taxonomytargetinginvasives

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Suggested citation: H. Davies, N. King and R. Smith (eds.), 2004, Taxonomy: targeting invasives. BioNET-INTERNATIONAL. ISBN 0-9538748-2-6.

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This collection of case studies, drawn from the Why Taxonomy Mattersseries, illustrates the role of taxonomy in Invasive Alien Species (IAS)management. With examples from various sectors, the case studieshighlight how taxonomic expertise, surveys, information and analysisare of crucial importance to recognising and solving ecological,agricultural, trade, health and other problems caused by IAS.Taxonomy is a critical tool for combating the threat from IAS.Without access to expert support, misidentifications are made, costing precious money and time when rapid decisions need to bemade, for example at border posts and regulatory agencies. Onlywhen a suspected IAS is correctly identified can effective control ormitigation measures be implemented, drawing where possible onbest practice learnt from tackling the IAS elsewhere. Prompt andreliable identifications, supported by networking that promotes thesharing of experiences, information and expertise, may eliminate theneed for costly eradication programmes. Where elimination programmes are needed, taxonomists help to develop the most environmentally benign, economic yet effective methods.Taxonomic knowledge and skills are at the centre of anti-IAS measures. Expertise needs to be mobilised and shared. Taxonomiccapacities need to be accessible to all countries to support theprompt identification and monitoring of IAS threats and delivery ofcontrol programmes. Capacity is being developed but significantfurther investment is required. Is this difficult to justify when the benefits far outweigh the costs at ratios such as 50:1?

Surveys and monitoring preventunnecessary control programmes

Introduced (alien) species

sometimes become invasive,

causing biodiversity loss and

inflicting major economic and/or

ecological damage. As control of

invasive species typically involves

high and ongoing costs, significant

savings can be realised by

monitoring introduced species and

starting control programmes only if

and when a species shows signs

of becoming invasive. In the

Galapagos Island Archipiélago de

Colón Biosphere Reserve, the only

introduced reptiles that have

established reproductive

populations in Galapagos are three

gecko species of the family

Gekkonidae (Phyllodactylus reissi,

Gonatodes caudiscutatus and

Lepidactylus lugubris) are found.

These species were identified as

most suitable in order to illustrate

a very basic management question

when dealing with introduced

species, i.e. whether they were

potentially invasive and a threat to

the survival of the native fauna and

hence whether they needed to be

controlled or eradicated.

SectorsInvasive alien species; biodiversity conservation

LocationEcuador (Galapagos)

MethodsA monitoring study of the Gekkonidae of theGalapagos Islands was undertaken in whichsamples were taken from the villages and surrounding rural areas of Puerto Ayora (SantaCruz), Puerto Baquerizo Moreno (SanCristobal) and Puerto Villamil (Isabela).

Outcomes and ImpactsThe distribution of the introduced geckos wasfound to be limited to inhabited islands, suggesting that they were introduced unintentionally via boats. The study suggeststhat introduced and endemic genera have different habitat requirements. Only P. reissishows the habitat preference of endemic geckos for arid coastal areas, and needs to beconsidered as a potential threat to the nativefauna. Preventing unnecessary control programmes has allowed saving of significantcosts, allowing instead for the establishment ofmonitoring programmes, which rely heavily ontaxonomic expertise and para-taxonomic skills.

LessonsAlien species do not necessarily have to beinvasive, as they can become integrated intoan ecosystem in a non-harmful way. Despitethe fact that negative human impact on theGalapagos Islands needs to be prevented andreduced, selected experiences such as thosedescribed here would seem to suggest that theinflux of alien species introduced incidentally orintentionally can be tolerated, as long as thetaxonomic expertise and tools to enable an efficient and effective monitoring system are inplace.

Contributed by: Elecier Cruz, Parque Nacional Galápagos,Puerta Ayora, Isla Santa Cruz, Galápagos, Ecuador. Tel:+5935 52 61 98; 5935 52 65 11. Fax: +5935 52 61 90. Email:png@ga.pro.ec

Reference: Biosphere reserve e-fact sheets:www2.unesco.org/mab/br/brdir/directory/biores.asp?mode=all&code=ECU+01

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taxonomytargetinginvasives

Correct identification of fungussaves wheat export market

The fungus Tilletia indica causes

the disease Karnal bunt in wheat.

