+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e1

TEST NO: 8 - KEY Date: 02.03.2019

Max. Marks: 250 Max. Time 3 Hours

ANTHROPOLOGY- ALL INDIA TEST SERIES – TEST- 8

1.a. cyborg anthropology

Cyborg anthropology is a discipline that studies the interaction between humanity and technology

from an anthropological perspective. The discipline is relatively new, but offers novel insights on new

technological advances and their effect on culture and society.

described cyborg anthropology as the study of how humans define humanness in relationship to

machines, as well as the study of science and technology as activities that can shape and be shaped by

culture. This includes studying the ways that all people, including those who are not scientific experts,

talk about and conceptualize technology

Cyborg anthropology uses traditional methods of anthropological research like ethnography and

participant observation, accompanied by statistics, historical research, and interviews. By nature it is a

multidisciplinary study; cyborg anthropology can include aspects of Science and Technology Studies,

cybernetics, feminist theory, and more. It primarily focuses on how people use discourse about

science and technology in order to make these meaningful in their lives

Key concepts and research

1. Actor–network theory

2. Artificial intelligence

3. Posthumanism

Imp Scholars

1. Amber Case

2. Sherry Turkle

3. Sharon Traweek

4. Lucien Castaing-Taylor

5. Allucquere Rosanne Stone

1.b Genetic drift

Genetic drift is change in allele frequencies in a population from generation to generation that occurs

due to chance events. To be more exact, genetic drift is change due to "sampling error" in selecting

the alleles for the next generation from the gene pool of the current generation. Although genetic drift

happens in populations of all sizes, its effects tend to be stronger in small populations.

Key points

• Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution in which allele frequencies of a population change

over generations due to chance (sampling error).

• Genetic drift occurs in all populations of non-infinite size, but its effects are strongest in small

populations.

• Genetic drift may result in the loss of some alleles (including beneficial ones) and the fixation, or

rise to 100 percent frequency, of other alleles.

Genetic drift can have major effects when a population is sharply reduced in size by a natural disaster

(bottleneck effect) or when a small group splits off from the main population to found a colony

(founder effect).

+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e2

1C Foster Child Method

• Define FCM – method to analyse relative influence of heredity and environment on

development of a trait

• Steps –

1. Selection

2. Placing

3. Testing

• Studies-

1 Chicago studies - Environmental dominance

2. Minnesota studies – heredity dominance

• Drawbacks - bias in selection, sample size issues,

• Conclusion - Complementary to twin studies, FCM is an important method to study nature

nurture aspects

c. Foster child method

• Define FCM – method to analyse relative influence of heredity and environment on

development of a trait

• Steps –

1. Selection

2. Placing

3. Testing

• Studies-

1 Chicago studies - Environmental dominance

2. Minnesota studies – heredity dominance

• Drawbacks - bias in selection, sample size issues,

Conclusion - Complementary to twin studies, FCM is an important method to study nature nurture

aspects

1d Mendelian Population

Population genetics is the systematic elucidation of essential biological phenomena, such as

adaptation and speciation—with adaptation here meaning enhanced reproductive success of a given

anatomical, physiological, or behavioral feature evident by increased allelic frequency over successive

generations and speciation meaning the appearance of qualitatively novel species of organism. A key

premise of population genetics is that inheritance of both quantitative and qualitative traits are based

on similar natural laws. Population genetics is the main technique derived from the so-called modern

evolutionary synthesis of the early 20th century, which melded neo-Darwinism with the rediscovery

of Mendel’s elegant laws of genetics.

Mendelian genetics is a neo-Darwinian evolutionary science made more complete and rigorous.

Mendel’s work indicated that more abrupt, large-scale differences were the major mechanism by

which evolution progressed. Fisher’s paper The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of

Mendelian Inheritance invoked a continuous variation model that could derive from diverse discrete

loci.

