2 28 % just over a quarter of 14 115 over a hundred

3 21 % about a fifth of 15 9 fewer than ten

4 49 % just under a half of 16 2 a small number

5 74 % almost three quarters of 17 4 a few

6 33.333 % a third of 18 6/7 several

7 92 % most of 19 749,982 about three-quarters of a million

8 98,5 % almost all 20 1,256,890,534 over 1.2 billion

9 19.98 % about a fifth of 21 101,997 about 100,000

10 26 % just over a quarter of 22 248.112 a quarter of a million

11 48.873 % almost a half of 23 1,695,193 about 1.7 million

12 74.25 % nearly three - quarters 24 97 just under a hundred


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2. THE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS:

Table 03:

Nouns

a rise

an increase

a surge

a growth

a peak

a fluctuation

a variation

a period of stability

a plateau

a fall

a

decrease

a decline

a dip

Verbs

to rise

to increase

to surge

to grow

to peak

to skyrocket

to fluctuate

to vary

to fall to decrease

to decline


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to dip

to dive

to plunge

Phrases

to show an upward trend

to show a downward trend

to hit the highest point

to hit the lowest point

to reach a peak

to show some fluctuation

to fluctuate wildly

to remain stable

to remain static

to remain unchanged

to stay constant

to reach a plateau

to level off

to flatten out

the highest

the lowest

the second highest

the third highest

compared to

compared with

relative to

Adverbs

sharply

suddenly

rapidly

abruptly

dramatically


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significantly

steadily

considerably

markedly

slightly

gently

gradually

wildly

Adjectives

sharp

sudden

rapid

abrupt

dramatic

steep

significant

steady

considerable

marked

slight

gentle

gradual


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MORE WORDS AND PHRASES TO DESCRIBE TRENDS:

A. Introduction

1. The graph (biu )/table (bng)/ shows (cho thy)/indicates (ch)/ illustrates (minh ho)/ reveals (tit l)/

represents (trnh by) 2. It is clear from the graph/table

3. It can be seen from the graph/table 4. As the graph/table shows

5. As can be seen from the graph/table 6. As is shown by the graph/table

7. As is illustrated by the graph/table 8. From the graph / table it is clear

B. Verbs

1. to constitute/ make up: to thnh 2. to comprise: bao gm

3. to account for: chim n 4. to amount to : ln n (s)

5. to stand at: gi (s) 6. to treble: gp ba ln

7. to double: gp i 8. to increase three fold: tng gp ba ln

9. to halve: chia i, gim i mt na 10. to diminish: st gim, lm st gim

11. to slow down: chm li 12. to remain the same/ unchanged: khng thay i, gi nguyn


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13. to deplete: lm gim 14. to lessen: gim bt, lm gim bt

15. to escalate: leo thang, tng nhan 16. to stand at the same level: gi nguyn

17. to fall to %: gim ti % 18. to fall from %: gim xung di %

19. to fall by %: gim khong % 20. to drop to : gim ti %

21. to rise to %: tng ti % 22. to rise by %: tng khong

23. to rise from %: tng t %

24. to increase at % /reduce at %: tng/gim %

25. to increase to /reduce to : tng/gim ti (s)

26. to remain relatively steady: vn duy tr tng i n nh

C. Adverbs

1. exceptionally: c bit, khc thng 2. remarkably: ng ch

3. moderately: va phi 4. extremely/enormously: cc k, rt

5. substantially: to ln, ng k 6. marginally: hi, i cht

7. hardly/ scarcely: hu nh khng 8. slowly: chm


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D. Prepositions and prepositional phrases

1. In/within the range of and :Trong phm vi

2. For/During the first six months, : Trong su thng u

3. During the remainder of the year, : Trong thi gian cn li ca nm

4. During the first half of this century, : Trong na u th k ny

5. Between 1950 and 1960, : Gia nm 1950 v 1960

6. In the period from 1960 to 1990, :Trong giai on t 1960 to 1990

7. In the period between 1950 and 1960, : Trong giai on gia nm 1950 v 1990

8. From that time on: T thi gian tr i

9. Over a ten-year period, : Trong giai on 10 nm

10. Throughout the nineteenth century: Trong sut th k 19

11. Unlike : Khng ging vi

12. In contrast to : so vi /tng phn vi

13. In comparison with : so snh vi


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E. Nouns and noun phrases

1. overview: ci nhn khi qut, ci nhn tng quan

2. a large number /percentage of : mt s ln /mt t l phn trm ln ca

3. the whole/total amount/quantity of : tng lng ca

4. the total number of : tng s ca 5. An increase of %: s tng ln %

6. trend: khuynh hng 7. correlation: mi lin h

8. a drop of %: s gim % 9. an increase in : s tng v

10. a slight increase: s tng nh 11. a drop in : gim v .

F. Comparison

1. Comparing the figures for 1990 and 2000 : So snh cc con s ca nm 1990 v nm 2000

2. Compared to/with x, y is : So vi x, y th

3. Comparing with x, y is more : so vi x , y th hn

4. Comparing X with Y we find that : So snh X vi Y chng ta nhn thy

5. Comparing x with y, it can be seen by us that : So snh x vi y chng ta c th thy rng


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Types of Trend


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THE RULES SHOULD BE MEMORISED

PRIOR TO WRITING ACADEMIC ESSAYS

Rule 01: Avoid using contractions or abbreviations. (Ex. Use can not instead of cant)

Avoid contracted auxiliary verbs and negatives. These are very common in informal speech and writing, but

are considered inappropriate in academic writing.