In 1996 and 1997, much of the

$5-billion/year U.S. wheat export

market was threatened by the

supposed discovery of the fungus

in wheat crops in Arizona and a

small part of California. About one

third of countries that might buy

wheat from the United States

would not buy Karnal-bunt-infected

wheat. During the U.S. national

Karnal bunt survey of 1996,

T. indica-like fungal spores

(teliospores) were found in wheat

grain washes from the southeastern

United States. However, the

survey could not find direct

evidence of bunted i.e. blackened

and foul-smelling, wheat seeds.

Ryegrass seed infected with a

similar fungus is sometimes

harvested along with the wheat.

Initially, available tests incorrectly

identified this fungus as Karnal

bunt. As a result, in 1996-97,

restrictions were placed on the

movement of suspect wheat from

Alabama, Georgia, Florida, and

Tennessee.

SectorsAgriculture; invasive alien species, trade

LocationUnited States; all wheat growing areas worldwide

MethodsWhile the wheat grain wash samples in thesoutheastern United States, were testing positive for the Karnal bunt fungus using thethen-available molecular test, because no bunted wheat kernels were found an incorrectidentification was suspected by taxonomists.After close taxonomic re-examination of thebunt fungi family using light and scanning electron microscopy of the spores, it was determined that the Tilletia species on the ryegrass was an unnamed species new to science. With these techniques, it was determined that, with experience, visual characteristics could be used to tell the twofungi apart.

Outcomes and ImpactsThe new techniques quickly showed that 100percent of each of the wheat samples collectedfrom southeastern farms in 1996 were contaminated with the new fungus (named T.walkeri) and not Karnal bunt. As a result, inMarch 1997, restrictions on the movement ofthe suspect wheat were lifted. Federal plantquarantine officials now use the new techniqueas a first cut, to decide if possible quarantineactions are needed.

If Karnal bunt had been incorrectly confirmed inthe southeastern US wheat crop, it would haveindicated that Karnal bunt was widespread inthe US and that all wheat produced in the USwas potentially infected. This would havethreatened the entire US $5 billion export market, with disastrous consequences.

LessonsTaxonomic expertise allowed for the distinctionbetween the different fungal species. The correct identification of a new fungus led to thelifting of the ban on movement of the wheatcrops from the southeastern United States andprevented the wholesale rejection of all wheatexport produce from the US. What could havebeen a trade and agricultural disaster wasavoided.

References: 1. http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/mar99/bunt0399.htm 2. Castlebury, L.A. and Carris, L.M. Tilletia walkeri, a new species on Lolium multiflorum and L. perenne.Mycologia 91: 121-127. 1999.

Contributed by: Lisa. A. Castlebury (lisa@nt.ars-grin.gov) andMary. E. Palm (maryp@nt.ars-grin.gov): USDA-ARSSystematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, Bldg. 011A,10300 Baltimore Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705; phone (301) 504-5364 or (301) 504-5327, fax (301) 504-5810.

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taxonomytargetinginvasives

Harmful micro-algae: preventing their impacton tourism, human health, fisheries andaquaculture

Almost 100 marine micro-algae are

now known or suspected to

produce toxins. Coastal states

across the world experience

harmful algal blooms (HAB). The

frequency, intensity and

geographic distribution of HABs

have increased over the last few

decades. Microalgae may cause

fish mortality in wild and

aquaculture stocks as well as

intoxication in humans consuming

shellfish which have accumulated

algal toxins, with a resulting loss

of market confidence in seafood

and negative impacts on tourism,

etc. Taxonomic identification of

harmful algal species is

complicated by the high degree of

variation expressed among and

within populations. Many

institutions have, over the last 20

years, lost their taxonomic

expertise in micro-algae, just as

has been the case for many other

groups of organisms.

SectorsFisheries; aquaculture; human health; tourism;invasive alien species; trade.

LocationCoastal states worldwide

MethodsIdentification of micro-algae is typically basedon the light microscope and morphologicalcharacteristics. However, this is inadequate todistinguish between many species, and electron microscopy, molecular probes andother highly specialised methods are routinelyrequired.

