test 06 with answers

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Approach – Answer: General Studies Mains Mock Test 6 – 619 (2015)

All the questions are compulsory and carry 12.5 marks each. NOT MORE THAN 200 WORDS.

1. Business groups in colonial India were guided by a pragmatic approach to issues and this explained why they maintained a policy of equidistance from both the government and the Congress. Discuss.

Approach:

The answer should begin by explaining the statement and then discuss the reasons responsible for such a policy of the business groups.

Give examples which demonstrate the pragmatic approach of business groups to various issues.

Conclude suitably.

Answer:

The dependence of the business groups on the colonial government dictated that they adopt a pragmatic approach of combining pressure and compromise. Many of them were dependent on government orders for their products while all of them were dependent on it for favourable industrial and trade policies

At the same time, they recognised the inherent conflict that existed between their interests and the interests of a colonial government, guided by the interests of British capital. They realised that a government of Indians would serve them better in the long run but the prevailing circumstances recommended a pragmatic issue-based approach

Business groups preferred the mode of constitutional agitation and pressure group politics. They wanted a nationalist movement led by right-wing moderates rather than left-wing radicals and trade-unionists

Many sections of merchants and entrepreneurs leaned towards Gandhi because of his emphasis on non-violence - which they saw as a defence against political radicalism - and his ‘trusteeship’ theory - which legitimised wealth

The pragmatism of business groups was evident from their general aversion to various mass movements organised by the Congress but their engagement with it on various issues concerning them

For instance, business groups maintained their distance from the Non-cooperation movement (NCM) in 1920-21 but they readily co-operated with the Swarajists in the legislature after the dissolution of the NCM. Similarly, industrialists did not whole-heartedly support the Civil Disobedience Movement (CDM) but they cooperated with Congress in the framing of Gandhi’s 11 point ultimatum to Lord Irwin, which included three specific capitalist demands

The ‘Bombay Manifesto’ of 1936, signed by 21 Bombay businessmen, openly criticised Nehru’s socialist ideals but later under changed circumstances, many of the same businessmen formulated the ‘Bombay Plan’, which endorsed Nehru’s socialism

However, in conclusion it should be said that business groups were not a homogenous group. There were numerous differences between them. Some of them, especially the smaller traders, were fervent Congress supporters while many of the bigger industrialists were staunch loyalists, but on the whole, business groups in India tried to maintain an equilibrium with both sides.


2. “The Maratha state could not become an alternative to Mughal Empire because of its own structure”. Examine.

Approach:

The answer should compare the structural weaknesses of the Marathas with the comparative strengths of the Mughal empire and try to bring out the main reasons why it could not emerge as a substitute to the Mughals as the dominant power in India.

Answer:

The Marathas benefited immensely from the splintering of the Mughal Empire. They had the potential to fill the political vacuum created by the disintegration of the Mughal empire but the structural weaknesses of their empire prevented them from doing so and they were eventually surpassed by the English as the leading power in India.

Unlike the Mughal’s centralised administrative system, the Maratha state was a loose confederacy with powers shared among many chiefs (sardars) who were nominally united under the authority of a Peshwa.

There was a high degree of internecine conflict and a lack of national loyalty among the Maratha chiefs. Such kind of rivalries also existed between Mughal nobles but the strong authority of the Mughal Emperor kept such conflicts in check at least until the death of Aurangzeb, the last great Mughal emperor.

As long as there existed a strong central authority and the need for mutual cooperation against a common enemy (the Mughals), the Maratha chiefs remained united in a loose union but they resisted the central authority if it tried to control them too strictly. On the other hand, all the Mughal nobles owed their allegiance to the Emperor and their loyalty to the Emperor was quite strong. Even when Mughal power disintegrated in the 18th century, the semi-autonomous successor provinces continued to formally declare their allegiance to the Emperor.

In other aspects also, the Marathas failed to innovate. Their system of saranjams was quite similar to the Jagirdari system of Mughals.

The Marathas were also more interested in extracting taxes (chauth and sardesmukhi) from areas outside of Maharashtra than in developing their economies or giving them sound administration. The Mughal state over the course of 200 years had developed a well-functioning land revenue system and ensured law and order in the areas they governed. The Marathas did not do so and hence could not evoke the kind of loyalty that the Mughals commanded among the inhabitants of these regions.

Thus, the Marathas failed to develop a modern state with a modern economy, a sound administrative system and a disciplined and efficient central army which could resist the onslaught of the modern British power.

3. ‘The difference between moderates and extremists was one of degree rather than of kind’. In light of the above statement discuss the goals and methods of moderates and extremists during the Independence movement.

Approach:

The answer should analyse the major points of difference and highlight the ideological divide. Simultaneously, there is a need to identify the dimensions, which were shared alike by both moderates and extremists. In other words, there is a need to link the methods and techniques. The second half of the answer should bring in the common grounds they shared in the larger aim of anti-colonial struggle.

Answer:

The difference between the Moderates and Extremists can be understood in terms of the ideological divide in terms of the objectives within the organization of Congress. While it may appear that the

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extremists represented a radical counterpart to moderates but as far as goals were concerned they were substantially not very different from moderates.

Moderates adopted constitutional methods of agitation and indulged in meetings, speeches, resolutions and petition. Further, they firmly believed that, means or methods should be as good as ends or goals. But the extremists, on the other hand, came to develop much more militant and politically intense method and techniques. Economic aspects of their struggle included boycott of foreign goods and promotion of swadeshi goods. The non-economic aspects included boycott of government schools and colleges, courts, services etc. and promotion of National education.

Both Gokhale and Tilak, respectively, advocated Self-government and Swaraj as the goal of Congress. The differences were related to the methodologies for achieving the goals. Like the moderates Tilak also believed that under the British rule industries have been ruined and wealth drained out of country and Indians reduced to the lowest level of poverty.

Extremists did not want Indians to take arms rather that they should develop their power of self-denial in such a way so as not to assist the foreign power to rule over them (to run their own courts, to stop paying taxes). A degree further was the philosophical radicalism of Aurobindo who blamed the corrupt western influences and directed the swadeshi sentiments not merely against the foreign goods but against foreign habits, dress, manners and education and sought to seek refuge in their own superior civilisation.