Non-academic: I dont think that Im working hard.

Academic: I do not think that I am working hard.

For example: cant, couldnt, wouldnt, didnt, Ill, Ive, Id, wont, etc

Note that cannot is one word.

Do not use abbreviations or symbols.

Spell the words out. Ex: & = and; dept. = department


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Rule 02: Use third person voice or impersonal language.

(Ex. One can interpret...instead of You can interpret...)

In other words, the impersonal language should be used. Most formal writing aims to establish an air of

objectivity and impartiality, an air with which the personal pronouns I, me, and my seem inconsistent. In truth,

objectivity results from proper use of evidence and logic rather than pronoun choices, but there is something to be

said for seeming as well as being objective. Moreover, some professors prohibit their students from using first-

person pronouns as a kind of discipline: many students do inject personal opinions and unexamined assumptions

where persuasiveness demands objective evidence, and prohibiting personal pronouns seems to help curb this

tendency.

The convention in much academic writing is to write with minimal reference to yourself as an author. The

reason for this lies in a tradition of needing to present your work "objectively", as the work of a dispassionate and

disinterested (that is, unbiased) researcher. So, one of the features of academic writing is a general absence of the

first person pronoun "I". This can be difficult, as lecturers often say, "tell me what you think". Well, they do want

to know what you think, but presented as a rational, objective argument. For this reason we also avoid using

emotive language; instead we let the "facts" - or our reasoned argument - make the point for us.

It is important to note that while the avoidance of "I" has long been part of the academic tradition, these days

some academics consider its use to be acceptable. So, you may encounter different views about the use of "I" over

the course of your degree. In any case, you will need to develop the flexibility in your writing to play down the

"personal element". Your lecturer, Cathi Lewis, for example, has stated that she prefers undergraduates to avoid the

use of "I" in Introduction to Sociology (See the Lecturer's Advice section of this tutorial). Regardless of your


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particular lecturer's views, you will need to learn how to use "I" sparingly. So let's look at how we can write

passages without reference to the first person pronoun.

Avoid personal "I", "you", and "we", except for the thesis statement. So, instead of: "As I mentioned

above...", write" "As was mentioned above..." except for the thesis statement. So, instead of: "As I mentioned

above...", write" "As was mentioned above..."

There are several ways to avoid using the first person pronoun "I":

One way is to let the assignment "speak for itself": for example,

"I show..." becomes "The report shows..."

"I interpret the results as..." becomes "The results indicate..."

Another way to avoid the first person is to use the passive voice construction:

Instead of

write

"We administered the questionnaire..."

(active voice)

"The questionnaire was administered..."

(passive voice)

"I surveyed the literature"

(active voice)

"The literature was surveyed"

(passive voice)

"I took a sample..." "A sample was taken"


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(active voice) (passive voice)

NOTE: for further help with using the passive voice, go to the passives tutorial in the Grammar section of this

Website. - The second-person singular pronoun - you - raises a similar issue when used to refer to a hypothetical rather than

a real individual. Consider the following sentence:

You eat peas with a fork, not with a knife.

- This you is not a definite person who chooses to eat peas with one utensil rather than another. The meaning of the

sentence is actually something like, "Peas should be eaten with a fork, not with a knife." This you is a fictional

character who in sentences of this kind also frequently goes by the name one, and who is standing in for a whole

class of persons.

- The fictional you is a welcome character in speech and informal writing but is perhaps best left out of formal

writing. Since your reader, too, is you, the hypothetical or indefinite you may seem to cross a little too far into the

reader's space for the maintenance of an impersonal air.


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Rule 03: Be sure to use transitions between points, within a paragraph.

Use appropriate linking words/phrases to show the links between paragraph, as well as to link sentences

within paragraphs. Do not use simple linking words (e.g. and, but, so) except for variety. Conjunctions: avoid weak conjunctions such as "but." This is a VERY weak word with which to begin a

sentence. Look in the thesaurus for others, such as "however," "moreover," "nevertheless," "nonetheless,"

"regardless," etc. Although it is grammatically correct to begin sentences with "And", Or, and "Because," you

should be careful and avoid doing this because many students do not do so correctly.

- Coordinating Conjunctions (and, but, or, yet, so): Put a comma before these conjunctions. (Don't use them at the beginning of a sentence in more formal writing.) example: The movie has already started, but my friend has not arrived yet.

- Correlative Conjunctions (These have two parts: either . . . or):

* Put a comma before the second part if it connects 2 clauses (complete sentences). example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher, but he is also a gourmet cook.

* You don't need a comma if it only connects words or phrases. example: Eric is not only an outstanding teacher but also a gourmet cook.

- Transitional Words and Phrases:

* Put a comma after these if they are at the beginning of a sentence. example: I like to travel. Specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.


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* Use a semicolon to connect the two sentences. example: I like to travel; specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.

* Use a comma before and after the transitional word/phrase in the middle of a clause. example: I like to travel, and, specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.