Outcomes and ImpactsIn most countries facing problems with harmfulmicro-algae, the importance of taxonomic skillsfor identification of causative species is recognised. Countries trading within or withthe European Union, Asian Pacific EconomicCo-operation, or USA have to comply with certain regulations regarding HAB and algaltoxin monitoring in order to be able to marketseafood products. Most countries that haveestablished HAB monitoring programmes havegreatly minimized the negative health and economic impacts and have thereby made e.g.aquaculture operations sustainable. Thisapplied use of taxonomy has in turn helpedsecure funding for basic research in phylogeny,ecology, etc. of micro-algae. It has so far notbeen feasible to make a reliable estimate of theactual scale of losses as many countries do notrelease such figures in order to protect theirmarkets and due to the fact that such an estimation would be very complex as so manyfacets of society are affected.

LessonsThis case study demonstrates how taxonomiccapacity can be enhanced when pursued in asocio-economic context. The monitoring of

harmful micro-algae requires sound taxonomicskills and research to describe new speciesand deliver identification keys, and development of new tools to help with speciesidentification. The problems faced by agenciesresponsible for protecting seafood resources,the marine environment, and human healthhave lead to an international focus on enhancing national capacity to identify andmonitor potentially harmful micro-algae. It is agood example of building demand-driven taxonomic capacity. It is also an example ofhow governments can address the taxonomicimpediment by requesting assistance frominternational organizations with the ability toorganize capacity enhancing activities andraise the required funding. In this specific casethe organizations that have taken an interest intaxonomy because of its socio-economic relevance are primarily the IntergovernmentalOceanographic Commission (IOC) ofUNESCO, the International Council forExploration of the Sea (ICES) and a number ofbilateral development aid agencies.

Reference: 1. http://ioc.unesco.org/hab 2. http://www.bigelow.org/hab/

Contributed by: Henrik Oksfeldt Enevoldsen, IOC HABProgramme Coordinator, IOC Science and CommunicationCentre on Harmful Algae, University of Copenhagen, OsterFarimagsgade 2D, DK-1353 Copenhagen K. Tel +45 33 13 4446. Fax +45 33 13 44 47. E-mail: hab.ioc@unesco.org

case study

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taxonomytargetinginvasives

Emergency response to New Worldscrewworm in Libya

The New World screwworm fly

(NWS), Cochliomyia hominivorax

(Diptera: Calliphoridae), is an

obligate parasite (i.e. cannot live

independently of its host) of

warm-blooded vertebrates during

its larval stages. The feeding

activity of its larvae on living

tissues of the host causes serious

injury and can result in death. The

pain and suffering caused by even

mild infestations makes NWS an

important animal welfare problem.

The hosts most commonly infested

are larger mammals, including

wildlife and domestic livestock,

although humans can also be

infested. In the spring of 1998

numerous infestations of livestock

by NWS were found in the Libyan

Arab Jamahiriya (Libya), the first

time that this species had become

established outside of the

Americas. This establishment was

not just an emergency situation for

Libya, but also represented a wider

threat to North Africa, the

Mediterranean Basin and possibly

further afield.

SectorsInvasive alien species; agriculture; animalhealth; human health

LocationLibya; North Africa; Mediterranean Basin

MethodsThe parasite was identified as NWS by lightmicroscopy techniques, using standard taxonomic identification keys and reference tospecimens in museum collections of international coverage. Because of the potentially serious consequences of this introduction, international organisations concerned with agriculture, including the Foodand Agriculture Organisation of the UnitedNations (FAO) and the United StatesDepartment of Agriculture (USDA), were notified. This action led to the raising of international awareness and an eradicationprogramme was developed. As local veterinarians and entomologists were unfamiliar with the NWS, taxonomists from theNatural History Museum (UK) participated inregional training courses and produced clearand simple identification guides.

Outcomes and ImpactsThe entire eradication programme in Libya costsome US$80 million, including a major inputfrom Libya equivalent to US$7.5 million.However, it was estimated that benefits outweighed costs by at least 50:1. Accurate taxonomic identification at the outset enabledthe programme to be launched swiftly and continuing taxonomic input helped focus theprogramme during its operation. If the programme had been launched late or hadfailed, then NWS could have spread much further in the region with far greater economicand human and animal health consequences.