Swadeshi Movement: Both moderates and extremists participated in swadeshi movement but there were real differences between the views on swadeshi. While Extremists wanted to extend swadeshi and boycott movement from Bengal to the rest of the country but the moderates wanted to confine boycott movement to Bengal and to limit it only to foreign goods. For extremists it had a double implication of economic message as well as spiritual and religious rituals of self-punishment i.e. moral training in self-help determination sacrifice and a weapon of political agitation. For moderates it was limited to economic industrial regeneration.

Despite the differences, both moderates and extremists shared some common grounds. For example, both believed and practiced a peaceful and bloodless struggle. In other words, neither of them advocated use of violence. However, the only difference between them in this regard was that moderates would not condone violence in any form, including revolutionary activity but extremist had sympathy for revolutionaries. Further both followed the policy of pressure-compromise-pressure strategy to get their demand fulfilled.

It can hence be said that moderates were the brain of the congress and the nation and extremists were the heart; the former were the ‘law’ and the latter ‘impulse’. The unified actions of the two were absolutely necessary for the proper functioning of the organisation and the growth of national movement. The difference between moderates and extremist was very relative rather than absolute in nature and scope.

4. “A new style of architecture, entirely different in character from Muslim architecture in other countries, gradually evolved, incorporating the best of both Hindu and Muslim styles”. Discuss the above statement in the context of Indo-Islamic style of architecture.

Approach:

The answer is required to identify the main features and characteristics of Indo-Islamic Architecture. The emphasis must be on the ‘evolution’ of the stylistic differentiation of architecture of Indo-Islamic monuments across the empires and how it was a unique harmonious blend of both Hindu and Muslim styles. To structure it further, it can be sub divided into earlier Islamic rule and Mughal Period apart from provincial styles. Provide reference to few important monuments also.

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Answer:

The development of Muslim Style of Architecture of this period can be called the Indo-Islamic Architecture or the Indian Architecture influenced by Islamic Art.

Characteristics of Indo-Islamic architecture

The main elements in the Islamic architecture is the arcuate style of constructions- introduction of arches and beams while the traditional Indian building style is trabeate- using pillars and beams and lintels.

Among the architectural features introduced by them mention may be made of arches, domes, tall towers(minars) and minarets, squinch arch, half domed double portals, kiosks (chhatris).

They also introduced gilding and painting in varied colours and designs. Muslim decorative elements are usually of the nature of embroidery. Apart from this they also introduced decorative brackets and balconies.

One of the major aspect of distinction was the emphasis on decoration. While Hindus as part of their religious faith decorated sculptures and paintings, Islam forbidden to replicate living forms on any surface, developed their religious art and architecture consisting of the arts of arabesque, geometrical patterns and calligraphy on plaster and stone.

The Muslims, like the Romans, were also responsible for making extensive use of concrete and lime mortar as an important factor of construction and incidentally used lime as plaster and a base for decoration.

Muslim added the inlay decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brilliantly glazed tiles. A variety of stones were used such as quartzite, sandstone. In some cases, the Polychrome tiles were used to finish the walls.

From the seventeenth century onward, bricks were also used for construction and these imparted greater flexibility to the structures. In this phase there was more reliance on local materials.

In spite of the Saracenic, Arabic, Persian and Turkish influences, Indo-Islamic structures were heavily influenced by prevailing sensibilities of Indian architectural and decorative forms.

1. Influence of Hindu style: It must be emphasized that the development of the Indo-Islamic architecture was greatly facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments in India. The Muslims borrowed the design of kalash on the top of the Hindu temple by placing a dome on the top of their buildings. Infact kiosks (chhatris) is a borrowing from Rajput school of architecture.

2. Provincial Style: Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpur is regarded as distinct, while the style of Gujarat was marked with borrowed elements from regional temple traditions such as toranas, lintels in mihrabs, carvings of bell and chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for tombs, mosques and dargahs.-

3. Under the Mughal, Akbar was keenly interested in art and architecture and his architecture is regarded as blend of the Hindu and Islamic modes of construction ornamentation. This reached its culmination during the reign of Shah Jahan which is called the Golden Age of Indo-Islamic architecture. The Mughals are also credited to have introduced the double dome system of dome architecture and the pietra-dura style of inlay decorations.

4. Tomb Architecture: To the general tomb architecture, the Mughals added a new dimension by introducing gardens all around the tomb. The Mughal tombs are generally placed at the centre of a huge garden complex, the latter being sub-divided into square compartments, the style is known as char-bagh. The most famous example of tomb in India is the Taj Mahal.

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5. Discuss the influence of East India Companies (British, French, Dutch and Portuguese) on the architecture of the Indian subcontinent from mid-17th century onwards.

Approach:

The answer should mention the shift in architectural forms – towards port cities and fortified colonies due to arrival of East India Companies. Then highlight the prominent characteristics of each in brief. Further, the answer should trace the three schools, which marked the influence and contribution of the colonial architecture and support these with examples.

Answer:

The European impact on Indian architecture affected a synthesis of indigenous styles and instituted the typical colonial style of architecture. Transition from traders to establishing their settlements at various places paved way towards building European styles houses besides the factories and gradually strong fortress and imposing churches.

Under the Portuguese, the initial structures were utilitarian warehouses and walled trading post giving way to fortified towns along the coastline. This paved way for impressive churches in the style of Iberian architecture. This is evident in all the major churches of Goa. (St. Cathedral)

While the Danish influence is evident in Nagapattinam, Tranquebar and Serampore, Dutch cemetery is a combination of Indian and European styled graves with domed tombs. French gave a distinct urban design to its settlement in Pondicherry by applying the Cartesian grid plans (perpendicular streets) and classical architectural patterns. Churches at Pondicherry have a distinct French influence.

British left a lasting impact on Indian architecture, as the successors to the Mughal and used architecture as the symbol of power. They followed various architectural styles – Gothic, Imperial, Christian, English Renaissance and Victorian. Churches, built in great styles was mainly an inspiration from leading churches in England. However new material like concrete, glass, cast iron was used. The passing of power from the EIC to the British crown, rise of Indian Nationalism and the introduction of railways-design and construction, were the watershed in the British colonial Indian architectural history. However, in true sense, there was nothing called Indo-British because Victorian styles did not have a vitality of its own. They attempted to imitate oriental style while trying to construct public buildings (big brickwork buildings with iron support and domed roofs).