Mendelian and Darwinian perspectives on evolution but also placed the synthesis within a robust

mathematical framework

+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e3

e. Karyotype analysis

A Karyotype is a photomicrograph of the chromosomal complement of an individual

•The chromosomes are arranged according to size, and numbered, with the first pair being

the largest chromosomes and the twenty second pair being the smallest in humans, except for the Y

(male-determining) chromosome

KARYOTYPING

Chromosomes are best observed in metaphase of mitotic cell division.

Karyotype systematically studies individual’s single chromosome. Single cell is referred in order to

avoid duplication.

Karyotypes are prepared by observing photographs using microscopes or by manual drawing by

observing in the microscope.

Karyotype provides information of an individual, a species or a genus.

Ex. Helpful in identifying the species for human 46 chromosomes. Again each individual has unique

arrangement.

PROCEDURE FOR KARYOTYPING: Collection of blood→planting for incubation add

colchicine→WBCs separated with centrifuge→ treated with hypotonic solution →acetic acid

fixation→ staining→ observed in microscope.

USES:

1. Knowing chromosomal abnormalities.

2. Genetic counseling. Etc.

2. a. Structural chromosomal aberrations. 15

When the chromosome's structure is altered, this can take several forms:

• Deletions: A portion of the chromosome is missing or deleted. Known disorders in humans

include Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome, which is caused by partial deletion of the short arm of

chromosome 4; and Jacobsen syndrome, also called the terminal 11q deletion disorder.

• Duplications: A portion of the chromosome is duplicated, resulting in extra genetic material.

Known human disorders include Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A, which may be caused by

duplication of the gene encoding peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22) on chromosome 17.

• Translocations: A portion of one chromosome is transferred to another chromosome. There are

two main types of translocations:

o Reciprocal translocation: Segments from two different chromosomes have been exchanged.

o Robertsonian translocation: An entire chromosome has attached to another at the centromere -

in humans these only occur with chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22.

• Inversions: A portion of the chromosome has broken off, turned upside down, and reattached,

therefore the genetic material is inverted.

• Insertions: A portion of one chromosome has been deleted from its normal place and inserted

into another chromosome.

• Rings: A portion of a chromosome has broken off and formed a circle or ring. This can happen

with or without loss of genetic material.

• Isochromosome: Formed by the mirror image copy of a chromosome segment including the

centromere.

Chromosome instability syndromes are a group of disorders characterized by chromosomal instability

and breakage. They often lead to an increased tendency to develop certain types of malignancies.

+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e4

b. Compare the old and new physical anthropology. 20

Intro- Classification Physical Anthropology into Old and New by Washburn

Scope – Vast than Old Physical Anthropology

1. Understanding processes of evolution

2. Analytical and multidisciplinary approach ; descriptive studies only a small part

3. Mechanisms involved in the problem; classification not the major area

4. Theory making is critical and hypothesis backed by experimentation

5. Newer fields – blood group systems, Human variation, Adaptation, paleoanthropology,

Primatology, Human genetics etc

“New Physical Anthropology” New domains:

1. Serological studies

2. Biochemical genetics

3. Studies of evolutionary factors such as mutation, natural selection and gene flow.

4. Primatological studies, of their biology and behaviour.

5. Demographic studies, especially of factors that affect inbreeding and genetic drift and the

biological consequences of formal kinship and alliance systems.

6. Anthropometric and anthroposcopic studies, with reference to nutritional factors and ensuing

demographic characters.

7. Ecological studies dealing with biological and cultural adaptations.

c. Genetic Screening 15

Genetic screening also known as DNA testing, allows the determination of bloodlines and the genetic

diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited diseases. In agriculture, a form of genetic testing known as

progeny testing can be used to evaluate the quality of breeding stock. In population ecology, genetic

testing can be used to track genetic strengths and ulnerabilities of species populations.

In addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader

sense includes biochemical tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of

genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders

3. a. Explain different social and cultural theories of population. 25

Intro -Def of Theories of Population growth

Classification – Biological, Social/Cultural, Economic

Social-Cultural theories –

1. Social capillarity theory by Dumont

2. Theory of voluntarism by Fetter

3. Theory of Individuality by Nitti

4. Theory of Social maladjustment by George

Conclusion – No single theory have been able to accurately explain population growth ; Multiple

factors involved .

b. Bring about different indices of measuring mortality rate. 15

Measures of mortality:

1. Crude Death Rate (CDR)

2. Age Specific Death Rate (ASDR)

3. IMR Infant Mortality Rate

4. Cause specific Death Rate (CSDR)

5. Life Expectancy at Birth

Give formulae for the above

+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e5

c. Comment on changing sex ratio in Indian population, giving comparisons of SCs, STs and all

India population. 10

STs constitute 8.6% of Indian population and have literacy rates much less than the non tribal , non

SC populations. But they report the highest Sex Ratios among all categories of population

Social group Child Sex Ratio Sex Ratio Female literacy

ST 957 990 49.35%

SC 933 945 56.46

Others 910 937 68.19

India 919 943 64.64%

• Better sex ratios are indicative of both positive and negative aspects such as culture of gender

parity, lack of access to pre natal medical diagnosis etc.

• But, the recent trend observed is- falling Sex Ratio among STs. This has been a cause of

concern.

• The other major concern is falling child population.

• Best CSR in STs- Chattisgarh- 993, Odissa- 980

• Odisha and Jharkhand, two of India’s poorest states with sizeable tribal population, are the

best performing states when it comes to improved sex ratio of STs when compared to states

like Rajasthan (948), Uttar Pradesh (952), Jammu and Kashmir (924) and Bihar (958), which

also have tribal people. Goa tops the list when it comes to sex ratio of tribal population with

1,046 females per 1,000 males; it is followed by Kerala (1,035), Arunachal Pardesh (1,032),

Odisha (1,029) and Chhattisgarh (1,020)

4. a. Cellular theories of aging. 15

Intro - Define Ageing

Body – Numerous theories proposed but none has been able to explain the process of ageing

satisfactorily.

Biological theories –

A) Cellular theories – defects in intra cellular processes leads to ageing

1. Theory of genetic blue print by Hayflick

2. Theory of Free radical reactions

3. The error theories

B) Extra cellular theories – alterations in extra cellular substances leads to ageing

1. Collagen theory

2. Immunological theory

3. pacemaker theory

C) Modern theories of ageing

1. Programmed longevity

2. Wear and tear theory

3. Strechler theory

4. Telomeric theory

Describe briefly each of the theories with examples.

Conclusion – While the process of ageing still remains elusive, Biological theories have gained

comparatively larger acceptance.

+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e6

b. Cross cultural studies of fertility in India. 15

Definition – Fertility refers to actual avg no. of children a woman gives birth to in the population

under study

Fertility studies – introduced by Boas – study of Australian aborigines, kwakiutl Indians. Considered

Matrilocality and Patrilocality as the basis.

Other important studies –

1. Dr. DN Majumdar – tribes of Central India – found that linkages presented by boas between

locality rules and fertility is not valid in Indian tribes.

2. Carr Saunders – a) primitive backward tribes – higher fertility

b) Munda and santhals – low fertility due to settled nature of living

c) Location of village – villages located close to urban centres – low fertility

3. Westermarck – Dying tribes – higher fertility eg) jarawas

In recent times, Anthropological studies have also analysed role of income levels of women ,

feminisation of agriculture, Religion on fertility rates.

c. Stages of death. 20

Dying is a shutting down of the body's physical, sensory, and mental functions, and it happens in

stages. This process can take minutes or months, depending on what is going on inside the person's

body.

Here are specific signs your body is shutting down that may occur during the active stages of dying

that indicate that the end of life is near

Few stages of death may be explained as

Body System Shutdown

Confusion

Decreased Level of Consciousness

Changes in Circulation to Extremities

Changes in Skin Color

Breathing Changes

a. Body fat as a genetic marker

• A trait can be used as a genetic marker in studies of cell lines, individuals, families and popula-tions

if:

• it is genetically determined

• can be accurately classified

• has a simple unequivocal pattern of inheritance

• has heritable variations common enough to allow to be classified as genetic polymorphism.