Some Common English Transition Words and Phrases

Adding Information and

not only . . . but also

also

moreover (more formal)

furthermore (more formal)

in addition (more formal)

Examples We have seen the movie twice, and now we want to see it again.

Not only did my brother break his leg, but he also bruised his rib.

My friend speaks Korean and English. She also speaks Chinese.

Cheating is dishonest. Moreover, it hinders students from learning.

Students should be on time. Furthermore, they must be prepared.

You must complete this essay by 5 p.m. In addition, you must do the exercises on page 47.

Giving Examples for example

for instance

specifically

in particular

The first (second, another, etc.)

example/reason is . . .

Examples I have been to many countries. For example, I have been to Russia, Canada, Mexico, and

Spain.

He often eats strange foods. For instance, he once ate cow brains.

I like to travel. Specifically, I enjoy places with old cathedrals.

I love fruit. In particular, I like bananas, pineapple, and berries.

My friend hates skiing for several reasons. The first reason is that she dislikes being cold.

Another reason is that she often falls.

Showing a Contrast but

however

Examples Bill earned an A on his essay, but Susan got a B.

We wanted to leave at 8:00. However, Mike arrived too late.


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on the other hand

otherwise

instead

in contrast (more formal)

She hates housecleaning. On the other hand, she doesn't mind cooking.

Students should attend class. Otherwise, they may lose their status.

I am not going out tonight. Instead, I will stay home and watch a video.

Women usually enjoy shopping. In contrast, men often dislike it.

Showing a Concession

yet

nevertheless (more formal)

even so

however

although

even though

despite the fact that . . .

despite

Examples

He knows that he should do his homework, yet he never does it.

I need to wear reading glasses. Nevertheless, I hate how I look in them.

I know you don't like to study. Even so, you must pass your exam.

There are many benefits to exercising. However, you must take some precautions to avoid

injury.

Even though the book is difficult to read, it is very interesting.

Although the book is difficult to read, it is very interesting.

Despite the fact that Kate is good at tennis, she lost the match.

Despite Kate's skill at tennis, she lost the match.

Showing a Similarity

likewise (more formal)

similarly (more formal)

in the same way

Examples

Math was hard for me in high school. Likewise, it is hard in college.

Houseplants require much care and attention. Similarly, outdoor plants must be cared for

properly.

Rock climbing takes much practice and skill. In the same way, learning to write well

requires a great deal of practice.

Showing a Result

so

as a result

therefore

thus (more formal)

as a consequence

consequently (more formal)

Examples

Janet passed her exam, so she is very happy.

Tim was late. As a result, we could not go to the concert.

James is not feeling well. Therefore, he will not be here today.

The committee voted against the proposal. Thus, we must consider another idea.

I forgot that the cake was in the oven. As a consequence, it burned.

Tina lost her keys. Consequently, she could not drive home.


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Establishing Time Relation or

Sequence

first

second

finally

in conclusion

in summary

meanwhile

Examples

First, I think that she is studying hard.

Second, I believe that she is a bright student.

Finally, I know that she has great potential.

In conclusion, I feel that she deserves to win the scholarship.

In summary, we should offer her some financial help.

Jeff was working hard to clean the house. Meanwhile, his brother was watching television.

Showing a Condition

or

whether . . . or

if . . . (then)

Examples

I must study hard, or I will fail my exam.

Whether you are coming or not, I am still going to Amy's party.

If you want to get good grades, then you must do your homework.

Explaining or Emphasizing

in fact

actually

in other words

namely (more formal)

Examples

The bookstore sells cards. In fact, they have the best cards around.

James is actually the first person I have known who has been to Africa.

He was late to class again. In other words, he didn't wake up on time.

The plan needed only two things to succeednamely, time and money.

Giving an Alternative

or

either . . . or

neither . . . nor (more formal)

Examples

We can go to the beach, or we can go to the mountains.

You can either ride the bus or walk to my apartment.

I like neither that person nor his brother.


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Rule 04: Use present tense

In writing about literature the present tense must be used. Ex: The three bears see Goldilocks and they run away.

NOT: The three bears saw Goldilocks and ran away.

DO: When Andy tries to speak to the drunk man in the alley, he feels pain in his stomach.

DONT: When Andy had tried to speak to the drunk man, he felt pain in his stomach.

In English, the present simple tense is used to describe habitual actions and events, and those that are usually

true. It is said that the present simple is used to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly, or that

something is true in general. As shown in the following examples:

- I takemy breakfast every morning at 7 oclock.

- Nurseslookafter patients in hospitals.

Moreover,it is used to express facts. For example, the planets go round the sun. In the present simple, the

verb does not take an ending with the following pronouns: I, you, they, and we. However, in the third person

singular (he, she, and it), the verb ends with s or es, as in the following examples:

- I usually goaway at weekends.

- Sarah catchesthe early train.

More precisely, in academic writing, the use of the present simple is often conventionalized and

predominantly used. For example, in linguisticsessays, it is used to explain aspecific linguistic phenomenon which

is always true.

- A child acquires language during the critical period.


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- Language is a set of signals by which we communicate.

- Code switching occurs in bilingual societies.

Tense-shifting: NEVER switch tenses when answering questions on tests or when writing essays. Although the

past tense is acceptable, (as long as there is no switching to other tenses), try to always use the present tense.