Under this, three broad architectural styles emerged as a result of western influence from seventeenth century onwards:

Neo-classical: Construction of geometrical structures fronted with lofty pillars, arches. Derived from Greco - Roman Architecture. It was considered particularly appropriate for the British Empire in India. They imagined that a style that embodied the grandeur of imperial Rome could now be made to express the glory of Imperial India. The Mediterranean origins of this architecture were also thought to be suitable for tropical weather. Prominent examples include Town Hall and Elphinstone circle in Bombay.

Neo-Gothic: This was characterized by high pitched roofs, pointed arches ,detailed decoration and had its roots in buildings especially churches, built in Northern Europe during medieval period. This style was adapted for buildings in Bombay (Gothic city of India)-Victoria terminus is an outstanding example of Victorian Gothic Revival architecture in India.

Indo-Saracenic style: This represented hybrid architectural style combined diverse architectural elements of Hindu and Mughal with gothic cusped arches, domes, spires, minarets and stained glass. It was developed towards the beginning of 20th century and the inspiration for this style was medieval buildings in India with their domes, chattris, jalis and arches. By integrating Indian (even the provincial style) and European styles in public architecture, the British wanted to prove that they were legitimate rulers of India. The prominent ones include - Gateway of India, Chepauk palace in Madras (1st Indo-

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Saracenic), Victoria memorial hall. In addition, the architecture of New Delhi (Rome of India) by Lutyens and Baker is considered as one of the most significant contribution of British rule.

6. The Ghadar Movement not only underestimated the armed and organizational might of the British, but the ideological foundations of their rule as well. It has been argued that they fought in vain. Critically evaluate.

Approach:

Briefly introduce the Ghadar movement.

Write how they underestimated the British rule w.r.t. its armed and organized might and the ideological foundations, and the resultant failure of Ghadar movement.

Then write about the positive outcomes of the Ghadar movement.

Conclude suitably.

Answer:

The Ghadar movement was attempt by the revolutionary leaders of Ghadar party to launch a violent attack on British India. Outbreak of First World War and the Komagata Maru incident served as the catalyst for the launch of Ghadar movement. February 21, 1915 was fixed as the date for armed revolt across multiple locations in India.

However, the movement failed to a great extent due to gross underestimation of the armed and organizational might of the British and the ideological foundations of their rule.

The major weakness was that they completely under-estimated the extent and amount of preparation at every level- organizational, ideological, financial etc. which was necessary before any armed revolt.

They under-estimated the strength of the British in India, both their armed and organizational might.

The Indian political leadership and the commercial and land-owing classes gave unquestioning support to the British for their war efforts.

They made no secret of their plans during the voyage and British intelligence agents, who had infiltrated their ranks, gave detailed reports to the government, which was fully aware of their plans earlier than their arrival.

British took some preventative measures in time, such as keeping the regiments on the move, transferring them from one cantonment to another – even from one province to another, so as to prevent contact between the soldiers and the revolutionaries.

Despite these, it is inappropriate to conclude that the Ghadrites fought in vain.

The Ghadarites certainly had a share in the freedom struggle when it came to deepening the national consciousness, testing new strategies and methods of struggle, creating the tradition of resistance, ideas of democracy and egalitarianism.

Through its papers it carried the nationalist critique of colonialism in a simple and powerful form. The huge propaganda motivated an entire generation.

The Ghadarites also created the secular consciousness among the Punjabis.

The movement also had a democratic and egalitarian content. It was clearly stated that the objective of Ghadar was the establishment of independent republic of India.

They also had a non-chauvinist international outlook. Most of the articles had reference to Irish and Russian revolutionaries.

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7. Though the Khilafat movement petered out but the religious emotions which it had articulated continued to persist long after its demise. Discuss.

Approach:

Provide a brief overview of the life-cycle of the Khilafat movement

Discuss the socio-political consequences and aftermath of the movement

Give a balanced analysis of the movement

Answer:

The Khilafat movement was a political campaign launched by Indian Muslims to protect the Caliph, the spiritual head of the Islamic world, in the wake of the defeat of Turkey by the Allied Powers

The movement was led by the Ali brothers and Maulana Azad. They joined forces with Gandhi’s Non-cooperation movement (NCM), promising non-violence in return for his support of the Khilafat movement. Gandhi saw in the Khilafat movement a golden opportunity to unite Indian Hindus and Muslims and present a joint front to the colonial government

However, the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924 led to the irrelevance of the Khilafat movement, which had already been undermined by Gandhi’s unilateral withdrawal of the NCM

Despite its strong anti-imperialist tone, the movement was in essence a pan-Islamic, fundamentalist movement which had nothing to do with the question of Indian freedom. It failed to raise the religious political consciousness of Indian Muslims to the higher level of secular political consciousness

The religious fervour generated by the Khilafat movement saw the outbreak of Moplah riots in Malabar and riots also ensued in other parts of the country. There was also a rise in militant Hindu radicalism in response to the movement. The worsening communal situation and rising violence were instrumental in Gandhi’s decision to withdraw the NCM in 1922

The Khilafat movement was criticised for mixing religion with politics. The deployment of the Ulema led to the radicalisation of the movement and the sidelining of moderate leaders of the movement who supported Gandhi’s creed of non-violence. The Khilafat leaders were also criticised for accepting non-violence more as a matter of convenience to take advantage of Gandhi’s charismatic appeal than as an article of faith

The Khilafat movement set a precedent for future mobilisation of the Muslim masses by invoking religious symbols and imagery which was subsequently replicated during the Pakistan movement. Many advocates of Pakistan see the movement as a major step towards establishing a separate Muslim state

Hence, although the Khilafat movement began as a movement to unify Hindus and Muslims, it ended up radicalising the politico-religious environment of the country

8. The Ashokan period marked the real beginning of stone architecture in India. Elucidate.

Approach:

Discuss in brief the lack of stone architecture before Ashoka. Further, explain the development of stone architecture during the Ashokan period citing relevant examples. One should discuss the usage of stones, rock sculptures, Stupas and caves.

Answer:

Before Ashoka the tradition largely consisted of working in wood and clay. India has the brick ruins of Mohenjo-Daro. Buildings of Vedic and Buddhist era were of wood. Before Ashoka wooden pillars were regularly erected, ones that served as an “IndraKhila” or stake symbolically separating the heavens and earth.

