The 100th Anniversary of the Russian PavlovPhysiological Society

The first All-Russian Congress of Phys-iologists was held in Petrograd (Saint Pe-tersburg), Russia in April 1917 at theMedical Institute for Women (11). IvanPavlov was the chairman of the organiz-ing committee for this first “SechenovPhysiological Congress,” but he was un-able to attend because of a fractured hipsustained in a fall on December 27, 1916(7). Nevertheless, Pavlov wrote an ad-dress, which was read at the opening ofthe Congress on April 6, 1917. This was apeculiar address because Pavlov had beendenied permission by the Tsar to holdsuch a conference, which he feared mighthave political overtones. But, by the timethe conference began, the Tsar, Nicolas II,had abdicated (on February 27, 2017),and a provisionary government was inplace. Pavlov thus acknowledged the newregime in his address and hoped that itwould be sympathetic to the sciences. Healso announced the start of a new journal,and his address was published in that jour-nal (the Russian Physiological Journal, vol.1, nos. 1–2, 1917; also published in Ref. 7).

Pavlov’s Address to the First All-Russian Congress of Physiologists

Pavlov’s opening address at the 1917meeting was read by V. I. Vartanov, who,along with Pavlov and A. A. Likhachev,had worked for 6 years to obtain permis-sion to form the Russian Physiological So-ciety and to convene a meeting. In thisaddress, Pavlov stated his hopes for thenew journal of Russian physiology and forthe success of the new government andits support of science and scientists. FromKoshtoyants, 1955, p. 49 –50 (7), Pavlovwrote to the first congress:

Dear Comrades,I deeply regret that I am unable tobe with you. We are living in reallyextraordinary times. Hitherto dispersedand separated, we are coming togethernow and forming a society that willhave common interests and a commonaim—to maintain Russian physiologyat the highest possible level. And ourprime concern at the moment is ourjournal. One can say that in the per-manent international exhibition ofphysiology we shall, at last, have ourown pavilion! Each of us must do hisbest to make it as rich and as inter-esting as possible; it will give foreign-ers a better idea of our activity, betterthan they had when we were dis-persed; it will enable them to appraiseus. The circumstances favour the ap-pearance of our journal. Our new in-tercourse in the form of regular papersfrom all parts of our motherland, ex-change of views, demonstration of exper-iments and apparatus, and even, so tospeak, entire physiological establish-ments—our laboratories—as well as themutual encouragement and mutual as-sistance they entail—all this cannot butintensify our usual work. The presentextraordinary situation in Russia isbound to add in a big way to our ownparticular upsurge. We have just partedwith the sombre epoch of oppression. Itsuffices to remind you that this congresswas not permitted to be held overChristmas, permission was granted forit to be held at Easter only after themembers of the organizing committeehad signed a statement saying that nopolitical resolutions would be pre-

sented at the congress. But that was notall. Two or three days before our Revo-lution, final permission was obtainedon the condition that the theses of thepapers be submitted beforehand to thecity head.But thank God, this is already a thing ofthe past and, let us hope, the irrevoca-ble past.A grievous sin was committed by theGreat French revolution when it exe-cuted Lavoisier and when his appealfor a postponement that would enablehim to complete important chemicalexperiments was answered by the state-ment that “the republic needs neitherscientists nor their experiments.” But inthis respect, too, the past century hasseen a real revolution in the humanmind; now we need not have any fearsabout a democracy disregarding theeternally majestic role of science in hu-man life.We cannot but anticipate, and with thenew system of our life, we must antici-pate an exceptional growth of themeans for all kinds of scientific activity.And this being so, it should be an addedincentive for us to step up our effort tothe utmost. How timely, then, in ourfree motherland, now being renovatedand endeavoring to create the best pos-sible conditions in all spheres of life, arethe society and its journal, so happilylinked with the glorious name of IvanMikhailovich Sechenov, the founder ofRussian physiology and the embodi-ment of a genuinely free spirit!Hearty greetings, comrades, and bestwishes for a good beginning to ourundertaking!

The difficulties that had to be over-come to obtain permission to hold thefirst Russian Congress of Physiology,which occurred between the revolutionsof February and October 1917, and the

EDITORIALRichard E. Brown,1 Zoltán Molnár,2 Ludmila Filaretova,3

Mikhail Ostrovsky,4 Marco Piccolino,5 and Lorenzo Lorusso6

1Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, DalhousieUniversity, Halifax, Canada;2Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Universityof Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom;3Pavlov Institute of Physiology, Saint Petersburg, Russia;4Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia;5Centre of Neuroscience, Universita degli Studi di Ferrara,Ferrara, Italy; and6Neurology Unit, A.S.S.T-Franciacorta, Chiari, Italy

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difficulties and delays in holding the sec-ond congress in 1926, are described byOstrovsky (11). The Russian Journal ofPhysiology was founded at this 1917 con-gress and continues today as the Sech-enov Russian Journal of Physiology.