Even though the novel/short story/play/poem, etc. obviously has been written in the "past," writing/discussion of

texts should be in present tense.

Rule 05: Avoid using colloquialisms (slang).

For example: kids, dude, gal, guy, homies, etc Don't use slang. This is the time to show off the best English you know. Find the correct way to express

your thoughts and convey your ideas, without resorting to slang. Be aware that certain expressions, such as "kids"

instead of "children" and "guys" or "gals" instead of "men" or "women", also fall into the category of slang and

should be avoided.

Rule 06: Use gender neutral language (replace he, she with they, the character, or by name)

Although in the past it was acceptable to use "he" when referring to both men and women, it is no longer

acceptable to do so now. Why? Because linguists found that language use actually does have an impact on the way

people think and act. If pronouns are always "he," and certain professions are always fireman, policeman, chairman,

congressmen, etc, then it is more likely that men -- by simple virtue of the privileged masculine pronoun and noun

use -- will fill those positions, and that women will feel that they do not belong in them. Avoiding sexist pronouns

will help you find liberation from these restricting gender roles.


41

Even if you disagree with the above theory, using "he" only pronouns is a practice that is no longer tolerated

in MLA style. You should instead choose to pluralize your subject and use "they" or "their" when referring back to

that subject. Or you can choose "he or she," but if you need to write "he or she" more than twice in the sentence,

you might give your reader a headache. Try to avoid "s/he" or "he/she" simply because it is unsightly. Really the

best solution is pluralization. (When implementing the plural solution, remember the principle of agreement.

"Everyone needs their umbrella" is not grammatical, because "everyone" is a singular subject.)

o Sexist: If a medical student wants to succeed, he has to learn to budget his time wisely.

o Liberated: If medical students want to succeed, they have to learn to budget his time wisely.

o Sexist: If one wants to become a DJ, he has to be familiar with the current music styles and have a

strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow.

o Liberated: If one wants to become a DJ, he or she has to be familiar with the current music styles and

have a strong sense of internal rhythm and musical flow.

o Sexist: A good computer programmer has to root his knowledge in practical experience.

o Liberated: Good computer programmers have to root their knowledge in practical experience.

Use non-sexist language: Avoid the word "man" and "he/his/him" when referring to general phenomena.

When writing sentences, there are two ways to do this:

A) Make it plural.

Sexist Language Good Alternative

Give each student his paper Give students their papers

as soon as he is finished. as soon as they are finished.

The average student is The average student is

worried about his grade. worried about grades.


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B) If necessary, use ONE, HE/SHE.

Sexist Language Good Alternative

If a student got an A, he did not Anyone who got an A, did not

have to do the extra work. have to do the extra work.

Anyone who wants to go to the If a student wants to go to the

game tomorrow should bring game tomorrow, she/he

his money. should bring money.

C) Also, see this table:

Usually Inappropriate Good Alternatives

mankind humanity, people, human beings

man fs achievements human achievements

man-made synthetic, manufactured, machine-made

the common man the average person, ordinary people

man the ship staff the ship

six man-hours six staff-hours

chairman coordinator (of a committee or department), moderator (of a meeting), presiding officer, head, chair

businessman business executive

fireman firefighter

mailman mailcarrier

steward and stewardess flight attendant

policeman and policewoman police officer

congressman congressional representative


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Rule 07: Avoid repetition.

Do not use the same word or the same sentence structure too frequently.

Repetition means that the same lexical item in several sentences subsequent to its first occurrence is repeated.

For example, in this section, the phrase lexical cohesion is repeated more than twice. In addition, repetition helps to reinforce key ideas and new terms. However, the overuse of repetition in academic writing results in a text

which sounds monotonous, i.e., it does not invite the reader to read it since it contains a lot of repetitions. This

problem can be overcome by shifting the position of the repeated items in the sentence. Use rich vocabulary: You have learned English for many years and this is the time to use what you know.

Stay away from over-used adjectives such as "good" or "bad". Instead, use more dramatic, expressive words, such

as excellent, wonderful, superb, or adverse, horrible, terrible, etc. Choose the more precise word over the more

general one. This will make your language come alive, in speech or in writing, and earn you higher marks.

Rule 08: Avoid using imperative language.

Use imperative voice sparingly in a scientific paper, because it comes across as rude (as do many of the

sentences in what you are reading right now!). E.g. do not say "Recall that ...". Of course, an occasional imperative

in parentheses is not objectionable (e.g. "(see Walker 1996 for more details).").

Rule 09: Be sure to use but and however correctly

(See examples of correct usage below)

- I do not like homework, but I understand its important. - I wish I studied more; however, I still did well on the test - I am sick today and will miss the test, however, this will give me more time to study.


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"But" and "however" are not interchangeable

The words "but" and "however" have similar meanings, but they are not interchangeable. If you take a

grammatically correct sentence containing "but" and replace it with "however", or vice versa, the result will almost

always be incorrect, mainly because of comma punctuation.

Correct examples:

"I like oranges, but I do not like tangerines."

"I like oranges. However, I do not like tangerines."

"I like oranges; however, I do not like tangerines."

"I, however, do not like grapefruits."

"I like oranges however they have been prepared."

If you exchange any of these "but"s and "however"s, then the sentences would become incorrect, and in

some cases meaningless.