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It was only Ashoka who started making extensive use of stone for sculptures and great monuments. He caused the erection of monolithic pillars of sandstone, 30 to 40 feet high, crowned by animal figures like the bull, lion and elephant, and had them inscribed with the Buddhist concepts of morality, humanity and piety, which he wished his people to follow. Famous Ashokan pillars are from Lauriya Nandangarh in Bihar, Sanchi and Sarnath. The most remarkable of them all is the highly polished monolithic lion-capital found at Sarnath.

In India, many edicts of Ashoka engraved on a mass of rock can be found.Dhauli hills in Orissa have major Edicts of Ashoka.Mount Girnar in Gujarat also has Ashoka's Edict.

At Dhauli, in Orissa, there is a masterly representation of an elephant depicted as if emerging from a rock which has been so cut that it resembles the front part of an elephant including the head and trunk etc.

Ashoka built many stupas the most famous being Sanchi stupa. They were built with stones. The Dhamekh Stupa and the Dharmaraji ka stupa at Sarnath are also believed to have been built by Ashoka.

Rock-cut caves are another form of stone architecture. The Barabar Caves, the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India has Ashokan inscriptions. This includes the famous Sudama cave.Asoka and his grandson Dasratha made rock-cut caves for the ascetics of the Ajivika sect in the 3rd century B.C. The marvelous tradition of hundreds of rock-cut caves in India was initiated at Barabar.

Thus, Ashoka laid the foundation of stone architecture which was further developed by his successors and other dynasties of India.

9. “The Mughal paintings represent an assimilation of Indian, Persian and European elements”. Elucidate.

Approach:

The answer must trace the development in painting under Mughals with emphasis on prominent changes in terms of characteristics and influence of the varied elements. Trace the changes from early Mughal rulers and Persian influence to the phase of Indian elements during Akbar to gradual emergence of European influence in a brief, structured manner largely in terms of style and techniques.

Answer:

The sixteenth century, especially the second half, marks a watershed in the development of the art of painting in India. Later, in the eighteenth century, the patronage to paintings shifted from the Mughal court to regional kingdoms such as Rajasthan and Punjab.

There are several important features of the Mughal School, which seem to have originated in the paintings done during Humayun’s period. An important painting from Humayun’s period is titled ‘Princes of the House of Timur’, which is executed on cloth and is suggested to be related to Mongol tradition.

It was due to the deep interest, which Akbar took in promotion of painting, that led to emergence of a distinct Mughal School of painting. In his reign, artists belonged to different class composition, but majority among them were Hindus. Interestingly, several low caste people, primarily due to their artistic skill, were also raised to the status of royal artist. The case of Daswant may be especially cited.

Notably in these paintings, there is evident a gradual evolution in the style and technique, as the early phase was clearly influenced by Persian tradition which included:

Symmetrical compositions

Restricted movement of figures

Fineness of the lines of drawings

Flat depiction of architectural columns.

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Later, the paintings assumed wide-ranging character composed mainly of the Persian and Indian traditions with touches of European influence.

Naturalism and rhythm

Clothing objects of daily use assuming Indian forms

Picture space having subsidiary scenes set in background

Extraordinary action and violent movements.

Painting under Akbar’s period distinguished itself as a tradition from Persian painting as well as from Indian styles by presence of historical subject matter. The two most commonly used themes are daily events of the court and portraits of leading personalities.

During the period of Jahangir and Shahjahan, Mughal painting reached its zenith. Jahangir’s preference was of paintings of hunting scenes, birds and flowers. He also continued the tradition of portraiture. His paintings seem to make more prominent a formalist style i.e. making the work realistic. The paintings of this period have broad margins, which are decorated with the depiction of flora and faces of human figures.

Under ShahJahan, the colour of the paintings became more decorative and gold was more frequently used for decoration. In addition, paintings depicting portraits of female members and superimposition of animals was also found.

Aurangzeb ignored art in his regime but painting did not stop altogether. There exist few pictures of the emperor himself during his campaigns. Paintings are more formal. By this time, many of the painters had begun migrating to provincial courts.

European Impact on Mughal Painting:

In its later phases, especially during 17th century, the Mughal painting was influenced by the European art.

A large number of European paintings were either copied or adapted or even reinterpreted, sometimes by Mughal Painters.

At the same time many original prints from Europe were collected and preserved in the reign of Jahangir, and Dara Shikoh.

One important feature of European impact that becomes noticeable in some Mughal Painting is the attempt to make them three-dimensional. Another influence was the effect of light and shade mostly utilized in fight scenes.

10. Sarnath, is perhaps one of the most celebrated pilgrimage sites in India. In this context, analyse the historical and cultural significance of Sarnath in the tradition of India.

Approach:

The answer can be sub-divided into historical significance (mainly developments during Kushana period followed by Gupta period) and cultural significance- both religious and architectural. The structure of the answer must be reflective of the reasons as to why Sarnath rose to prominence.

Answer:

Sarnath is one of the most important pilgrimage centers of India. Excavations carried out by ASI on large scale from time to time has revealed a number of monasteries, stupas, temples, inscriptions, sculptures and other antiquities ranging in date from 3rd century B.C. to 12th century A.D.

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HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE:

1. The site rose to prominence from the time of Mauryan Period, which witnessed massive progress of art forms combined with the religious aestheticism to symbolize Ashoka’s majestic rule and also his devotion to Buddha. Ashoka in 3rd century BC erected a column in Sarnath which was later adopted as the national emblem of India known as ‘Lion Capital of Sarnath’..

2. During Kushana Period in North India, when Mathura was the centre of the new renaissance in Buddhism, Sarnath also flourished and new monuments were raised. During the reign of Kanishka, a colossal image of Bodhisattva was imported from Mathura and is placed in archaeological museum of Sarnath.

3. During the Gupta period, Sarnath became a main centre of structural and artistic activities. Several structures including Mulgandhakuti Vihara (the place where Buddha spent his first rainy season), the chief shrine of Buddha were erected. It was during this period that Sarnath developed as a great school of art introducing some new features and spiritual aspect in sculptures.