LessonsThe main taxonomic issue was early and accurate identification of an introduced pestspecies and recognition of the potentially disastrous consequences it posed in an uncontrolled new environment. Thereafter, theimportant issue was to raise the identificationskills of local scientists. Accurate identificationof larval and adult specimens from infestationsand traps was vital to monitoring and directingthe eradication programme, ultimately savingbillions of dollars in impacts such as stock losses, human health and eradication programmes.

Reference: Lindquist, D.A., Abusowa, M., & Hall, M.J.R. (1992)The New World screwworm fly in Libya: a review of its intro-duction and eradication. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 6,2-8.

Food and Agriculture organisation (1992) The New WorldScrewworm Eradication Programme - North Africa 1988-1992.FAO, Rome, Italy, 192 pp.

Contributed by: Dr Martin Hall, Department of Entomology,The Natural History Museum, London, UK. E-mail: m.hall@nhm.ac.ukhttp://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FaoInfo/Agricult/AGA/AGAP/war/warall/u4220b/u4220b04.htmhttp://www.fao.org/ag/aga/agap/war/warall/u4220b/u4220b07.htm

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taxonomytargetinginvasives

Major biocontrol agent nearly missed

Salvinia molesta is an aggressive

aquatic fern and one of the world’s

worst weeds. It has been

introduced from its native Brazil to

many areas of the world, where

environmental damage caused by

its spread has been enormous. It

chokes lakes, reservoirs,

slow-moving rivers, irrigation

systems, rice paddies, fishponds,

etc. with continuous meter-thick

mats of dense vegetation. In

addition to rendering the water

useless for normal purposes its

presence can lead to an increase in

mosquito populations.

SectorInvasive alien species, Inland Waters

LocationAustralasia; Asia; Africa; Indo-Pacific

MethodsInitially the weed was thought to be Salviniaauriculata, and a weevil, Cyrtobagous singularis, was collected from Trinidad andreleased on the weed in Africa, where it failedto control it. The weed was then correctly identified as S. molesta, and Cyrtobagous wascollected from this species in Brazil andreleased in Queensland, where it rapidly controlled the weed. Initially it was believedthat the weevil represented a different biotypeof C. singularis but was soon found to be anundescribed species, distinguishable only onmicroscopic characters.

LessonsBiological control was achieved only after thetrue identity of Salvinia had been recognized,its native range found, and a previouslyunknown herbivore discovered. This illustratesvividly the crucial importance of sound taxonomy for understanding and solving ecological problems.

Outcomes and ImpactsThe use of the correct weevil has resulted inmassive clearance and control of the weedover vast geographic areas.

References: Room, P.M., 1990, Ecology & Evolution, 5:77.Doeleman, J.A., ‘Biological Control of Salvinia molesta in SriLanka; an assessment of costs and benefits’, Australian Centrefor International Agricultural Research, Technical Report 12.

Contributed by: Dr Christopher H. C. Lyal, The Natural HistoryMuseum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK.chcl@nhm.ac.uk

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taxonomytargetinginvasives

Lack of local information allows invasion ofslug and snail pests in Sri Lanka

Introduced slugs and snails are

currently the most serious

agricultural and horticultural pests

in several areas of Sri Lanka but

their recent arrival has passed

unnoticed and presence largely

unrecorded. Because it has not

been possible to identify many of

the native species in Sri Lanka,

exotic pest species had been

mistakenly assumed to be native to

Sri Lanka and the agricultural

authorities had not been alerted to

their presence. Sri Lanka is a

global biodiversity hotspot with the

greatest category of threat to

biodiversity owing to high human

population density. It possesses a

species rich and highly endemic

land snail fauna with several

ancient relict groups. Much of the

original forest in Sri Lanka has

been degraded or converted to

plantations and other forms of

agriculture and it is in these

habitats that exotic gastropod

species have become established.