History of the Society

Ostrovsky (11) has given a history of theRussian Physiological Society, which wasknown as the Sechenov Physiological Soci-ety from 1917 until 1930, when it was re-named the All-Union Society ofPhysiologists, Biochemists and Pharmacol-ogists. In 1960, the name was changed tothe Pavlov Physiological Society, by whichit is known today. Pavlov was the first pres-ident of the society (1917–1936), followedby his student L. A. Orbeli (1937–1950 and1956–1958); O. G. Gazenko (1983–2004);Yu. V. Natochin (2004–2007); and M. A. Os-trovsky (2007–present). In September 2017,the Society will have its 23rd meeting inVoronezh, Russia.

The 100th Anniversary Meeting

A meeting to celebrate the 100th Anniver-sary of the Russian Pavlov PhysiologicalSociety was held in Saint Petersburg, Rus-sia from April 17 to 19, 2017, exactly 100years after the first meeting, which Pavlovand his colleagues worked so hard to pre-pare. The Organizing Committee waschaired by Ludmila P. Filaretova, a corre-sponding member of the Russian Acad-emy of Sciences (RAS), and includedacademician M. A. Ostrovsky, the presi-dent of the society; Dr. L. Lorusso, thechairman of the FENS History committee;academician Yu. V. Natochin; academi-cian A. D. Nozdrachev; and correspond-ing member of the RAS, P. M. Balaban.The first day of the meeting was held atthe Maxim Gorky House of Scientists of theRAS (Saint-Petersburg, 26 DvortsovayaNab.), and the next 2 days at the PavlovInstitute of Physiology of the RAS (St. Pe-tersburg, 6 Makarova Nab.).

Highlights of the meeting included thefollowing greeting from the InternationalUnion of Physiological Societies (IUPS)President Denis Noble: “On behalf of theInternational Union of Physiological Sci-ences, I send heartiest congratulations tothe Russian Pavlov Physiological Societyon the occasion of its Centenary Meetingin St. Petersburg. IUPS was proud to be

hosted by your Society for the 1997 WorldCongress, also held in St. Petersburg. Welook forward to many more years of col-laboration between IUPS and the RussianPavlov Physiological Society.”

Opening remarks were provided byMikhail Ostrovsky, President of the Rus-sian Pavlov Physiological Society (11),which was followed by a presentation byLorenzo Lorusso, Head of the HistoryCommittee of the Federation of EuropeanNeuroscience Societies (FENS) on “TheImportance of Physiology for Medicine”(13, 15). Zoltán Molnár (Department ofPhysiology, Anatomy and Genetics, Uni-versity of Oxford) presented a paper on“The Dawn of Modern Neuroscience:Pavlov and Sherrington” (9); and B. Lich-terman (Sechenov First Moscow StateMedical University) spoke on “Neurosur-gery as Applied Neurophysiology” (8).Later, Willem Hendrik Gispen (DescartesCentre for the History and Philosophy ofthe Sciences and the Humanities, UtrechtUniversity) gave a presentation on “TheRoots of Neuroscience” (http://why-the-brain-matters.joburg/prof-willem-hendrik-gispen/), and A. Nozdrachev (Chairman ofSt. Petersburg Sechenov Society of Physi-ologists, Biochemists and Pharmacolo-gists) gave a presentation on the historyof the “House of Scientists as a First Clubof Scientific Intelligentsia” (10).

The second day of the meeting openedwith a lecture by Ludmila Filaretova, Di-rector of Pavlov Institute of Physiology,on “The Development of Scientific Heri-tage of Ivan Pavlov at Pavlov Institute ofPhysiology RAS” (4) (http://infran.ru/his-tory_eng.htm). This was followed by a talkby Richard E. Brown (Department of Psy-chology and Neuroscience, DalhousieUniversity) on “Pavlov in America: TheInfluence of Pavlov on Lashley and Hebb”(1). Marco Piccolino (University of Fer-rara, Italy) then gave a presentation on“A. L. Byzov and the Russian Contributionto Vision Research” (12). Later in the day,there were presentations by Y. Shelepin(Pavlov Institute of Physiology RAS) on“Neurophysiology of Vision and Neuro-technologies of Purposeful Behavior” (5);S. Medvedev (Bekhtereva Institute of Hu-man Brain RAS) on “Pilgrimage of theLight Spot. Brain Basis of the HighestFunctions” (6); and T. Chernigovskaya(St. Petersburg State University) on “Brain

and Mind: From Behavioral Physiology toNeurocognitive Technology” (2). Theseafternoon presentations were followed bya short film on “Pavlovian Koltushi,”which showed 1934 footage of Pavlov’slaboratory and the development of thevillage of Koltushi as a research center(https://www.net-film.us/film-31036/).The third day of the meeting consisted of31 presentations and 37 posters by Rus-sian physiologists, which are available onthe meeting website (http://www.infran.ru/meetings.htm).