• Fat Levels as a genetic Marker:

• In the body fat subcutaneous fat has a significant role to play in heat or cold tolerance. In warm cli-

mates it is thin and thick in cold climates. The subcutaneous fat depends on age, sex,heredity and en-

vironment.

• Sex wise difference exists in volume of fat & velocity of its formation.

+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e7

• The fat level depends on genetics and environment.

• The deposition of subcutaneous fat shows a definite-pattern on the body-subs copular, abdominal re-

gion, arms, thighs, buttocks, calf in the limbs are important places.

• Fat levels also show correlation with B.P levels.

• Abraham Tylor proved that over weight and high fat in adulthood are directly linked to hypertension

cardio vascular, renal diseases.

• There is clear association of life style and body fat which is evident in blooming obesity especially

in children in countries like USA.

• Different cultures have different standards and norms for appropriate body size and shape, which

can effect how children perceive their body image. Some cultures celebrate a fuller body shape

more than others, but researchers at the Center for Obesity Research and Education (CORE) at

Temple University have found that an overweight or obese child can still be unhappy with his or

her body, despite acceptance from within their ethnic group.

5b. Down’s Syndrome

Intro – Explain DS as trisomy 21

Morphological features in brief

Anthropological studies-

1. Walker etal – skull evidence of women skeleton in santa rosa islands in central America

2. Study by Brothwell etal -1959- identified possible case of DS in Saxon child

Conclusion –

Inspite being the most common chromosomal aberration, anthropological studies are very limited viz

among primitive groups.

Imp anthropological works-

On the Antiquity of Trisomy 21: Moving Towards a Quantitative Diagnosis of Down Syndrome in

Historic Material Culture - by John M. Starbuck - Dealt with historicity of studies of Down's

syndrome.

5C Genome Study

Genomewide association studies are starting to turn up increasingly reliable disease markers. A

genome-wide association study (GWA study, or GWAS), also known as whole genome association

study (WGA study, or WGAS), is an observational study of a genome-wide set of genetic variants in

different individuals to see if any variant is associated with a trait. GWASs typically focus on

associations between single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and traits like major human diseases,

but can equally be applied to any other genetic variants and any other organisms

When applied to human data, GWA studies compare the DNA of participants having varying

phenotypes for a particular trait or disease.

Examples/Case Study:

A genome study project initiated by the Tea Board of India, to establish the origins and speciality of

Indian teas, has now reached an advanced stage. The study is being conducted on Assam teas to

establish it as a product of India.

It may be mentioned that there are three different botanical types of tea cultivars used by the Indian

tea industry — Assam type , Cambod type and China type. Other than tea cultivars, there are wild

types/species of tea plants used for research and breeding purposes, which are maintained by the

various tea research institutes in their germplasm plots.

+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e8

The Commerce Ministry official said that the multi-institutional project on genome sequencing is

extremely important for establishing the whole genetic make-up of India tea germplasm, in addition to

molecular methods like DNA fingerprinting and DNA barcoding

5d. Single factor and multiple factor inheritance in man

Genetics is the study of variation. Without variation, genetic analysis at any level becomes difficult.

In many cases, this genetic analysis of variation involves striking differences between the organisms

(Red or White petals,Long or Short wings) etc. In other cases, however, biological variation is

difficult to categorise. E.g. the height and weight in human beings are traits that vary continuously in

the popula-tion. Distinct classes cannot be identified for such traits, making it difficult to analyse by

conventional genetics methods. Quantitative genetics is the discipline that deals with these couples

traits.

• Most quantitative traits involve contribution of many different genes - sometimes a single gene may

exert primary influence but usually there are many equally influential genes.

• Quantitative traits are often influenced by environmental factors.

