Text has cohesion if

Thecohesion

book

Sue Palmer

Text has cohesion if

it is clearly organised so readers can find their way round the ideas

it includes words and phrases that act like ‘signposts’, helping readers to follow the author’s train of thought

the writing ‘holds together’, so that it is easy to read and understand.

*

*

*

CoherenceSome ways ofhelping the

reader see howyour ideas are

organised.

* Plan your writing in advance on a skeleton framework.

Headings and subheadings

Paragraph breaks

Layout conventions

Punctuation

Presentational devices

speech bubbles,timelines, flowcharts, etc.bullet points,boxed information.

e.g.

give an overviewof the text’s organisation.

show shifts of time, place,viewpoint, topic, etc.

draw attention to sections oftext and make meaning clearer

shows where one chunk ofmeaning ends and another

begins. (See The Punctuation Book)

show what sortof text it is, e.g.

diary, letter,newspaper, article.

* Frequently re-read your work to check organisation is clear.

Paragraphing

* In non-fiction writing, plan paragraphs beforehand.

a new topic oraspect of a topic

Paragraph breakscan help readers

to follow yourtrain of thought

by showing…

Three weeks later…In 1837,…

a shift oftime

Meanwhile, deep inthe forest,…

Suddenly, they leaptInto action…

Tom, on the other hand, was furious…

a shift ofplace

a shift ofmood or

viewpoint

a new speakerin direct speech

(See The Sentence Book)

a new step orstage in aprocess

a move from onemain point (or group of points

to another

one paragraphper category

***

***

***

* In fiction, beware of all shifts of emphasis.

Cohesive devices

Collect examples from textsyou read. Read sentences aloud to get the feel of the language patterns.

Words and phrasescan act like

signposts to helpreaders see

significant links inthe text.

Use these ‘signposts’ to linkyour own ideas. Practise the sentences in speech before you write.

conjunctions

punctuation

sentenceframes

sentence connectivesThese show links

between ideas within a sentence, e.g. when, because, until, although.

Some punctuation marks(: ; -) can show linksbetween clauses.

Words and phrasesthat show links between onesentence and thenext, e.g. However, Consequently,On the other hand…

Where nouns or verbs act assignposts, you can make a‘sentence frame’, e.g.Begin by…The reason that… is…

Connection words, phrases and sentences are importantthroughout written work. However, they are particularly useful at the start of a new paragraph.

Use time links to show thepassage of time in fiction and recounts.

sentenceconnectives

sentenceframes

Yesterday,…

On 4th June 2000,…

One wintry morning,…

Time LinksVary the linking devices sothey guide the readerwithout being too obvious.

conclusion time passing setting the scene e.g.

Finally,…

Eventually,…

At last,…

Next,… Then,…After that,…A few weeks later,…By the end of October,…

conjunctionslinking clauses

When Jane wasfour years old,…

As time went by,…

After she had left,…When it was all over,…

It all began with an invitation.

Several weeks passed.

The clock struck midnight.

It was the end of the adventure.

Cause and effect

Note that some sentenceframes lead to changesin the form of the verb.

sentenceconnectives

sentenceframes

The room is cold because the window is open.

When the window is open, the room is cold.

If the window is open, the room is cold.

The window is open so the room is cold.

Cause and effect links areparticularly important inexplanation writing.

conjunctionslinking clauses

Therefore, the room is cold.

Consequently, the room is cold.

As a result, the room is cold.

The window is open.

This means that the room is cold.

This results in the room being cold.

This causes the room to be cold.

The window is open.

The reason (that) the room is cold is that the window is open.

A further feature they have in common is____________.

and as well tooAlso, Moreover,

Furthermore,In addition, What is more,

Another point is …A further feature is …

These links are useful in• descriptive writing• texts which argue for or against a point of view.

Oppositionbut yet

while whereasHowever, Alternatively,

On the other hand,On the contrary,

The opposite point of view is…

Comparison, e.g. Contrast, e.g.

+ Addition +

One similarity is that __________.

They are both ____________.

Another way in which they are alike is ________.

____________ and _______ aresimilar in several ways.

____________ and _______ aredifferent in a number of ways. For instance, __________ is_______, while __________ is____________. Another differenceis that ________. They also differin that _________ is ________,whereas ________is ________.

Sequence

In instructions and explanations, signpost stages in the process,

4

Finally,…Finish off

by…

1

First,…

Begin by…

2

Secondly,..The next

stage is…

3

Next,…When the mixture

is ready…

Introducing examplesIntroducing definitions

Definitions and examples help make meaning clear,Use key words and sentence frames to introduce them.

Clarity

• a bloop, which is a ……………

• a ……………, known as a bloop

• a …………… called a bloop

• a bloop (a …………)

e.g. such as including

For example, For instance,

This can be seen in …

This is illustrated by …

Examples include …

Holding text together 1Nouns, noun phrases

and pronouns help bindtext together by

making references backand forward.

Make sure pronouns areconsistent in person andnumber. If not, thetext may be confusingto read.

Use a variety of nouns,noun phrases and pronouns to:• avoid repetition• improve the cohesion of your writing.

In impersonal text,stick to third personpronouns. If you startin the singular, don’tdrift into the plural.

Rob knocked on the door.

An old woman opened it and

stared down at the boy. He

smiled back. This must

be Mrs Gunn.

If one wants to be a top-class

player, we have to practise

because players do not make

it to the top unless you

give a hundred per cent.

Holding text together 2Some texts are mostlypast tense:

• recount

• narrative fiction

Make sure verb tensesare consistent. If not,the text may beconfusing to read.

Exceptions* most direct speech and quotations* references to things which continue to exist beyond the narrative* sudden changes into the present tense for dramatic effect.

Exceptions* historical reports and explanations* reference to or examples from the past.

Some texts are mostly present tense:• instruction• report• explanation• persuasion• discussion

Reported speechis in the

past tense.

Direct speechis usually

present tense.

The general said that his men were fitand highly trained.They would be ready when the invasion began.

“My men are fit and highly trained.They will beready when the invasion begins,”said the general.

Holding text together 3

I, we, you

Make sure your overallstyle and viewpoint areconsistent, depending onpurpose and audience.

third personand/or

passive voice

personal impersonalor

informal formalor

subjective objectiveor

your opinion just the facts

(see The Standard English Book)

(see The Complex Sentence Book)

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