teaching art history as an inquiry process

National Art Education Association

Teaching Art History as an Inquiry ProcessAuthor(s): Mary EricksonSource: Art Education, Vol. 36, No. 5 (Sep., 1983), pp. 28-31Published by: National Art Education AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3192729 .

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Teaching Art History as an Inquiry Process

Mary Erickson

Three Definitions of Art History

ome art teachers contend that they teach art history whenever they employ art works from the

past in their classrooms. In this sense "art history" is synonomous with "art works," and art history is taught through exposure. A teacher with this view of art history makes an effort to use art works of the past as examples of whatever art content is to be taught. Whether teaching about media, expres- sive styles, formal qualities, or interpretive use of subject matter, art works are employed as visual aids illustrating points in the teacher's presentation. Almost incidentally, identifying facts about the works may be presented, e.g., date, artists, or culture of origin. This

sense of art history is so very loosely defined and so minimally developed historically that it can be considered to be art history only through a great stretch of traditional usage. Perhaps most art teachers consider that they have taught art history when they present information which art historians have established about art works of the past. This information can be at the level of basic chronological facts, at the level of interpretations of artistic "monuments," or even at the level of narrations or explanations of changes as they have oc- curred in art through time. Such information is traditionally presented through slide lectures, assigned read- ings, or student reports.

There is another sense of art history which might be used in art instruction, that is, art history as a process of inquiry. Not only what art historians con- clude, but also how they reach those conclusions can serve as content for art history instruction. An analogy between art and art history is offered here to clarify the distinction between art history as information and art history as process. We can approach art works from two very different perspectives. We can produce art, or we can respond to works already produced. The same can be said of art history. We can develop our own original art historical ideas, or we can appreciate conclusions which art historians have already reached. It is the development of original art historical ideas which I am call- ing art history as process. In the study of "artistic monuments" it may be difficult for students to believe that they can reach any significant conclusions which better informed and more experienced art historians have not already reached. Personal, local, or mass-produced visual objects are less intimidating, provide practice in historical reflection, and are often authentic objects of study in the sense that they have never before been objects of scholarly scrutiny. A student studying such visual objects may ac- tually contribute new knowledge to the field of art history.

Art History as Process The processes through which art historians seek knowledge about art works are many. These processes can be seen, grossly, in three categories: processes for establishing facts, processes for interpreting meaning, and processes for ex- plaining change. I shall not attempt to fully consider all the processes which art historians use at each of the three levels of inquiry. I shall discuss five distinct processes of art-historical inquiry: three factual processes; one, interpretive; and one, explanatory. Each process is il- lustrated with an example from art- historical scholarship. In addition each process is presented as it might be used in the study of an ordinary, mass-produced visual object. I have chosen to use the illustrations on the covers of sheet music for several reasons. Old sheet music is not difficult to acquire. It is not tremendously valuable and can there- fore be handled in original form by students (more precious copies can be stored and protected in plastic bags). Copyright dates appear on most sheet music (one must however be aware that

Art Education September 1983

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these dates are for the music which may or may not be the same as the cover illustration date). Sheet music is a visual object common in many homes often presenting popular songs which are readily associated with events and attitudes of a particular era. And finally, sheet music cover illustration has rather consistent and easily compared visual elements: format, representational im- agery, and use of typography.' Coca- cola ads, record album covers, photographs of gravestones, or other collec- tions of artifacts available for a period of years would do as well.

Reconstruction Art works do not always survive into the present in their original form and condi- tion. Reconstruction is the process of verifying that the present object is unaltered, or discovering the original appearance of the object. If we are to study the pyramids of ancient Egypt as they were 4,000 years ago, we must imagine them, not worn by the centuries, but covered with a gleaming surface of smooth stone. Art historians tell us that to perceive classical Greek sculpture as they were when produced, we would have to imagine a bright, polychrome surface. Usually reconstruction is ima- gined, though occasionally, as with the replica of the Parthenon in Nashville, the reconstruction is a physical reality. Select a cover illustration in this series which is in need of reconstruction. Is it complete? If not, what is missing? Is anything added? Has time changed its appearance? How?

Description In order to draw any conclusions about a work, it is important that it be very carefully examined. A description is a verbal report of careful observation. Nineteenth century art historians pro- vided extraordinarily detailed descriptions of works which their readers might never see in original form or in reproduction. Walter Pater's descriptions of Renaissance masterpieces are marvelous examples.2 Inexpensive reproduction methods may have rendered Pater's descriptions obsolete as vicarious visual experience, but the need for careful description remains. Descriptions of size, material, subject matter, and formal elements are open to public test. Factual descriptive claims can be verified by anyone using standard mea- surements, ordinary experience, and a

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vocabulary of formal terms. It is upon this factual basis that further study can be built. Select one cover illustration which interests you. Can you determine through what process(s) the original illustration was produced? How was the illustration reproduced? Inventory in de- tail all the subject matter you see. Describe the use of formal elements in the composition. Do not interpret. Limit your description to what others could also easily see if you simply pointed to it.