Maxim Gorky House of Scientists. TheMaxim Gorky House of Scientists is theformer Palace of Grand Duke VladimirAlexandrovich, one of the last Imperialpalaces built in St. Petersburg in 1872.After the October 1917 Revolution, theVladimir Palace was presented as theMaxim Gorky House of Scientists, a socialand cultural club for the scientific intelli-gentsia. During the great depression of1919 –1920, Gorky dispensed food, cloth-ing, and other essentials of survival toscientists and their families from thishouse (14). As a result, it has the mostauthentic and best preserved interiors ofany of St. Petersburg’s royal residences.

History of the Pavlov Institute ofPhysiology. The Pavlov Institute ofPhysiology of the Russian Academyof Sciences (FIGURE 1) began as thePhysiological Institute of the USSR Acad-emy of Sciences, which was founded in1925. Pavlov was the first director of thisinstitute, whose main goal was to studythe physiology of the brain hemispheresby the method of conditional reflexes. Bythe early 1930s, the problems investigatedat the institute included the activity ofbrain hemispheres, interactions of excita-tion and inhibition processes, experimen-tal neuroses, as well as the higher nervousactivity of primates. In 1934, new De-partments of Anatomy, Biochemistry,Biophysics, and Experimental Psychol-ogy were founded, and studies on thestructural and physico-chemical basisof physiology and psychology of the an-imal and human brain were conducted(http://infran.ru/history_eng.htm).

After Pavlov’s death in 1936, the Physi-ological Institute was named after himand headed by Academician Leon A. Or-beli, who added evolutionary, compara-tive, and aging physiology; the physiology

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of the autonomic nervous system andsense organs, as well as studies on cellbiochemistry and cell biophysics. By thelate 1940s, the institute was a center forevolutionary physiology, sensory systemsphysiology, and animal husbandry phys-iology. In 1950, the Pavlov PhysiologicalInstitute of the USSR Academy of Sci-ences merged with the Pavlov Institute ofEvolutionary Physiology and Pathology ofthe Higher Nervous Activity of the USSRAcademy of Medical Sciences and withthe Institute of the Central Nervous Sys-tem of the USSR Academy of Medical Sci-ences. This new Pavlov Institute ofPhysiology of the USSR Academy of Sci-ences was headed by academician Kon-stantin M. Bykov and became a center forinvestigations on physiology and pathol-ogy of the higher nervous activity, generalphysiology of the nervous system, physi-ology of sense organs, and evolutionaryand ecological physiology. Studies on thephysiology and pathology of cortico-vis-ceral interrelations played an importantrole in the development of the modernconcept of psychosomatic diseases.

From 1959 to 1977, the Institute washeaded by academician Vladimir N.Chernigovsky and concentrated on re-search in the neurophysiology of highernervous activity; the physiology of sen-sory systems and speech; and the physi-

ology of visceral systems. AcademicianAlexander M. Ugolev discovered mem-brane digestion, a universal mechanismof food digestion. From 1977 to 1981, theacting director of the institute was Pro-fessor Kirill P. Ivanov, who organizedthe Inter-Institute Biological ComputerCenter, the Mathematical Data Process-ing Group, and the Group of ResearchAutomation. From 1981 to 1994, the in-stitute was headed by academician Vladi-mir A. Govyrin and focused on themolecular, cellular, genetic, and systemicmechanisms of adaptive behavior; theprinciples of perception and processingof information by sense organs; and thestructural-functional organization of cen-tral control mechanisms of the visceralorgans. From 1994 to 2015, the director ofthe institute was corresponding memberof the RAS, Djun. P. Dvoretsky, who orga-nized further development of the investi-gations of peripheral and centralmechanisms of regulation of circulation,vascular tone, and respiration. New neu-rophysiological mechanisms of spinallocomotion and the role of genes control-ling the nervous system, and adaptationand learning processes were investi-gated. Since 2015, the institute has beenheaded by corresponding member ofthe RAS, Ludmila P. Filaretova. At pres-ent, the Pavlov Institute of Physiology is

the largest physiological institute inRussia where all fields of physiology arepresented (http://www.infran.ru).