• R. A Fisher proposed “Quantitative traits were not determined by single genes, but many and their

alleles each had small and approximately additive effects”.

• A phenotype of an individual depended on it genotype at all the relevant loci, with each allele

adding or subtracting a small amount. Traits that have these features are called Polygenic Traits.

• fisher also proposed that many environmental factors influenced the trait by adding or subtracting

effects in a manner similar to that of all the genetic loci. This combination of multiple environmental

and genetic factors determined the phenotype of an individual.

5e. Effects of migration on genetic frequency of population.

Genetic variation describes naturally occurring genetic differences among individuals of the same

species. This variation permits flexibility and survival of a population in the face of changing

environmental circumstances. Consequently, genetic variation is often considered an advantage, as it

is a form of preparation for the unexpected.

Migration is the movement of organisms from one location to another. Although it can occur in

cyclical patterns (as it does in birds), migration when used in a population genetics context often

refers to the movement of individuals into or out of a defined population.

If the migrating individuals stay and mate with the destination individuals, they can provide a sudden

influx of alleles. After mating is established between the migrating and destination individuals, the

migrating individuals will contribute gametes carrying alleles that can alter the existing proportion of

alleles in the destination population.

+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e9

6. a. Immunological genetics. 15

Immunogenetics is a subspeciality of Human genetics that studies the relationship between genetics

and immunology. Immunogenetics helps in understanding the pathogenesis of several autoimmune

and infectious diseases.

Explain immunological constitution –

• Antigens

• Antibodies

• lymphocytes

• plasma cells

• blood groups

Scope –

1. Microbial studies –

i) Auto immune diseases eg) Rheumatoid arthritis

ii) Immune deficiency diseases eg) imminoglobulinemia

2. Organ Transplantation - Immunogenetics deals with acceptance and rejection of grafts, response of

T cells and B cells to the transplanted graft

3. Blood group related studies – problems in blood transfusion, incompatibility in rh factor

Techniques –

1. Western blotting

2. Immunofluroscence

3. Immunohistochemistry

Conclusion – Thus Immunogentics addresses antigen-antbody based disorders in different

immunologic systems in an individual.

b. Genetic polymorphism and selection. 20

It is the occurrence of two or more genetically determined forms in a population whose frequency is

greater than 1%.

Whereas phenotypic polymorphism is the presence of several distinctive form of phenotypic trait

with in a population with frequency greater than 1%.

The reasons for these variations are:

1. Genetic variation: ex. Blood group of the person.

2. Environmental variation: ex. Language.

3. Variation based on environment and genotype ex. IQ.

Sources of genetic polymorphism:

1. Mutation

2. Selection

3. Migration etc.,

Genetic polymorphism is classified based on site of occurrence:

+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e10

a) Genetic polymorphism at cell level: various cells are characterized by the presence of

antigenic molecules on their surfaces. Ex. Blood group, Rh typing etc.,

b) Genetic polymorphism at the level of DNA and gene: all inherited differences in relation to

colour, height, blood group etc, represent the changes in the structure of gene. Such

polymorphism is called RFLP-RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM.

Ex. Sickle cell anemia.

c) Genetic polymorphism at chromosome level: due to numerical and structural abnormalities of

chromosomes.

GENETIC POLYMORPHISM AND SELECTION:

Based on selection genetic polymorphism can be sub-divided into:

1. Permanent polymorphism and stabilizing selection: stable polymorphic features are

maintained in the population by stabilizing selection, i.e by removing those individuals

who deviate from the mean population. Ex. Intersex people.

2. Transient polymorphism and directional selection: under this shift the population mean

for some character in the direction of environmental change due to shift in environmental

demands. Ex. Industrial melanism- black moth(mutated white) and white moth.

3. Balanced polymorphism and heterozygote selection or superiority of heterozygotes: in

this heterozygotes show superiority to both the homozygotes, as heterozygotes are

favored by selection. Ex. Sickle cell anemia, Thalassemia.

