The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

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The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

EnlightenmEnlightenmentent

• While the Enlightenment ended before the French Revolution, enlightened thought contributed to the revolutionary movement

• The principles of the Scientific Revolution were applied to human society and institutions

• Progress could be achieved if natural laws could be applied and understood

• Fontenelle Conversations on the On the Plurality of Worlds attempted to make the findings of the Scientific Revolution available for everyone

• Centered in Paris - the modern Athens; spread to western Europe and then North America

• Initially it was believed that natural science and reason could explain all aspects of life

• It saw man as an intellectually curious creature• It moved away from religion and accepting ideas on

faith• In the end it focused more on emotion and the ideas of

liberty and freedom

• The philosophes (thinkers) questioned the physical universe, the role of government, freedoms and liberties, the role of man in society, and nature

• For example they were against slavery because it violated human freedom

• Believed in natural laws - very secular• Criticized:

a) Absolutismb) The established Church, especially the role of the church in politics

• Very important to American Revolution – Franklin, Madison and Jefferson spent time in Paris during the Enlightenment

John Locke• English philosopher who advocated Constitutionalism

and supported the Glorious Revolution• Letter on Toleration (1689) suggested religious toleration

and included the Jews• Two Treaties of Government (1690) advocating that

people come together in a social contract• Government is created by mutual consent to protect life,

liberty, and property – opposite of Hobbes• If a government fails in its obligations, the people have

the right to rebel

John Locke• Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) stressed

the importance of environment on human development • Advocating the tabula rasa theory – every human is

born a blank slate and learns through experience – unlike Descartes

• For progress to occur in society, education is critical in determining human development

• This conflicted with the Christian view that humans were essentially sinful

PhilosophesPhilosophes• The Enlightenment was a revolution of ideas• The philosophes advocated reform by using the written

word, but not professional philosophers like Descartes• They shared the same ideals, but they were also great

differences between the philosophes• They often disagreed with each other, but defended each

other against outsiders• They disagreed over the best form of government and

over religion• Five philosophes dominated the era: Locke,

Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot

VoltaireVoltaire• Frenchman, born François Marie Arouet, was perhaps

the most famous philosophe

• Like Montesquieu, Voltaire was an anglophile

• As a young writer he was imprisoned in the Bastille for being critical of the king’s relatives

• He believed only a representative government could guarantee the rights of the people, but not hopeful

• So he advocated enlightened despotism - best government was a good monarch

• Greatest criticism was for the Church - Candide

• Deism - God was a clockmaker who built the universe and then let it work. Rejected fundamental doctrines of Christianity

• Miracles and prayer did not fit with natural law • Voltaire called for religious toleration, but most

philosophes hated complete religious toleration• He said, “Ecracsez l’infame” (crush the infamous thing)• Believed in equality before the law, but not of the

classes

• Madame du Châtelet - who believed women were unequal because of their lack of education

• Died a millionaire because of shrewd business investments

• He was a reformer not a revolutionary

Baron de MontesquieuBaron de Montesquieu• French attorney who hated Absolutism• He advocated different political theories for different

times• Established separation of powers• Wrote The Persian Letters (1721) which criticized

European customs and showed that laws of nature were universal

• He also attacked the idea of slavery• Wrote The Spirit of the Laws (1748) showed that

governments were shaped by history.• He applied the scientific method to social and political

issues

• A strong upper class was necessary to prevent abuses: despotism could be avoided if power was shared: but he was not a democrat

• Admired the English system, and especially the English Parliament and representative government with independent courts – checks and balances

• He argued that only constitutionalism could save a country from becoming a despotic monarchy

• He believed the nobility would prevent the monarch from becoming too powerful and would protect the people

• Sovereignty comes from the people – not from God• Greatly influenced Franklin and the founding fathers in

the United States

Jean-Jacques RousseauJean-Jacques Rousseau• Swiss, brilliant but a neurotic romantic loner• He was exiled from France for criticizing the monarchy

and the Church• Focused on the emotions, instincts, and spontaneity

People are good• Attacked by other philosophes, including Voltaire, for

putting reason above emotion• He believed too much emphasis on property and not

people was the root cause of social injustice• The general will, a consensus of the majority should

control a nation (later used to justify extreme nationalism and tyranny - Robespierre)