Rule 10: Avoid using it and this at the start of a sentence.

If necessary, however, join the two sentences using a comma or semi-colon. See examples below. Use 'It' as

a subject; e.g. 'It is impossible to...'

Incorrect: I love the snow. It is fun to play in.

Correct: I love the snow; it is fun to play in.

(A comma can also be used in place of the semi-colon)

Notes: It is aceptable to use it as a preparatory subject. (See more at Rule 28) It is advisable to memorise the following useful phrases:


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1. It goes without saying that / Of course, 2. It is quite clear that / Obviously, 3. It is worth pointing out that / Another point is 4. It does not seem unreasonable to suggest that / In my opinion, 5. It is often argued that / People say that 6. It is sometimes suggested that/ People say that 7. It is particularly significant that / Importantly, 8. It could be argued that ? Perhaps,. 9. It is likely that / Probably, .

Rule 11: Avoid very strong language

E.g. I know. I am sure

Avoid using words that express your opinion too strongly

Low certainty

Medium certainty/Hedging

High certainty

seldom, rarely, never,

improbable, impossible,

unattainable ...

probably, perhaps, likely, occasionally, sometimes,

generally, may, might, can, could, appears to be,

seems to be, tends to be, suggests, considers ...

undoubtedly, absolutely, certainly, definitely,

incredible, amazing, unbelievable, particularly,

very, vitally, totally, wholly, often, must, would,

should ...

In addition to a formal voice, you should also maintain a cool-headed, objective tone. Tone usually becomes an

issue when you are writing about hot topics you feel strongly about -- religion, for example, or cultural values.

Even when you strongly disagree with an idea, avoid getting "emotional" in your expression. Avoid seeming angry,


46

or condescending, or rude. Keep your calm and remain scholarly, and try to portray yourself as one who is

objectively assessing the situation.

Emotional: We must do everything we can to legalize gay marriage. For the sake of equality, the rights of

liberty and freedom that our forefathers fought for--it is essential!!! Don't let conservatives take over your government and impose their puritanical moral values on everyone. This is only going to lead to dozens of

more restrictions that those white-haired conservatives will impose in their cozy congress seats!

Objective: Keeping gay marriage illegal poses significant questions about the constitutionality of such laws.

The forefathers who wrote the Constitution believed an individual's freedom was vitally important, and that

as long as the actions did not cause directly harm to society, the actions should not be decriminalized.

Rule 12: Do not use a series of short sentences or simple sentences.

E.g. Many people think so. They are wrong.

Rule 13: You should NOT:

- use brackets and dashes to add information

- use exclamation marks (!!!) in your essay


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Rule 14: Avoid very emotional language

e.g. I absolutely detest people who

Rule 15: Do not express personal opinions too strongly

e.g. I know; instead, use milder expressions (e.g. It seems to me that Express your opinion in a non-emotional

way (e.g. It seems that, I therefore feel, etc.)

Rule 16: Do not use over-generalisation (e.g. All politicians are)

Avoid:

Everyone knows that What goes around comes around

Rule 17: Do not refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source.

e.g. "A recent study showed" - which study?)


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Rule 18: Do not use cliches

e.g. Rome was not built in a day.

Clichs are words and phrases that tend to be overused and do not make for good writing. They should be

avoided in professional and academic writing.

Examples: Dont count your chickens before they have hatched.

Let sleeping dogs lie.

These phrases can add colour and life to informal speech; however, in

writing, they appear to be substitutes for clear thought.

We cannot build a new school at this point in time.

Who would have thought that slavery could exist in this day and age?

The Prime Minister believed that at the end of the day her policies would be vindicated.

Some more examples of clichs are:

Raining like cats and dogs.

Like a pig in mud.


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Over the hill.

In the dog house.

Back against the wall.

Under the gun.

My two cents.

Stubborn as a mule.

Bite your tongue.

Dyed in the wool.

Wrong side of the bed.

The calm before the storm.

Hair of the dog,

On thin ice.

Eye for an eye.

Tongue-in-cheek.

The third time is the charm.

Rule 19: Do not use personal examples

e.g. In my school


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Rule 20: Do not use colloquial language

Casual conversational language that has a wider general acceptance than slang.

Examples: - Lets do lunch.

- Im going to get back at him.

Colloquial language is generally acceptable in casual spoken English, but it is unacceptable in formal speaking

situations, and in written English.

Rule 21: Do not use metaphor

A metaphor takes a name or descriptive term and applies it to a person or object in a non-literal sense - for

example, 'a glaring error', 'the heart of the matter', 'pillar of the community', 'wave of terrorism', and so on.

Rule 22: Do not use similes

A simile compares a person, action or object with something else - for example, 'fly like an eagle', 'solid as

a rock', 'as happy as Larry', 'pleased as Punch', and so on.


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Well-chosen metaphors and similes can give your writing immense expressive power. Once a metaphor or

simile has become a clich, it no longer provides a vivid image for the reader. Consequently, instead of impressing

your readers with your writing style, you leave them with the impression that you have nothing of substance to say.

Rule 23: Do not use figures of speech

Figures of speech are closely related to clichs. Like metaphors and similes, figures of speech provide a

writer with a colourful or forceful means to draw attention to a particular point but should be avoided in academic

writing.