SectorsAgriculture; horticulture; invasive alien species;biodiversity

LocationSri Lanka

MethodsAddressing the problem of a lack of taxonomicresources in Sri Lanka to allow identification ofland snails was the focus of the DarwinInitiative Project Land snail diversity in SriLanka (1999-2002). Nearly all of the taxonomic resources for the region such asspecimen reference collections, particularlytype material, and specialist literature are concentrated in The Natural History Museum(UK) and a primary objective of the project wasto provide access to such resources. In SriLanka the project focused on a national surveyof terrestrial molluscs to allow the establish-ment of specimen reference collections and adatabase on distributions.

Outcomes and ImpactsThe survey established that, particularly in theCentral Highlands, the most damaging speciesof exotic pest gastropods were firmly established in very high densities. We nowhave a good knowledge of what pest speciesare present and have produced identificationguides to the native fauna which will allow aspeedy response to the arrival of new exoticslugs and snails, making it possible to preventfurther damage to both agriculture and biodiversity.

LessonsLack of knowledge of what species are nativeto an area can allow exotic pest species tobecome firmly established without any attemptsat their eradication or control being put inplace. Identification guides prepared by taxonomists are essential tools in the prevention of epidemics of invasive species.

References: 1. Naggs, F. 2002. Molluscan pests in Sri Lanka:voracious exotics having a major and rapidly increasing impacton agriculture. Zoology Department, The Natural HistoryMuseum, London. Land snail diversity in Sri Lanka: DarwinInitiative project information leaflet. 2. Naggs, F., & Raheem, D.2002. Sri Lankan Snails. Department of Zoology, The NaturalHistory Museum, London. 3. Mordan, P. et al. A guide to thepest and exotic snails and slugs of Sri Lanka. Department ofZoology, The Natural History Museum, London. 4. Naggs, F. etal. (In Preparation). Ancient relicts and contemporary exotics:faunal change and survivorship in Sri Lankaís snail fauna.Slugs & snails. Agricultural, veterinary & environmental per-spectives. British Crop Protection Council.

Contributed by: Fred Naggs, Biodiversity & ConservationOfficer, Mollusca Group, Department of Zoology, The NaturalHistory Museum, London SW7 5BD F.Naggs@nhm.ac.ukhttp://www.nhm.ac.uk/zoology/home/naggs.htm.

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taxonomytargetinginvasives

Taxonomic review saves Buttercup Squashmarket from pest fears

Each year some consignments of

buttercup squash from New

Zealand, worth about US$600,000

per year to growers, were being

destroyed or reshipped by South

Korea because of a fungus that

was believed to threaten their

domestic rice crop. Potatoes from

USA have also been destroyed

when the same fungus was

detected. The Korean National

Plant Quarantine Service had listed

Verticillium tenerum in their

Controlled Pathogen List as a

Category 2 organism - “commodity

allowed into country with proper

treatment, or otherwise

contaminated material to be

destroyed or otherwise disposed.”

New Zealand authorities had also

listed this fungus as a quarantine

pest on Pinus seed imports into

New Zealand.

SectorsAgriculture; trade; pests; invasive alien species.

LocationNew Zealand; South Korea.

MethodsA thorough literature review and consultationwith colleagues on the naming, biology, distribution, and pathogenicity of V. tenerumwas undertaken to convince Korean authoritiesthat this fungus is neither a parasite of rice nora legitimate quarantine pest.

Outcomes and ImpactsThere has been extensive confusion over thenaming of the fungus known as V. tenerum anddebate over whether or not it is the anamorphof Nectria inventa. The correct name for thefungus is V. luteo-album, and it is not related toN. inventa. Molecular and morphological studies (communicated by Dr W. Gams,Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures,Netherlands) have shown that V. luteo-albumpossibly belongs in a separate genus from thewell-known plant pathogenic species, V. albo-atrum and V. dahliae. V. luteo-album is acosmopolitan saprobe with no damaging effectson rice.

Both the Korean and New Zealand authoritieshave now removed V. luteo-album from theirpest lists after accepting the results of researchthat showed it was not a threat. New Zealandbuttercup squash growers now have anassured market and Koreans have access tooff-season, high quality squash.

LessonsA thorough taxonomy review of Verticilliumluteo-album provided the evidence that quarantine authorities required to remove anon-tariff trade barrier.