CULTURAL AND ARCHITECTURAL SIGNIFICANCE:

1. In ancient Buddhist literature, Sarnath is mentioned as Rishipatna and is also called Mrigadava. It is one of the most important pilgrimage site as it is the place where foundation of a new order ‘Buddhist Sangha’ came into existence after Buddha preached his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. The event is known as ‘Dharma Chakra Pravartana’ (the ‘Wheel of Law’ in motion). The inscriptions of early medieval period found from Sarnath referred to this place as Dharma Chkara or Sadhma Chakra Pravartan Vihar.

2. Jains: Sarnath is considered sacred to the Jains because the place is considered as the site of asceticism/austerities and birth of Shreyamshanath, the 11th Jain Tirthankara.

3. Sarnath School of Art: The abundance of exquisitely carved sculptural art, which was given a new dimension by the Gupta artists and thus, became a main centre of Gupta art and gave rise to the Sarnath School of Art, which is known for its elegance, simplicity of forms and sublimity. The images of Buddha and standing figure of abundantly ornamented Tara is one of the best specimens of Gupta sculptural art of Sarnath School. Prominent architectural remains includes, presence of tallest Buddha statue, Column erected in Sarnath, Dhamekhstupa and Chaukhandistupa.

Owing to this remarkable and varied significance recently the World Bank has taken the initiative to fund upgradation of Sarnath.

11. The foreign policy of the colonial government in India was directed towards protecting the larger British Imperialist interests. Analyse.

Approach:

Give a holistic introduction of the British policies, illustrate how its foreign policy was geared towards protecting its own interests. You may cite a number of examples to further your arguments.

Answer:

Until 1947, the policy of the British Raj was ‘Of the British, by the British, for the British’. The aim of the foreign policy back then was to serve in the best interests of Britain rather than India. The British government showed a single-minded purpose of defending the borders of India from any invasion that could have taken place.

The Colonial government in India adopted a foreign policy to promote, extend and defend British Imperialism in Asia and Africa. Such was evident when the resources and Indian army was used to wage number of wars in Afganistan, Burma, and Tibet for British Imperialistic interests.

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From 1878 onwards, the Government of India undertook a number of large scale military expeditions outside India’s frontiers and its armed forces were used in some of the wars waged by the British Government in Asia and Africa. These wars were a major source of the rapid and massive increase in India’s military expenditure

To begin with Hastings adopted the Policy of Ring Fence which aimed at creating buffer zones between the states at war and the company frontiers. The company also waged wars with Afghans, Burma and Nepal. It was around 1900 that British started feeling uncomfortable about their international position. It was at this time that the government of India’s foreign policy with neighboring countries acquired a new nutrient. The grand policy of the British focused mainly on three things:

1. Ensuring full security of the Indian empire 2. Protecting its trade routes 3. To favor Britain in Trade and Commerce related mattersw.r.t India

An example would be its policy toward Russia, where the British saw Russia as a threat to its Indian empire. The three Anglo-Afghan war were precisely with an intent to create a buffer region which could as a check on Russian ambitions. Further along its northern border, its intent to capture Tibet was similar, as it would be disastrous to let Russia take a commanding position in Lhasa.

Though Britain took every precaution for the defense of Indian empire and furthering its imperialistic ambitions, their policies led to the development of a nationalistic foreign policy, which later provided a base for Independent India’s foreign policy.

12. The Treaty of Bassein proved to be a watershed event in the history of British supremacy in India. Explain.

Approach:

Briefly mentioning the circumstances of signing the treaty and its nature i.e. subsidiary alliance, dwell upon its major provisions by linking them as to how it aided the Britishers to establish their supremacy in India in due course of time. Compare the position of Britishers in pre and post era of signing of the treaty. Then conclude the answer by mentioning how it required more than a treaty to conquer whole of India.

Answer:

The Treaty of Bassein was essentially a Subsidiary Alliance signed between the Britishers and Peshwa, BajiRao II. The system of Subsidiary Alliance was used by Wellesley to bring Indian States within the ambit of British political power as it disarmed & threw British protectorate over Indian States in the form of ‘Resident’ being permanently stationed there.

For the Britishers it was the most crucial step in the series of signing Subsidiary Alliance as ,prior to 1802, the Company had signed the Subsidiary Alliance with Bengal,Awadh and Hyderabad states but Marathas ( Peshwa, Scindias, Holkars) were still a power to reckon with in Western and Central India as well as they proved to be more powerful than the other States.

Also, the signing of Treaty of Bassein was an imperative condition for the Britishers in order to emerge as a supreme power , ruling whole of India without the interference of French power.

The Treaty provided a strategic, psycholological, economical and political gain to the company due to the following reasons:-

a. British troops at the expense of Peshwa were stationed at Poona, gave greater strategic importance to the Britishers as the Company now could interfere in the Maratha affairs directly & its Rulers .

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b. Under the provisions of treaty, Peshwa’s foreign policy was in the hands of the Company , which made Poona party to each & every war with which Britishers were involved, aiding in consolidating their supremacy over India by providing in return a large army & men to fight any war for the Britishers.

c. Also, non-British Europeans were expelled and were not allowed employment under Peshwa- this had political implications for the Britishers as it made them the sole arbitrator in Maratha affairs.

d. Peshwa also agreed to cede in perpetuity to the Company Territories like some in Gujarat including Surat, territories yeilding an income of 26 lakhs etc which was used for financing the campaigns of Britishers in India.

Thus, after signing of the Treaty of Bassein by the Peshwa, the options for other Maratha chiefs were curtailed, which later led to 2nd Anglo- Maratha war and paved way for British supremacy in the whole West and Central India.

In the long run, Peshwa too realised the mistakes of the Subsidiary Treaty and revolted in 1817 but faced defeat at the hands of the Britishers and was pensioned off.

However, even though, by entering into the Treaty with the Peshwa, head of Maratha confederacy, gave prestige to the Britishers. But to draw practical advantage from the treaty, the English had to fight wars against the Marathas, which required more than a treaty to defeat the trained armies of Scindhia and Holkar.

13. The Swadeshi Movement of 1905 not only laid the foundation of Gandhian techniques of protest but also used other innovative methods. Elaborate.

Approach:

Simply enumerate the techniques used during the Swadeshi movement and highlight how they formed the basis of Gandhian mode of struggle. Further, the students should list the other new methods espoused during this movement.