In 1913, Pavlov wrote the reference forSherrington’s application for the WaynfleteChair of Physiology, University of Oxford.Zoltán Molnár presented a scanned copy ofthis letter to the Pavlov Museum (the orig-inal is in Vancouver, Canada; https://cslide.medsci.ox.ac.uk/items/view/2959).The translated letter, which was originallyin German, reads as follows:

I have the high honor to attest, thataccording to my opinion, ProfessorCharles S. Sherrington stands in thevery first row of contemporary workersin physiology. His works on the centralnervous system and especially the spi-nal cord must be recognized as classicalpieces of work. He collected such a largesum of facts, and constructed such asubstantial quantity of general thesesabout the function of the central ner-vous system, that with all justificationone can consider him to be the mainfounder of that part of physiology,which one could call “mechanics of thecentral nervous system.” The leadingexperiments of Sherrington, which arestill continued by his coworkers andsuccessors, led always to further, highlyimportant results.

FIGURE 1. Pavlov Institute of Physiology of the Russian Academy of Science in Saint Petersburg

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I. P. Pavlov Museum in Koltushi. Pav-lov had a summer house in the village ofKoltushi, ~10 km from Petrograd, and in1926, he founded a Biological ResearchStation here. Later, it was expanded to aresearch campus with a number of lab-oratories in which investigations ofphysiology of the higher nervous activ-ity were carried out (FIGURE 2). Thephysiological research center in Koltushiwas built in the early 1930s. When Pavlovwas still alive, Koltushi was visited bymany prominent world leaders in scienceand culture, including A. V. Hill, L. E.Lapicque, J. Barcroft, W. B. Cannon, H.Hunt, Herbert G. Wells, and Niels H. D.Bohr. During these years, Koltushi wasrecognized as “the capital of conditionalreflexes” (3). At present, Pavlov’s Koltushi,which includes Pavlov’s laboratory build-ing, Pavlov’s monument, the avenue withscientists’ busts, and the cottages is aWorld Heritage site. In 1993, to furtherdevelop the scientific heritage of IvanPavlov, and to increase international sci-entific cooperation, the I. P. Pavlov Inter-national Research Center was founded inthe institute in Koltushi.

One of the first buildings in Koltushi,built in 1933, was the Laboratory of Ge-netics of the Higher Nervous Activity, onwhich Pavlov had inscribed the words“Experimental genetics of the higher

nervous activity,” and on the tower hehad inscribed, “Observation and observa-tion.” In front of the laboratory, there arebusts of R. Descartes, G. Mendel, andI. M. Sechenov, as well as a bust of I. P.Pavlov himself and a bust of Charles Dar-win. Inside the laboratory, the first floorwas occupied by a surgery room, library,room for technicians, and other rooms.On the second floor were living rooms forbiostation researchers and a small apart-ment for Pavlov that consisted of the sit-ting room, bedroom, children’s room,and a study with a sunroom verandah. Inthe hallway are photographs of Pavlov,his family, and his colleagues taken invarious years (FIGURE 3). Some representhis everyday research and leisure activi-ties, others show him together with hiscolleagues and with visitors, including theEnglish writer Herbert G. Wells and theDanish physicist Niels Bohr on their visitsto Koltushi. There is also a diorama ofKoltushi between 1925 and 1933, and aroom with a soundproof chamber for usein studies of conditional reflexes.

Pavlov Institute for ExperimentalMedicine

On Thursday, April 20, one of us (R. E.Brown) visited Dr. Victor Klimenko at thePavlov Institute of Experimental Medi-cine and had a tour of Pavlov’s office

museum and the famous “Tower of Si-lence.” Pavlov’s office museum containshis desk and pen, his tin of tea and hissugar cubes, as well as his death mask,and an organ dated 1908. The organ wasnot for musical interludes but for pro-ducing exact auditory stimuli used fordiscrimination learning in the dogs. Pav-lov’s “Kamera 7” is an intact room usedfor conditioned reflexes, and the specialaseptic surgical suite designed by Pavlovfor surgical procedures on his dogs is stillin use (13). In the garden, there is a “dogfountain” surmounted by a statue of adog and surrounded by carvings of Pavlovin the laboratory and inscribed with pas-sages from his notebooks.