Reference: McKenzie, E.H.C. 2003: Verticillium luteo-album(syn. V. tenerum), Biology, Distribution, Pathogenicity. LandcareResearch Contract Report: LC0304/022.

Contributed by: Eric H.C. McKenzie, email:mckenziee@LandcareResearch.co.nz. Landcare Research,Private Bag 92170, Auckland, New Zealand; phone +64 9 5744173, fax +64 9 574 4101.

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taxonomytargetinginvasives

Resolving the Southeast Asian Termite Paradox

The termite genus Coptotermeshas a few species that are notorious as pests of timber on aninternational scale. They areresponsible for enormous losses inbuildings throughout the tropicsand subtropics. The ability ofthese termites to nest in pieces ofmoist timber and form new nestsfrom fragments of the colonyenables them to survive as stowaways on board ships thatspread them to new geographicalareas. Large amounts of moneyare spent annually to control thesepests and in the development ofcontrol measures. However, therehas been for many decades, tillrecently, a paradox in the pest status of these species of termites.Coptotermes havilandi, which is aserious alien pest in parts of Southand North America, is thought tohave been introduced fromSoutheast Asia, yet in countries inits supposed area of origin, it hasnever been accorded much importance as a pest. Instead, thepest species known to the regionwere said to be primarily C. gestroiand C. travians.

SectorsConstruction industry; invasive alien species

Geographic LocationSoutheast Asia; Americas; Tropics / Subtropics.

MethodsThis paradox prompted the Forest ResearchInstitute Malaysia (FRIM) to undertake a studyon the taxonomy of these species. The degreeof variation in castes, individuals and populations in Malaysia and neighbouringcountries was examined. The study showedthat C. havilandi and C. gestroi were in fact thesame species. Thus, the alien species introduced to the Americas should be known asC. gestroi instead of C. havilandi. It was alsoshown that the true C. travians was not a pestthat enters buildings but, rather, a species ofthe forest, and that what was wrongly called C.travians in Malaysia and neighbouring countries was in fact C. gestroi.

Outcomes and ImpactsIn Southeast Asia there is, in fact, a single pestspecies, C. gestroi, that was introduced to various parts of the world, including theAmericas and islands in the Caribbean andPacific and Indian oceans. In view of the status of C. gestroi as a pest species of international concern, it was given a commonname, the Asian Subterranean Termite.

Numerous studies have been conducted in different parts of the world on the biology andmanagement of the various termite pestspecies that were thought to be different. Therecognition of a single species is enabling thescientific information from different countries tobe pooled. This, in turn, is facilitating thedevelopment of improved pest managementstrategies.

LessonsThe information we have about a species isonly as good as the name that is applied to it.If the wrong name is applied, then decisionsincluding pest control practices are based onthe wrong information or do not make use ofinformation that is already available. If the taxonomy of a group of species has been insufficiently studied, confusion is likely toabound. This confusion passes down to thelevel of industry and can have serious economic impacts, or even directly harmfuleffects on human beings. In this particularexample, industry is now able to avoid duplication in the testing and design of controlstrategies such as baiting technologies. Thestudy that enabled this is only one example ofhow fundamental taxonomic research can havefar reaching impacts on science, industry andsociety across the world.

Reference: Kirton, L.G. & Brown, V.K. 2003. The taxonomicstatus of pest species of Coptotermes in Southeast Asia:Resolving the paradox in the pest status of the termites,Coptotermes gestroi, C. havilandi and C. travians (Isoptera:Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 42(1): 43-63.

Contributed by: Laurence G. Kirton, Forest Research InstituteMalaysia, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, email: laurence@frim.gov.my

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taxonomytargetinginvasives

Keeping the weevils from Bangladesh’s cotton

Cotton Boll Weevil, Anthonomous

grandis, is a notorious pest of

cotton in the USA where it persists

despite an intensive, 20-year

eradication programme. It is not

known to occur in Bangladesh, a

country that imports cotton from a

number of countries, including the

USA, to meet demand from its

economically important textile

industry. Standard phytosanitary

procedure requires imported

cotton to be fumigated for 72 hours

on board ships at the port of entry

to protect Bangladesh’s cotton

production from alien pest species,

especially Cotton Boll Weevil. In a

recent incident, Bangladesh Textile

Mills Association (cotton

importers) and the US Ambassador

argued that this fumigation

treatment is unnecessary.