Answer:

The Swadeshi Movement, which had its genesis in the anti-partition movement of Bengal, saw a shift from the old moderate methods of prayer and petition to that of passive resistance and non-cooperation. While laying a foundation of Gandhian techniques like boycott of foreign goods, emphasis on self-reliance or atma-shakti, swadeshi education and swadeshi enterprise, it also developed other innovative methods including:

Using traditional melas, festivals and congregations to spread political message to the masses. This technique was largely used by Tilak who used the Shivaji and the Ganapati festival to propagate the cause of the Swadeshi movement. Further it was for the first time that people participated in huge number, which was further seen in mass movements lead by Mahatma Gandhi.

Creation of volunteer corps or samitis which created mass mobilization by reaching out to interior villages. They used magic lantern lectures and swadeshi songs and also gave physical and moral training to their members. They were used not only for spreading political awareness but also performing social work

Organizing of public meetings and processions at district, taluqa and village levels as well as cities and towns

Using traditional folk theatre or jatras to spread the message of Swadeshi to vast sections of people. Further, people tied rakhis on each other’s hand as a symbol of unity of the two halves of Bengal.

From conservative moderation to political extremism, from terrorism to incipient socialism, from petitioning and public speeches to passive resistance and boycott, all these major political trends had their origin in the Swadeshi Movement. Though the movement was not able to successfully put into practice the techniques it evolved, the later national movement drew heavily from them.

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14. "Pali and Prakrit literature played an important role in ancient India". Explain.

Approach:

The answer must be structured to highlight the important contribution of the emergence of Pali and Prakrit in Ancient Indian history with respect to Buddhist and Jain ideology and how the literature emerged as a crucial source of understanding not only the respective religious philosophy but also the socio-economic and political condition of the time. Reference can also be made to how it challenged the hegemony of Sanskrit, which was mainly the language of learned and upper class section of society.

Answer:

Pali and Prakrit rose to prominence when these were adopted by Buddhist and Jain Sect in ancient India as their sacred language. Both the languages rose to prominence as a challenge to the hegemony of Sanskrit, which was considered as the language of learned orthodox Brahmins as well as court language of ruling class. So they represented the voice of lower sections of society.

Pali literature: Pali was a literary language, which developed out of a mixture of dialects particularly those spoken in the Magadh area of Eastern India. The Pali non-canonical literature was largely composed during Indo-Greek and Kushana period.

Jatakas: They throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC. They also make incidental reference to political events in the age of the Buddha.

Therigatha describes women’s experience of renunciation and is important because it is one of the few surviving ancient Indian text composed by or attributed to women..

The Pali or Srilankan chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa contains a historical and mythical account of Buddha’s life and is a very important source to study the spread of Buddhism outside India.

Prkrit literature: Prakrit literature offers information regarding histories and dotrines of Jainism, doctrines of rival schools, life stories of the saints and the life of monks and nuns in the Sangha. The text can also be used for information on other aspects of the cultural history of their times.

The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in Valabhi in Gujarat. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, ChhedabSutras and Malasutras. Jainism helped in the growth of a rich literature comprising poetry, philosophy and grammar. The vast Jaina didactic story (katha) literature in Prakrtit, Sanskrit and Apabrahmsha offers insight on everyday life of their time. The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders. These works contain many passages, which help us to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

15. Elaborate on the role of Kamala Devi Chattopadhyay, a socialist, feminist and a critical sympathiser of the Indian national movement.

Approach:

The answer should contain/discuss Dr. Kamala Devi’s contribution as a freedom fighter and how she started at the early age and her contributions in art and social reforms.

Answer:

Kamala Devi joined Bedford College, received a diploma in Sociology, and her life spanned from becoming actively involved with the All-India Women’s Conference (AIWC). She became involved in Gandhi’s Salt Satyagraha in 1930 and was arrested for entering the Bombay Stock Exchange to sell packets of salt.

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Sevadal Leader: She joined Sevadal a Ghadhian organization set up to promote upliftment. Soon she was placed in charge of the women’s section of Dal where she got involved in recreating , training and organizing girls and women of all ages across India, to become voluntary workers, called as ‘Sevikas’.

Freedom Fighter: Kamala devi became a prominent leader during India's freedom struggle organizing satyagrahas, mobilizing volunteers and fighting deeply rooted social evils. Kamala devi became an active organizer of the women and youth wing of the Indian National Congress. She was instrumental in the emergence of the changing face of the Indian woman during the twentieth century.Along with freedom in 1947 the nation of India inherited so many problems of the partition. She travelled all over the world publicizing India's cause.

The doyenne of arts and crafts: Kamala devi worked relentlessly to heal the wounds of refugees by establishing co-operative societies and self-employment schemes. She went on to rejuvenate the traditional Indian home industries like weaving, and handicrafts. As chief of the Board of Handicrafts, she started the pension system for the craftsmen. She continued to be great patron of Indian art and theatre. She is considered single handedly responsible for the great revival of Indian handicrafts and handloom, in the post-independence ear, and is considered her greatest legacy to modern India.

Kamala devi was an Indian social reformer, freedom fighter and most remembered for her contribution to Indian independence movement, for being the driving force behind the renaissance of Indian handicrafts, handlooms and theatre in post-independence India, and for upliftment of the socio-economic standard of Indian women by pioneering the cooperative movement in India.

16. “The Mathura school was primarily a centre of indigenous art, though it later came under the influence of the Gandhara art.” Comment.

Approach:

The main theme of the question is to highlight the indigenous origin of Mathura art and it should be substantiated with some historical evidences for the same. Briefly outline the features which distinguish Mathura with Gandhara art, mainly to reflect its indigenous origin. Then conclude the answer by mentioning how Gandhara Art influenced the Mathura Art in the later stages by focusing on Kushana & Gupta period.

Answer:

Mathura School of art is purely an indigenous style, which developed during Post Maurya period (mainly during Shunga & Kushana period) and reached its peak during the Guptas (AD 325 to 600).

The ‘Sculptures of Mathura’ are noted for its assimilative and indigenous character and is given credit for creating the earliest Indian representations of the Buddha, was a result of the religious zeal of Brahminism, Jainism and Buddhism .