Thus population with different polymorphic traits can explore for an adaptive success.

c. Biochemical methods of genetic studies in humans. 15

• Biochemistry is carried out at the cellular or subcellular level, generally on cell extracts.

Biochemical methods are applied to the main chemical compounds of genetics—notably DNA,

RNA, and protein.

• Biochemical techniques are used to determine the activities of genes within cells and to analyze

substrates and products of gene-controlled reactions. In one approach, cells are ground up and the

substituent chemicals are fractionated for further analysis.

• Special techniques (e.g., chromatography and electrophoresis) are used to separate the

components of proteins so that inherited differences in their structures can be revealed.

• For example, more than 100 different kinds of human hemoglobin molecules have been

identified. Radioactively tagged compounds are valuable in studying the biochemistry of whole

cells. For example, thymine is a compound found only in DNA; if radioactive thymine is placed

in a tissue-culture medium in which cells are growing, genes use it to duplicate themselves.

• Chemical tests are used to distinguish certain inherited conditions of humans; e.g., urinalysis and

blood analysis reveal the presence of certain inherited abnormalities—phenylketonuria (PKU),

cystinuria, alkaptonuria, gout, and galactosemia.

7. a. Race crossing in man. 10

• Define - concept that refers to inter racial bredding or marriages aming humans.

• Explain – Concept of race is challenged → concept of Race crossing lacks empirical basis.

But the concept is useful to study global migration

• View of Herskovits – RC is not a new phenomenon but occuring for ages

• Even restrictions on choosing mates in different cultures did not prevent RC

+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e11

• Eg) Sqawman in American frontier ; Intercaste marriages in India

• All human groups – more or less mixed ancestory. There is no pure race

• Study By Davenport –

• Question of RC is linked to arousal of emotions and ethnocentrism. The way we perceive RC

is not objective at all. Eg) TB among American negroes is seen as loss of beauty rather than

seeing as historical result of RC with Europeans

Conclusion - Selective Eugenics and Ethnocentrism is seen in the study of RC

7b Biological basis of Racial criteria.

Intro – definition of Race by Dr. DN Majumdar

Conditions for selecting criteria by Boyd

Criteria –

a) Morphological – i) morphometric ii) Morphoscopic

b) Genetic

Morphological Criteria of Race

1. Skin Colour

2. Morphological Characteristics of Hair

3. Morphological Characteristics of Eye

4. Morphological Characteristics of Nose

5. Morphological Characteristics of Lips

6. Morphological Characteristics of Face

7. Morphological Characteristics of Head

8. Morphological Characteristics of Ear

9. Morphological Characteristics of Body Build

Genetic Criterion of Race

1. Blood Groups

2. Other Genetic Traits

a. Ear Wax

b. PTC Tasters and Non-tasters

c. Amino acid Excretion in Urine

d. Dermatoglyphics

Analysis – No criteria can succesfully divide human population into races. Moreover, Concept of

Race declared as myth .Hence tendency of finding racial criteria also became futile exercise

c. Genetic and environmental factors influencing human growth and development.

Normal physical growth during childhood is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.

Environmental influences on human growth and development:

• Environmental influences on human physical growth and development can be presented in

form of influences of social and economic factors; family and household characteristics;

urbanization/modernization; nutrition; and features of the physical environment such as

altitude, temperature and climate.

+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e12

• roles of pollutants and other aspects of the human-made environment in affecting patterns of

human growth and development, specifically the timing of sexual maturation and the

development of obesity.

Genetic factors in physical growth and development:

• Genetic studies have examined whether there are shared genetic effects between aspects of

child growth and later health outcomes.

• Study on influence of genetic factors on growth in stature during childhood and determine

whether there are pleiotropic effects of genes influencing both childhood growth and later

adult health outcomes using familial data.