The cleaners were advised to lift their game or else.

Management has been on a steep learning curve.

It would be like looking for a needle in a haystack.

Rule 24: Do not use euphemisms

Expressions that soften orobscure the meaning that you wish to convey.

Examples: - a guest of the government (in jail) - pre-owned (used) - passed away (died) - tactical omission (lie)


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Euphemisms are good if they spare someones feelings, but they are bad if they obscure meaning, or give a positive connotation to something illegal, immoral, or otherwise unacceptable.

Rule 25: Do not talk about parts of the paragraph.

Do not write: this paragraph shows The topic sentence is A quote that proves this is

Rule 26: Do not begin a sentence with numerals.

For example, instead of writing: "400 people..." write: "Four hundred people..."

Spell out all numbers less than 10. Ex: 6 = six Never start a sentence with a number unless you spell it out.

Ex: 15 students. = Fifteen students

Use numerals 10 or above. Instead of writing: "There were 9 people...", write: "There were nine people..."

Rule 27: Do not use non-specific words.

For example: stuff, things, lots, etc


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Rule 28: Do not use ambiguous words.

For example: this, these, his, it, they, there is, there are, etc

These words have no meaning in themselves, but in conversation the meaning is usually clear from the context.

In written text, however, the intended meaning is quite often not evident to the reader, because there are many

possible interpretations of "it" and "this".

Notes:

1. It is aceptable to use this, that, these, and those when a noun directly afterward clarifies the meaning of the pronoun. Eg: This character traits

2. It is aceptable to use it as a preparatory subject. (See more at Rule 10)

If you want to indicate that an opinion or belief is widely held, you can use the passive form of a reporting

verb with it as its impersonal subject.

It is widely believed that the standard of spoken English has declined in recent years.

The following reporting verbs are often used in this way:

accept acknowledge argue claim estimate predict


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You should use tentative language when discussing findings or views in your reports and presentations.

When you want to avoid expressing strong claims or opinions you can use the verbs appear and seem. In the

sentences overleaf, the subject of appear and seem is it. As you can see, they are followed by that-clauses.

It appears that interest in Putonghua has increased since the handover. It would seem that students in Hong Kong are less motivated to learn English than their counterparts in Shanghai.

3. It is aceptable to use there is as a preparatory subject. (See Rule 44)

Rule 29: Do not ask rhetorical questions.

Readers want answers! So, instead of: "Do you know where the origin of tea is?" Write: "Tea originated in

southern China near the border with India."

A rhetorical question is a question for which no answer is expected. A rhetorical question is one in a written

text where the writer assumes the reader knows the answer, or where the writer goes on to answer the question in

the text. Such questions are inappropriate for academic writing: readers might not know the answer and the point

being made could be more strongly and clearly expressed as a statement. You should not risk your point being

misunderstood: make your point clear and 'up front'; for example:


55

Informal (includes rhetorical question) Formal

Industrial sites cause vast amounts of environmental

pollution, so why do we still use them?

The question surrounding the continued use of industrial sites, given

their vast pollution production, still remains.

What is a team? A team can be one person but will

usually end up including many more.

A team can include one person but usually involves many more.

The question is, however, does the "Design School

Model" provide a practical solution to the problem

of how to formulate strategy?

It is questionable whether the "Design School Model" provides a

practical solution to the problem of strategy formulation.

Rule 30: Write "most people, instead of the incorrect "most of people"

Likewise, "most women", "most animals", etc. But "most of the people" is OK.

Rule 31: Do not use the expressions and so on or etc.

Instead use such as.

The expression and so on is too unclear for formal writing. Thus, instead of the informal "Japan imports

potatoes, corn, wheat, and so on," write "Japan imports food such as potatoes, corn and wheat."

Run on expressions include phrases such as 'and so forth', 'and so on' or 'etc'. Try to complete the sentence

properly; do not use these if you can avoid them; for example:


56

Informal (includes run on) Formal Alternative

Nurses must take into

consideration patients' dietary

needs resulting from allergies,

medication, medical conditions

and so on.

Nurses must take into

consideration patients' dietary

needs resulting from allergies,

medication and medical

conditions.

Public transport includes vehicles

for public use on the roads,

airways, waterways etc.

Public transport includes vehicles

for public use, such as buses,

trains and aeroplanes.

Rule 32: Place adverbs within the verb

Adverbs should be placed within the verb group rather than in the initial or final positions. In informal English,

adverbs often occur as clauses at the beginning or end of sentences; for example:

Informal Formal Alternative

Then the solution can be

discarded.

The solution can then be

discarded.

The blood is withdrawn slowly. The blood is slowly withdrawn.

Rule 33: Avoid phrases such as "I believe," "I feel," and "I think."

Even worse are phrases that add an adverb, such as "I strongly believe." Your tone will be much more

confident if you just make the statement without preface.


57

Rule 34: Avoid words that do not change the meaning of the sentence.

Unnecessary words like "Actually", "Really" or "Basically" can be omitted.

Rule 35: Do not use dialogues (conversations) in a formal essay.

For example, instead of writing: "Will you come?" You should write: He asked me if I would come.

Rule 36: Do not use informal language

- In formal English one would use the word whom instead of the word who in certain situations. Formal: Whom did they elect?

Informal: Who did they elect?