Bangladesh government

authorities had to decide whether

to contest the US position.

SectorsAgriculture; trade; pests; invasive alien species.

LocationBangladesh.

MethodsThe Ministry of Agriculture, Bangladesh, invitedseveral expert entomologists (taxonomists) toadvise on the appropriate response to US government assertions that: (a) fumigationrequirements are unnecessary from a scientificperspective, extremely costly and not required;(b) prior to shipment, cotton fibre is inspectedby the U.S. Department of Agriculture and certified as being free of Boll Weevil; and (c)fumigation only serves to increase the price ofU.S. cotton, thereby damaging the competitiveness of garment and textile exportsfrom Bangladesh.

The taxonomists confirmed that the Cotton BollWeevil is not found in Bangladesh. Importantly,they advised that Boll Weevils can enter a dormant state for 10-11 months (an overwintering survival strategy). It is also possible that their eggs could survive in a consignment of cotton in dormant adult weevils.

OutcomeThe taxonomists recommended that: (a) Fumigation at the port of entry must be

continued to prevent invasion of any unknown pest including Cotton Boll Weevil.

(b) Experts from member countries of the IPPC and APPPC should make a definitive ruling (fumigation is mandatory in other cotton importing countries of the region).

LessonsThe involvement of scientists (taxonomists) isvital for phytosanitary and quarantine services,prevention of invasions by alien pest speciesand protecting a country from accusations of

unfair practice by a trading partner. Withoutlocally available taxonomic expertise, cottonproduction in Bangladesh would have been putat risk from cotton imports containing CottonBoll Weevil in dormant or egg form. Lost cotton production and pest eradication costswould have had significant economic and socialconsequences, as in other countries that arehighly dependent on agriculture. Maintaininglocally accessible taxonomic expertise is ahighly cost-effective approach to protectingagricultural and trade interests.

References: Bangladesh Gazette, 1989. Destructive insectsand pests rules, 1966 (Plant Quarantine) amended up to July1989.

Pierce, J B, 1998. Cotton Boll Weevil Biology, Guide A-232,Agricultural Science Center at Artesia, New Mexico StateUniversity.

Contributed by: Professor Badrul Amin Bhuiya, Chairman,Biodiversity Research Group of Bangladesh and InterimNational Coordinator, BioNET-SACNET Bangladesh,Department of Zoology University of Chittagong, Chittagong4331, BANGLADESH.e: babhuiya@ctgu.edu | babhuiya@hotmail.com w: www.brgb.org

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taxonomytargetinginvasives

Symbiotic fungus provides early warningand minimises forestry loses

In 1994, while conducting research

on another forestry pest, the

disintegrated body parts of a

metallic bluish-black wasp were

found under the bark of a 40 year

old Pinus radiata tree which had

been felled and then rejected in a

plantation outside Cape Town.

Further examination revealed

round exit holes similar to those

described in the literature for the

woodwasp Sirex noctilio, a forestry

pest previously unknown in South

Africa. S. noctilio originates in

Eurasia and North Africa where it

attacks stressed conifer species. It

has since spread to plantations in

other parts of the world, killing up

to 70% of trees.

SectorForestry; pests; invasive alien species

LocationSouth Africa

MethodsIt was not possible to identify the wasp from itsremains, so a sample of the wood was sent tothe mycology division of the National Collectionof Insects in Pretoria where it was cultured totest for the presence of a symbiotic fungus(Amylostereum areolatum). Female woodwasps inject trees with A. areolatum alongwith a mucus just prior to laying their eggs.Once the larvae hatch they feed on the funguswithin the wood, making a U-turn when the lessnutritious heart-wood is reached, and eventually pupate in the wood below the bark,before emerging as adult woodwasps afterabout a year. The presence of this symbioticfungus would indirectly confirm the presence ofthe woodwasp.