Attribution Attribution processes are involved in establishing specific, essential facts about individual art-historical events, i.e. artist, date, culture, technique, and function. Evidence for attributions is not limited to the work itself but may well require knowledge of events about the artist, about the times, about visual conventions, or any other relevant, historical information. For example, date attribution of North West Coast Indian


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totem poles can be determined to some extent by the size of the work. It was only after the Indians were introduced to axes by nineteenth-century settlers that totem poles could be produced beyond a certain scale. Technological, political, economic, and social histories can each play a part in providing evidence to support essential factual claims about works of art. Select a cover which is not obviously associated with a particular decade. If the date were not given, could you propose a date attribution? Could you support your attribution with argument and evidence?

Interpretation Interpretation is a process of objectively finding meaning in art works. Historical interpretation is finding a meaning which could have been expressed and understood in the era when the work was produced. Meyer Shapiro uses evidence from the works themselves as well as evidence from outside the works to support his interpretation of the portal sculptures of a medieval church at Souillac.3 He proposes that the sculptures present a "broader conception of the active, morally divided individual, at once Christian and secular . . ."4 In addition to formal and representational evidence within the work itself, Shapiro argues for the sophistication of the medieval spectator. Twelfth century spectators and the sculptor shared a

background of familiar religious legends which allowed those spectators to easily read the figural groupings of the portal. We are readily aware of the necessity to understand the historical context of an art work when that art work is as distant and incomprehensible as a set of medieval church figures might be. More familiar works also require serious con- sideration of context in order to be understood historically. The Mona Lisa is such a familiar image, one which is presented in such varied, often ludicrous contexts, that interpreting it requires a tremendous effort of historical imagina- tion. The art historian must break away from twentieth century, traditional and

BHow might changes in the covers have been influenced by world events, technological developments, or attitudes toward life?"

unorthodox usages of the image and must become familiar with how por- traits were conceived and responded to in the sixteenth century before that art historian can begin to interpret the meaning of the Mona Lisa.

Select a cover illustration whose meaning (mood, tone, significance, point) intrigues you. Consult your memories or other sources to help you reestablish the major events, cir- cumstances, and values of the times when this cover was produced. Interview an older acquaintance or relative about that time period. Are there symbols, metaphors, or themes in the cover? Do the formal elements or the composition suggest an attitude or feeling? Propose a single-sentence interpretive statement of the meaning, point, or significance of the cover. See if you can support that conclusion with detailed format, representational, and contextual evidence.

Explanation Changes which occur through time can be explained by connections drawn through a series of identified influences, traditions, and innovations. Such explanations are called narrative accounts. Change can also be explained through discovery of regularities which suggest laws or principles. Such explanations are sometimes called scientific accounts. Er- win Panofsky is well known for his narrative accounts of themes through art,5


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while Heinrich Wolfflin is best known for his attempt to explain change in western art by appeal to regular transitions between the poles of romanticism and classicism.6 Examine all of the cover illustrations included with this ar- ticle. Can you identify any style groups? Do you notice any transitions, progres- sions, or revivals? How might changes in the covers have been influenced by world events, technological developments, or attitudes toward life? Can you tell the story or present the principles which explain the changes you find in the series of covers?

Inquiry Science There is a certain logic to a sequence, first of factual processes, then interpretive processes, and finally explanatory processes. Generally, factual claims about individual art-historical events are established before interpretations or explanations are attempted. Both factual and interpretive information about many individual art works are used col- lectively by art historians as they record and then explain changes which have oc- curred in art through time. However it should be understood that, in fact, these levels of inquiry are often intermixed. Descriptions can be used to support interpretive and explanatory claims; explanations of changes in style can be used to support interpretive conclusions; interpretations of meaning can be used to support conclusions about when, where, or by whom an art work was produced, and so forth.

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Integration Within the Curriculum When information about a culture is used to help understand art works, the study is called art history. When the process is reversed and art works are used to help us understand a culture, the study is called humanities or social sciences. When interpretation is dis- cussed in the art curriculum, it is considered to be art criticism. Historical interpretation includes the skills of description and formal analysis necessary for art criticism. Unlike criticism, art history does not require a judgment of worth. Such a non-evaluative scholarly process can be valuable in the study of controversial or unfamiliar works which students might otherwise dismiss out of hand. Older students might gain some distance on their own work if they were given the challenge of studying their own or their classmate's accumulated work historically. Art history as process can be used as an authentic and involv- ing introduction to traditional art history instruction. Finally if ordinary visual objects are considered historically, students might become more con- scious of and curious about their visual environment and heritage.

Mark Erickson is professor of art education at Kutztown State College in Pennsylvania.

References

'Much of the strategy for teaching art history with sheet music has been co-developed with Eldon Katter with whom I have made numerous presentations in school districts and state and national conventions. I am grateful to him for the use of many of the cover illustrations which are included in this paper.

2Walter Pater, The Renaissance, Cleveland: World Publishing Company, 1961, originally published in 1873.

3Meyer Shapiro, "The Sculptures of Souillac," in Medieval Studies: in memory of A. Kingsley Porter, ed. by William R.W. Koehler, 2 vols., Cambridge: Harvard Uni- versity Press, 1936, II, pp. 359-387.

4Shapiro, p. 384. 5Erwin Panofsky, Studies in Iconology:

Humanistic Themes in the History of the Renaissance, New York: Harper and Row, 1939.

6Heinrich Wolfflin , Principles of Art History: The Problem of the Development of Style in Later Art, trans. by M.D. Hot- tinger, New York: Dover, 1932, first German edition published in 1915.


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teaching art history as an inquiry process

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