Formal - Use 'whom' as an object: Whom have they chosen for the position? Informal - Use 'who' as an object: Who have they chosen for the position?

Formal : With whom did you study?

Informal : Who did you study with?

In informal language prepositions often come at the end of certain structures.


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Formal: To which nation does he belong?

Informal: Which nation does he belong to?

Some pronouns have different forms in formal and informal language.

In informal language we often leave out some words.

Formal: She said that she would come.

Informal: She said she would come.

Formal: Have you seen Annie?

Informal: Seen Annie?

Rule 37: Avoid using unnecessary words

Wordy phrases Using better English

1. it would appear that ... 1. apparently ...

2. with the exception of ... 2. except ...

3. in connection with ... 3. about ...

4. are found to be in agreement with ... 4. agree ...

5. a large majority of ... 5. most ...


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6. in the event that ... 6. if ...

7. a disproportionate number ... 7. few ...

8. arrive at a decision ... 8. decide ...

9. for a further period of ten years ... 9. for another ten years ...

10. such is by no means the case ... 10. this is not so ...

11. in the field of education ... 11. in education ...

12. they are without legal representation whatsoever ... 12. they have no legal representation ...

13. in the case of the third question ... 13. in the third question ...

14. at the present time, overseas companies are ... 14. overseas companies are now ...

15. there is really somewhat of an obligation on behalf of the department of health ... 15. the Department of Health is obliged ...

Rule 38: Use singular determiners with plural verbs

Determiners like each, every, either and neither are singular. They should be followed by singular verbs. Of

course, in an informal style, you can put plural verbs after them, but if you do that in your IELTS essay, the

examiner will not be too happy with you.

Non-academic: Neither of us like him.

Academic: Neither of us likes him.


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Rule 39: Avoid idiomatic language

English is highly idiomatic, but idiomatic expressions are not always considered appropriate in academic

writing. Of course, it is not easy to avoid all of them and it is not necessary either. You can use some idioms, but

you must avoid the more colourful ones like raining cats and dogs, hit the nail on the head or throw the baby

out with the bathwater. Some idioms, on the other hand, are perfectly acceptable in all kinds of writing.

Rule 40: Do not start sentences with And, Also, So, Or, Even so, and But

Starting a sentence with them is sometimes considered inappropriate. A few decades ago it was considered

totally unacceptable. Even today you can find several grammar books that advise against starting sentences with

these conjunctions. However, the truth is that more and more academic writers now begin sentences with them.

You must, however, make a conscious effort to avoid them just to be on the safe side.

Instead of these, use `In addition', `However', `Hence', `Consequently', `Alternatively', `Nevertheless' at the

beginninge of the sentence.

Rule 41: Do not use informal phrasal verbs

You cannot avoid all of them in your writing. It is not necessary either. Just make sure that you do not use a

large number of phrasal verbs in your essay. (See Table 01, p2)


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Rule 42: Use passives

Passives without agents are common in academic and scientific writing. By using passive structures we

will be able to limit the use of personal pronouns. Passive structures are also preferred when we want to talk about

an action, but are not interested in saying who or what did / does it.

The passive voice is one of the two voices in English. It is contrasting with active voice. In the passive, the

object of the active voice becomes the subject, and the subject becomes the agent or object of the passive action.

The passive sentence is indicated through a by-phrase or omitted altogether as shown in the following examples.

- In recent years, researchers have published several analyses of survey data (activesentence).

- In recent years, several analyses of survey data have been published.

Furthermore, the passive voice is used much more in academic language than in everyday language. Certain

grammatical features like the present simple and the passive voice are dominant and used frequently in academic

writing than in general English. So, passive constructions have been identified as one of the prominent features of

academic language. Moreover, the use of the passive voice in 6 such a type of language intends to create an

indirect style and showsthe writers objectivity. This can be achieved by using another form of passive which is

frequently used in academic writing (it is said that... he is said to) as shown in the following examples:

- The child acquires the language in short period of time.


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- It is said that the child acquires the language in a short period of time.

Similarly, using the passive voice in academic language is often more suitable than activeconstructions and is

considered the most used in written genres

Rule 43: Employ tentative rather than assertive language.

- using possibly and probably in front of verbs and noun phrases; e.g. 'This is possibly caused by...' or 'This is probably the most important factor.'

- using the modal verbs may and might; e.g. 'This may be the most important factor.'

- using appears to + V and seems to + V; e.g. 'This appears to be the most important factor.' - avoiding always and every, and replacing them with often and many/much.

- avoiding certainly and obviously because this language can be condescending to your reader.

Academic writing argument is rarely expressed in strongly positive language. To express an idea or finding

in such a way would leave the writer open to attack by critical readers. To avoid making strong claims and

expressing subjective opinions, academic writers use tentative rather then assertive language. Compare the

tentative and assertive language in the table below.


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Tentative expression

Assertive expression

One could argue that the overall

standard of English in Hong Kong

has improved

The overall standard of English in Hong Kong has clearly improved.

Modal verbs such as could, may and might are common in academic writing because they help writers

express uncertainty or tentativeness. Also common are the verbs appear to and seem to, as well as adverbs of

probability: perhaps, possibly, probably, likely, unlikely.

Of course, depending on viewpoint and the available evidence, a writer can express greater or lesser degrees

of certainty. Look at the examples in the table below.