In its early phase contemporaneous with Sanchi and Bharhut school, Mathura produced Yaksha and Yakshi‘s and only the symbolic representation of Buddha . But, with the advent of Mahayana Buddhism, it produced the first sculptures of Buddha and Bodhisattavas.

Mathura school of art, depicted the Indian art having abstract spiritual concepts which had to be translated into physical shape, unlike the Western art which sought to make an aesthetically beautiful form by portraying human figures which were models of physical perfection and athletic vigour.

More stress is given to the inner beauty and facial emotions rather than bodily gesture or realistic representation.

The Buddhist figure, having the presence of the two attendants by the side of Buddha who hold Chanwars is a feature of the Mathura school which had later inspired the images of Indian Deities.

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A life size standing figure of Sakyamuni at Sarnath wearing ‘Indian dhoti’ is a typical example of the Mathura school of art reflecting the indigenous character.The halo around the head of Buddha was profusely decorated unlike the Gandhara Art form.

Also, since the development of Mathura Art took place indigenously, wherein it used locally available Spotted Red Sandstone& Buddha images were modelled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images .

In contrast, the Gandhara Art had Hellenistic features, assimilating various traits of Acamenian, Parthian and Bactrian traditions into the local tradition based on Greco-Roman norms encapsulating foreign techniques and an alien spirit , using Blue-grey Mica schist / Grey Sandstone.

In later stage, esp. when Mathura came under the Kushan rule, it came under the influence of Gandhara School, the general trend was away from a naturalistic conception and towards a more idealized, abstract image. E.g. cross-legged naked figure of a Tirthankara in meditation, graceful and provocative Yakshi and Kushana Royal statues.

Also, with the increased demand of Gandhar Buddha, some Mathura sculptures too incorporated many Hellenistic elements, such as the general idealistic realism, and key design elements such as the curly hair, and folded garment.

Thus, Mathura & Gandhara Art cross-fertilized in due course of time, and the bulky Mathura Buddha gradually gave way to the slender elegance of the Gandharan image. The result of this synthesis refined and purified the Buddha image that appeared in the Gupta period, which later became the model for Southeast Asian Buddha images.

17. The Gupta period is termed as the Golden age of Indian art and culture. What developments took place during this period in the field of literature, art and architecture?

Approach:

The key term of the question is Gupta’s. The answer should be based on this particular period and the focus should be on LITERATURE, ART AND ARCHITECTURE that took shape during this period and at the end one should be able to justify why it is known as Golden age with specific examples and reasons associated with it.

Answer:

The Gupta Empire reached its zenith under Chandragupta II’s rule and this is considered the golden age of India. His reign was marked by both religious tolerance and great cultural achievements. Gupta period, so is known as the Classical age of “Ancient India”.

LITERATURE

The Sanskrit language became prominent during the Gupta period. Nagari script had evolved from the Brahmi script.

Poetry and drama flourished at the court of Chandragupta II or Vikramaditya, at his new capital of Ujjain who kept the Nine Gems, at his court.

His court included Kalidasa, one of the greatest authors of Sanskrit poetry and drama. His plays are some of the most famous works of Indian literature, and continue to have an influence on playwrights to this day.

Chandragupta II sponsored work on medicine especially Sushruta Samhita also dates to this period.

Aryabhatta made great contributions to mathematics, astronomy and developed the concept of zero, and accurately described the earth as a sphere and figured out that it rotates on its axis and may have realized that it rotates around the sun.

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ARCHITECTURE

Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles of art evolved during this period. But most of the architecture of this period had been lost due to foreign invasions like that of Huns

The temple at Deogarh and the sculptures in the temple at Garhwas near Allahabad is considered important. The body of the temple is covered with beautiful sculpture with many figures.

The rock-cut architecture of the Buddhists consisted of two conventional types, the chaitya and the vihara. The most notable groups are found at Ajanta, Ellora, Aurangabad and Bagh.

The Gupta temple-architecture was also erected in brick. Among the brick temples, the most famous one is the temple at Bhitargaon.

Of the stupas, which were many, Mirpur Khas and the Dhamekh stupa at Sarnath is important and belonged to this period

The Hindu gods, in the sculpture of this period, were mainly incarnations of Vishnu, those of nrashimha and varaha.

ART

The beautiful statue of standing Buddha at Mathura reveals a little Greek style and there was no influence of Gandhara style of art.

Buddhist art especially the Ajanta Caves, decorated with images of the life of Buddha provides a vivid example of Gupta-era Indian painting. The paintings at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka were highly influenced by the Ajantha style.

The wealth of jewellery, high-quality textiles, embroidery, tie and dye work, brocade and muslin worn by women of this period is seen in the flying Apsara’s murals in the Ajanta.

18. "The introduction of printing press in India was an event of revolutionary significance in the life of Indian people." In this context discuss the contribution of press in the Indian national movement.

Approach:

Mention important Newspapers during the Indian National Movement and explain how they made an impact during the Indian National Movement.

NOTE: There are many regional and National newspapers that played an important role in the Indian National Movement. These can be mentioned, but how the Paper/Magazine/Journal brought a change in the minds of the people should be discussed in detail.

Answer:

There is not a single province in India, which did not produce a journal or newspaper to uphold the cause of the freedom struggle. The following can be cited as the contribution of the Press during the Indian National Movement:

The Press was a powerful factor in building and developing Indian nationalism and nationalist movement encompassing social, cultural, political and economic spheres.

It was a weapon, in the hands of the nationalist groups, to popularize political programmes, policies, and methods of struggle, and to form organizations.

Press made possible exchange of views among different social groups

The Press also played an important role in the growth of provincial literatures and cultures

It also helped to organize propaganda against such inhuman institutions as untouchability.

The history of Indian nationalism proves that the freedom of the Press in India suffered a proportional curtailment.

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During 1st War of Indian Independence

At the time of the first war of independence, any number of papers was in operation in the country. In 1857 itself that Payam-e-Azadi started publication in Hindi and Urdu, calling upon the people to fight against the British. The paper was soon confiscated and anyone found with a copy of the paper was prosecuted for sedition

Notable Role of Papers

Patriot established in 1853, by Grish Chandra Ghosh, it became popular under Harish Chandra Mukherjee. In 1861 a play, "Neel Darpan" was published and launched a movement against the British, urging the people to stop cultivating the Indigo crop for the white traders. This resulted in the formation of a Neel Commission.