• Serial stature data (i.e., birth through adulthood) from participants in the Fels Longitudinal

Study were used to derive stature growth parameters. Heritability estimates for the growth

parameters are generally high and statistically significant ranging

• Results of genetic studies influence show that stature growth parameters are significantly

related to several adult health outcomes including stature, weight, BMI, systolic and diastolic

blood pressure, percent body fat, fat-free mass, skeletal muscle mass in the arms and legs, and

total body bone mass.

8. a. Scope of Ecological anthropology. 20

Ecological anthropology focuses upon the complex relations between people and their environment. It

investigates the ways that a population shapes its environment and the subsequent manners in which

these relations form the population's social, economic, and political life.

Scope - based on the stages of emergence of Ecological Anthropology

1.Cultural ecology (Julian Steward)

Explores adaptive responses to similar environments that gave rise to cross-cultural similarities

2. Neo Evolutionism (Elman Service) and Neo Functionalism(Roy Rappoport)

- Neo evolutionism emphasised establishment of small evolutionary stages – taking into account

relationship between culture and environment

- Neo Functionalists examines social organization and culture of specific populations as functional

adaptations which permit the populations to exploit their environments successfully

3. Processual ecological anthropology - examines "shifts and changes in individual and group

activities, and they focus on the mechanism by which behavior and external constraints influence each

other"

In the recent decades, there has been a gradual adaptation of the discipline to not only focusing on

localized human/ecosystem interactions, but including global influences and how the global

community is affecting how groups across the world interact with their ecosystems –

New areas-

1. Study of paleoecology - examines human interaction with the environment from an archaeological

perspective.

2. ethnoecologies of indigenous populations

+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e13

b. Stage of an infant in human growth and development

Growth may be defined as a quantitative increase in size or mass. Measurements of height in

centimeters or weight in kilograms indicate how much growth has taken place in a child.

Development is defined as a progression of changes, either quantitative or qualitative, that lead from

an undifferentiated or immature state to a highly organized, specialized, and mature state.

Physical maturation is measured by functional capacity; for example, the maturation of bipedal

walking results from changes with age in the skeletal, muscular, and motor skills of the infant and

child.

Human growth, development, and maturation have evolved, sometimes as discrete processes but more

often as an integrated series of biological events.

Fetal anthropology is a new discipline in physical anthropology. With its emergence the studies on

growth and development are extended to fetus. Till recently, the study of fetus was confined to

medical science only, but once anthropological methodology is applied to its study, we can predict

growth indices of various populations at the fetal level. The interaction between anthropology and

medical science has been further established with the emergence of this discipline

Infancy: the first stage of growth and development stretches from birth to around 18 or 24 months.

During this period of development, young children will primarily learn through their sensory

perceptions and their visual and touch experiences of the world around them. Infants are also, during

this stage, developing their motor skills and learning about the cause and effect of their actions

c. Blood groups among criminal tribes of India. 15

• Denotified Tribes (DNTs), also known as Vimukta Jati,[1] are the tribes that were listed

originally under the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871,[2] as Criminal Tribes and "addicted to the

systematic commission of non-bailable offences." Once a tribe became "notified" as criminal,

all its members were required to register with the local magistrate, failing which they would

be charged with a "crime" under the Indian Penal Code. The Criminal Tribes Act of 1952

repealed the notification, i.e. 'de-notified' the tribal communities. This Act, however, was

replaced by a series of Habitual Offenders Acts, that asked police to investigate a "suspect's"

"criminal tendencies" and whether their occupation is "conducive to settled way of life." The

+91 – 99899 66744 sosin@sosinclasses.com www.sosinclasses.com

Pag

e14

denotified tribes were reclassified as "habitual offenders" in 1959. The name "Criminal

Tribes" is itself a misnomer as no definition of tribe denotes occupation, but they were

identified as tribes "performing" their primary occupation. The first census was in 1871 and at

that time there was no consensus nor any definition of what constitutes a "tribe". The terms

"tribe" and "caste" were used interchangeably for these communities.

• Cite Imp of Serological studies

• DN Majumdar work: he studies ABO and Rh blood groups among Criminal Tribes of UP,

elaborate his views