1. Positive and assertive:

Clearly, then, Hong Kong students standard of written Chinese is declining.

2. Suggesting likelihood:

The evidence seems to suggest that Hong Kong students standard of written

Chinese is declining.

3. Expressing less likelihood:

It may/might/could be the case that Hong Kong students standard of written

Chinese is declining.


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4. Negative: It is unlikely that Hong Kong students standard of written Chinese is declining.

Rule 44: Use 'One' and There as a subject

e.g. 'One may ask whether...' ('One' is a formal version of 'You' [plural] in general) and Use 'There' as a subject;

e.g. 'There is a serious risk of...'

Some more phrases and their alternatives

- One could say that / Perhaps,

- One could draw the conclusion that / In conclusion,

- As one might expect / Naturally

- There is not a shadow of doubt that / Certainly,

There is the possibility that . / Possibly,

There can be no doubt that / I am sure

There are those who maintain that / Some people say .

There is a school of thoughts that / Some people say .

There is a strong likelihood that / Probably,


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Rule 45: Use It is because and This is because correctly.

Language Analysis:

It is because is used in the following situations:

1. To introduce an explanation of cause and effect use It is because:

It is because of parents like her that our school is such a wonderful place. (like= similar to) It is because of my close association with the organisation that I know all the good that it does.

It is because the body is a machine that education is possible.

It is because workers today produce far more than those in the past that we have a higher standard of living.

Structure:

It is because + cause + that + effect.

Grammar:

It is because of + cause (noun or noun phrase) + that+ effect (clause).

e.g. It is because of your smile that I feel happy.

It is because + cause (clause with a subject and a verb) + that + effect (clause).

e.g. It is because you smiled that I feel happy.


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2. To refer back to a cause, then give an effect, use it is because of this:

These countries economies are in great turmoil and it is because of this that pollution creates a huge problem.

I know you. I understand you, and it is because of this that I love you.

A black coat appears black because it absorbs all the wavelengths of visual light that fall on it and no light is

reflected into the eye from that object. It is because of this that black clothes become hotter on a sunny day than

white ones. Structures:

Cause + and + it is because of this that + effect

Cause + . + It is because of this that + effect

3. To give an effect first, then explain the cause, use this is because:

Examples:

- Out in space, the sky looks black, instead of blue. This is because there is no atmosphere.

- As the sun begins to set, the light must travel farther through the atmosphere before it gets to you. More of the light is reflected and scattered. As less reaches you directly, the sun appears less bright. The colour of the sun

itself appears to change, first to orange and then to red. This is because even more of the short wavelength blues

and greens are now scattered. Only the longer wavelengths are left in the direct beam that reaches your eyes.


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- Agents often work more than 40 hours a week. They must often work in the evenings or on weekends. This

is because most buyers and sellers are free only at those times. 4. To answer questions, use it is because, this is because, or because:

- How can it be that an awesome God knows me by name and loves me without reservation? It is because He created me.

- So why is Bush taking on the thankless issue of immigration? I believe it is because he sees the consequences for all Americans of our current dysfunctional policy.

- Teens seem to have a need to feel that fear, as evidenced by the popularity of shocker, gross-out, supernatural and altogether scary books. Is it that the good guys and bad guys are easier to tell apart? Or maybe it is because those vampires and werewolves go through physical transformations that make puberty feel like a bump in the road?

- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is because the amount of radiation required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the eye to stand.

- Why are you doing that? Because I like it.

- To answer questions, use it is because, this is because, or because

- Why are most large-sized tumours treated by removal of the eye? This is because the amount of radiation required to kill a tumour which fills most of the eye, is just too much for the eye to stand.

- Why are you doing that? Because I like it.

5, In 'if ' and 'when' sentences use it is because:


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- If I look confused it is because I am thinking. - If we have no peace, it is because we have forgotten that we belong to each other.

- When consumers complain that prices of CDs are too high it is because they are.

Rule 46: Use Relative Structures

Formal - Use relative structures: The woman thought that it was important to be on time.

Informal - Drop certain relative structures: The woman thought it was important to be on time.

Rule 47: Use use nominalisation

Try to write noun-based phrases rather that verb-based ones.

For example, instead of

Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned.

Write: The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police.

In general, academic writing tends to be fairly dense, with relatively long sentences and wide use of

subordinate clauses. Remember, however, that your main aim is clarity, so dont be too ambitious, particularly when youre starting to write.


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Rule 48: Use some sort of hedging language and to qualify statements that you make.

HEDGING/AVOIDING COMMITMENT

In order to put some distance between what youre writing and yourself as writer, to be cautious rather than

assertive, you should:

- use verbs (often with it as subject) such as imagine, suggest, claim, suppose

- use attitudinal signals such as apparently, arguably, ideally, strangely, unexpectedly.

These words allow you to hint at your attitude to something without using personal language.

- use verbs such as would, could, may, might which soften what youre saying.

- use qualifying adverbs such as some, several, a minority of, a few, many to avoid making overgeneralisations.

Rule 49: Do not start a sentence with Therefore.

Instead, write, for example, They, therefore, ....

Rule 50: Use full names when citing.

The first time you mention the authors or someones name, use his/her entire name. For the rest of the essay, use only his/her last name.

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