Saint Petersburg State Universityand Pavlov Apartment Museum

During the meeting, we were taken on abrief tour of the Twelve Colleges building(built in 1742) of Saint Petersburg StateUniversity by Professor Alexander G.Markov and academician Alexander D.Nozdrachev. We saw the apartment mu-seum of Mendeleev, where he developedthe Periodic Table of the Elements, theuniversity museum, and the classroomwhere Pavlov studied physiology as a stu-dent. Possibly the highlight of the trip wasa visit to Pavlov’s apartment museum atNumber 2, 7th Line, Vasilyevsky Island,

FIGURE 2. I. P. Pavlov Museum in Koltushi

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where we were given a guided tour, abooklet, and a tea, served in Pavlov’s din-ing room. This apartment was Pavlov’shome for 18 years and was kept unalteredfor 30 years by Pavlov’s wife before be-coming a museum. (http://infran.ru/his-tory_eng.htm). The apartment museumwas opened in 1949, on the 100th anni-versary of Pavlov’s birth, and is in thepossession of the I. P. Pavlov Institute ofPhysiology. The furniture and decora-tions are authentic and were preserved asthey were during Pavlov’s life. The apart-ment consists of a living room, study/bedroom, kitchen, dining room, andsecond bedroom. Pavlov’s study and bed-room consisted of one large room, di-vided by bookcases. The center of thestudy contains the writing table atwhich Pavlov worked in the evenings.Portraits, paintings, photographs, andmemorabilia collected by Pavlov deco-rate the rooms. The bookshelves con-tain Pavlov’s books published during hislife, books on philosophy, political

economy, history, biology, physiology,and medicine; as well as books of Pav-lov’s favorite Russian and foreign au-thors. Standing on one of the bookcasesis a small white toy dog, a gift to Pavlovby Cambridge University students whenhe was awarded an honorary doctorateby Cambridge University in 1912.

Summary

The existence of the Russian Physiology So-ciety is a credit to the perseverance of Pav-lov and his colleagues in the years leadingup to the year 1917, and their ability tosurvive the 1917 revolutions and flourish inthe last 100 years. The presentations at thismeeting showed the breadth and depth ofphysiology research in Russia, and the 23rdmeeting of the Pavlov Society of RussianPhysiology in the city of Voronezh, Russiain September 2017 will no doubt be a greatsuccess. One of the problems is that forRussian physiology to have the interna-tional impact that it deserves, the publica-tions must be translated into English or

other European languages to be accessibleto interested researchers. As a matter offact, starting from the 1950s, there has beenin Russian science, and particularly inphysiology and biochemistry, a trend topublish in English among many leading sci-entists of the former USSR, especially evi-dent with the creation of the journalByophysics, the English version of the Rus-sian journal Biofizica. These trends shouldpossibly be revived in contemporary Rus-sian science. The Pavlov museums are ex-ceptional, and we were privileged to visitthem, but these are in need of funding tomaintain them, and the members of theInstitute of Physiology are working to ob-tain funds for this important task. It was anhonor and a privilege for us to participatein this centenary meeting, and we aredeeply grateful to our Russian hosts fortheir warm friendship, the perfect organi-zation of the event in scientific, cultural,and social dimensions. We hope that thiscould be the start of a more intense phaseof mutual knowledge and collaboration

FIGURE 3. Room verandah of Pavlov at I. P. Pavlov Museum in Koltushi with a replica of his portrait by painter M. V. Nesterov(with permission from I. P. Pavlov Museum)

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between persons and institutions fromRussia and other countries in the spirit ofinternational comprehension that shouldbe a landmark of the genuine scientific en-deavor. Photographs from the meeting areavailable on the websites listed in theAcknowledgments. �

Our thanks to every institutions involved in thecelebration of the centenary of foundation ofthe Russian Physiology Society: Saint-Peters-burg State University; the Federation of Euro-pean Neuroscience Societies (FENS) and theprecious support of Mathilde Maughan; theRussian Physiological Society and correspond-ing member of the RAS Pavel M. Balaban. Wealso thank our colleagues from the Pavlov In-stitute of Physiology who contributed to theforum organization: Ekaterina A. Savelyeva,Elena A. Rybnikova, Evgeniy P. Vovenko, andLudmila I. Gromova. Some photographs ofthe meeting have been uploaded to Molnar-lab Facebook page: https://www.facebook.com/molnarlab/posts/642257332633654 andFENS Facebook page by Mathilde Maughan:https://www.facebook.com/permalink.php?story_fbid�441757702831597&id�1000099-21134457&pnref�story.

No conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise,are declared by the author(s).

Author contributions: R.E.B. prepared figures;R.E.B., L.L., L.F., Z.M., and M.P. drafted manu-script; R.E.B., L.L., L.F., Z.M., M.A.O., and M.P.edited and revised manuscript; R.E.B., L.L., L.F.,Z.M., M.A.O., and M.P. approved final versionof manuscript.

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