Jean-Jacques RousseauJean-Jacques Rousseau• Social Contract (1762) based on two concepts: the

general will and popular sovereignty• “All men are born free . . .” Sovereignty resides in the

people who surrender their natural rights for security• Thought that man was a “noble savage” and was

corrupted by materialism of civilization• Natural education as seen in Emile – self-expression and

experience • Ironically, had 5 illegitimate children and put them in an

orphanage without education• Did not believe in equality for women

The EncyclopediaThe Encyclopedia• Took 25 years to complete and was edited by

d’Alembert and Diderot to teach people to think critically

• Collection of enlightened knowledge that was based on rationale thought

• Initially banned by the governments because it contained ideas that could be viewed as anti-monarchy

• also put of the Index of Prohibited Books by the pope• Not every article was original but the overall effect was

revolutionary

The Encyclopédie

► Complete cycle of Complete cycle of knowledge…………...…knowledge…………...…change the general way of change the general way of thinking.thinking.

► 28 volumes.28 volumes.

► Alphabetical, cross-referenced,Alphabetical, cross-referenced,illustrated.illustrated.

► First published in 1751.First published in 1751.

► 1500 1500 livreslivres a set. a set.

The Royal Academy of Sciences, Paris

Law and OrderLaw and Order• The Marquis of Beccaria was the greatest advocate of

the reform of crime and punishment • On Crime and Punishment (1764) – the state should

protect the people and respect the rights of the people, included those accused of crimes

• Punishment should not be linked to religion but should be evaluated based on rationale proof

• Critics of the old legal system and denounced torture and capital punishment. Influenced Frederick the Great who abolished torture

• Rehabilitation of criminal. “It is better to prevent crimes than to punish them”

Characteristics of MercantilismCritical of mercantilism they developed classical

economic liberalism and laissez-faire capitalism

Colonies would provide captive markets for manufactured goods & sources of raw materials.

Manufactured goods

Raw materials

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Economic ThoughtEconomic Thought• The physiocrats believed that land not gold and silver

was the source of wealth• Believed in the “invisible hand” of free competition and

no government controls• Government has three duties:

a) defense against invasionb) maintain civil orderc) sponsor public works

• Did not call for harsher laws, but more police to protect economic interests, especially property

TheThePhysiocratsPhysiocrats

TheThePhysiocratsPhysiocrats

François QuesnayFrançois Quesnay• In France the Physiocrats advocated laissez-faire

economics.• Quesnay, advisor to Louis XV denounced mercantilism

and wanted to remove price controls• Initially prices would rise but that would encourage

production which would lower the prices• Should be one tax on wealth derived from the land• Bad weather and poor harvests caused people to hoard

grain which in turn led to riots and forced the government to intervene

Adam Smith (1723-1790)• On his travels to France, he was influenced by the writings of

the physiocrats.

• 1776 The Theory of Moral Sentiments and an Inquiry Into the Nature of Causes of the Wealth of Nations was published.

• Wealth of Nations was a vehement attack of the mercantilist system and considered the “Bible” of capitalism

• He wanted trade barriers removed, an end to monopolies and protectionism, and for there to be free market competition

• The invisible hand would force supply and demand to meet

• Production comes from the workers• Government regulation only interferes with a natural

self-governing style

Later Philosophes• Baron Paul d’Holbach – System of Nature – argued that

humans are essentially like machines and determined by outside forces, which undermined the Enlightenment

• David Hume – Claimed that desire, and not reason governed humans

• Marquis de Condorcet – Progress of the Human Mind – also undermined the Enlightenment. There have been 9 stages of human development and the 10th would bring perfection

• Immanuel Kant – separated science and morality into separate branches of knowledge. Science could not guide morality

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• Women played a major role in the salon movement which made scientific discussion a social event

• Coffee house because popular meeting places• But, overall the number of women actually involved in

the Enlightenment was limited• Not all men advocated equality for women and only the

Marquis de Condorcet supported female suffrage• Madame de Geoffrin (French) patronized Diderot• Mary Wollstonecraft (English) promoted political and

educational equality – Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792)

• Olympe de Gouge (French) during the Revolution she demanded women be given the same rights as men – Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen - beheaded in 1793