Amrita Bazar Patrika which was being published from Jessore, was critical of the government, with the result that its proprietors faced trial and conviction

Tilak's Kesari became one of the leading media to propagate the message of freedom movement. It also made the anti-partition movement of Bengal a national issue. In 1908, Tilak opposed the Sedition ordinance.

Press and the First Session of Congress

The first ever resolution at this Session was proposed by the editor of The Hindu, G. Subramanya Iyer. In this resolution, it was demanded that the government should appoint a committee to enquire into the functioning of Indian administration.

During his stay in South Africa, Gandhiji had brought outIndian Opinion and after settling in India, he started the publication of Young India; Subash Chandra Bose and C.R. Das were not journalists but they acquired the papers like Forward and Advance which later attained national status.

Revolutionary Movement and the Press

When the Ghadar party was organised in Amenca, Lala Hardayal started publication of the journal 'Ghadar'. Within one year, millions of copies of this journal were published. After Yugantar, it was Vandematram that played a significant role in the freedom struggle.

19. Indian Dancing has changed little with the centuries, and till date the art form is practiced according to the rules of the Bharata Natyasastra. Discuss.

Approach:

The Answer’s should discuss how the dance form grew in past few centuries and the main focus term is Bharata’s Natyasastra. One should discuss about the term and why it is said that they have not changed much. The Answer should mainly discuss the various RULES followed till date in natya sastra.

Answer:

Bharata’s Natya sastra is an ancient Indian treatise on the performing arts encompassing theatre, dance and music. It educates the spectator in observing correct behaviour while watching a performance. It deals with the theory of Rasa.

Dancing {nrtya) is closely connected with acting (natya), both are forms of the same word, the latter being a Prakritism, and both are aspects of a single art, abhinaya.

The abhinaya or rasa is the portrayal of the eight emotions like love, courage, loathing, anger, mirth, terror, pity and surprise.

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The drama employed chiefly word and gesture, the dance chiefly music and gesture. In India the drama, developed from ritual miming, song and dance. Indian dancing is not a thing of legs and arms alone, but of the whole body.

Every movement of the little finger or the eyebrow is significant, and must be fully controlled. The poses and gestures are classified in detail, even as early as the Bharata Natya sastra, which mentions thirteen postures of the head, thirty-six of the eyes, nine of the neck, thirty-seven of the hand, and ten of die body.

Later texts classify many more poses and gestures, every one of which depicts a specific emotion or object. With so many possible combinations the dancer can tell a whole story, easily comprehensible to the observer who knows the convention.

The most striking feature of the Indian dance is undoubtedly the hand-gesture (mudra). By a beautiful and complicated code, the hand alone is capable of portraying not only a wide range of emotions, but gods, animals, men, natural scenery, actions and so on.

Some hundreds of mudras are classified in later textbooks, and they are used not only in the dance, but, as we have seen, in religious worship and iconography.

The highly developed dance style demanded years of training, and was probably always chiefly performed by professionals, though there are references in literature to princes and their ladies dancing their palaces.

Dancing has changed little with the century and the best modem Indian dancers, such as Uday Shankar and Gopal, still dance according to the rules of the Bharata Natyasastra.

20. ‘The emergence of new social classes during British India was a direct consequence of the establishment of new socio-economic and political system'. Discuss.

Approach:

The answer requires a larger analysis of the changes that led to the emergence of the various social classes. The answer must discuss specific socio-cultural and economic causes, which played a crucial role in its rise and link it with the over-all impact of colonial rule.

Answer:

British administrative, economic innovations gave rise to a new urban middle class with varied background but a common foreground of knowledge, ideas and values. In course of 19th century, new middle class started emerging particularly in three presidency towns, which came to have not only economic and administrative significance but also socio-cultural significance. In course, even interior areas saw gradual emergence of rural based middle class in form of moneylenders, merchants and Zamindars.

Following reasons can be attributed to the rise of this new middle class:

Role of British rule: In the following stage of colonialism, British felt the need to develop new class of Indian, who could not only facilitate administration by becoming clerks and interpreter, but who would also become strong supporter and allies of British. The exposure of small class of Indians to western education, ideas and culture was hoped to convince them of superiority of western way of life. Behind this loyalism of landlord and educated Indians, there was also a growing awareness of their state of subordination. Hence it was this very middle class that got politically enlightened from later 19th century.

Socio-political causes: British rule brought the entire geographical area of the country under a single administration and unified the country by introducing a uniform system of law and government.

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Till 1813 British followed policy of noninterference in the religious social and cultural life of India. Gradually, this was reversed by acts like abolition of sati, a legislation prohibiting infanticide, widow remarriage acts etc.

The spread of modern education introduced in India after 1813, by the government and missionaries also played an important role in creating a culture of public sphere.

The attempt to westernize selected group of Indian was also meant to create more conducive atmosphere for spread of Christianity by official missionaries. This also explains the motive behind introducing western education through English medium.

Modern ideas spread through many channels, political parties, the press, pamphlets and the public platform. The new intellectual and political stirrings among the people led to movements for social change.

British rule exposed Indian masses to doctrine of humanism and reason, modern science, western thought and culture, ideas like democracy, sovereignty of the people, helped Indians not only to take a critical look at their own society, economy and government but also to understand the true nature of British imperialism in India.

Economic causes:

Rise of this middle class also lay in the fact that British rule became the major cause of India’s economic backwardness. The colonial rule aimed to create an ever-expanding market for British manufactured goods.

Owing to the British rule 19th century witnessed large scale economic and political discontent. The theory of economic drain proposed by nationalist leaders exposed the exploitative tendencies of the British rule.

Modern industries, transport, urbanization, social exclusiveness and erosion of caste rigidities. Development of communication system such as railways, telegraph was another crucial factor.

Total disruption of old land and rural relationships upset the caste balance in the countryside. The penetration of capitalism made social status, dependent mainly on economic prosperity.

In this way gradually these social class became aware of racial discrimination, lack of sufficient opportunity and economic drain caused by colonial exploitation. This led to growth of a new consciousness among the educated section and middle class. It was this middle class consciousness, which laid the foundation of modern approach and attitude in Indian society.

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