Outcomes and impactsAnalysis confirmed the presence of A. areolatum and hence the woodwasp. The confirmation came a year before the first waspspecimen was captured. Early warning of thewoodwaspís presence allowed an immediatestart to be made on the importation of biological control agents that had worked successfully in Australia and New Zealand.Within a year, the key parasitic nematodeDeladenus siricidicola, had been introduced,followed a year later by other biological controlagents: Hymenopterous parasitoid Ibalia leucospoides and then by Megarhyssa nortoni.

Between 1994 and 2001 the woodwasp spread380km along the west and east coasts but successful biological control meant that at nopoint were more than 3% of the trees lost.

LessonsThe speed with which biological control wasimplemented after the indirect identification ofthe woodwasp was directly responsible for theminimal losses experienced by the forestryindustry of South Africa. Taxonomic expertisewas essential for the early detection of theinvasive pest and for design of the biocontrolprogramme that contained the threat.

References: 1. Baxter, A.P., Rong, I.H. & Schutte, et a.l. 1995.Amylostereum areolatum (Aphyllophorales: Stereaceae) inSouth Africa. South African Journal of Botany 61 (6): 352-354.2. Bedding,R.A. 1993. Biological control of Sirex noctilio usingthe nematode Deladenus siricidicola. In: Bedding, R.A.,Akhurst, R.J. & Kaya, H. (Eds) Nematodes and the BiologicalControl of Insect Pests. 11 - 20. CSIRO, Australia. 3. Neumann,F.G., Morey, J.L. & McKimm, R.J. 1987. The Sirex wasp inVictoria. Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands.Bulletin No. 29, 41pp. 4. Tribe, G.D. 1995. The woodwaspSirex noctilio Fabricius (Hymenoptera: Siricidae), a pest ofPinus species, now established in South Africa. AfricanEntomology 3: 215-217.

Contributed by: G. D. Tribe, Plant Protection ResearchInstitute, Private Bag X5017, Stellenbosch 7599, South Africa. e: vredgt@plant3.agric.za

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taxonomytargetinginvasives

The Larger Grain Borer: the high cost of aslow response

It is believed that the Larger Grain

Borer (LGB), Prostephanus

truncates, was introduced into

Tanzania in the late 1970ís, most

likely in maize provided as food aid

or in the sacks used to transport

this maize. When the pest was

reported, stored maize was treated

as other stored product pests, but

without any success. Due to these

ineffective control measures and

lack of understanding of the pest

involved, the LGB spread at an

alarming rate, with a major impact

upon food supplies. LGB was

accidentally introduced in ship-

ments of maize into Togo in West

Africa. In addition to attacking

grain, LGB also attacks stored

cassava.

SectorAgriculture; trade; invasive alien species

LocationAfrica

MethodsLGB specimens were taken to the NaturalHistory Museum in London where a definitiveidentification was made and natural enemiesindicated from its native areas in Mexico andCosta Rica. One of these, a small black beetlewhich preys on the grubs (larva) of the LargerGrain Borer, was then introduced into Tanzaniato destroy the Larger Grain Borer.

Outcomes and ImpactsBy 1998, 13 African countries confirmed thepresence of the pest. The area of spread inEast Africa is now estimated at one millionsquare kilometres, with one third of this areabeing affected in West Africa. LGB costTanzania roughly US$91 million annually in lostmaize intended for consumption or export.Losses of cassava have been assessed to beas high as 35 % in 5-6 months storage and upto 60% for storage over 9 months, losses whichcost West Africa up to US$800 million. In addition to the physical losses, significant efforthas been needed to contain the invasive pest.Between 1984 and 1992, the average annualcost to the Tanzanian government was morethan US$ 3 million.

LessonsIf the LGB had been recognised from the outset, its spread would have been greatlyreduced, crop losses would have been significantly lower and the need for cost controlprogrammes much reduced. Early recognitiondepends on appropriate identification supporttools (user friendly keys), supported by taxonomists.

References: BioNET INTERNATIONAL Business Plan, 1999.

Contributed by: BioNET-INTERNATIONAL TechnicalSecretariat, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9TY, UK. T: +44 1491 829036F: +44 1491 829082E: bionet@bionet-intl.orgW: www.bionet-intl.org

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taxonomytargetinginvasives

BioNET-INTERNATIONAL: the GlobalNetwork for Taxonomy, was established in1993 and has a vision of A world in which taxonomic expertise, resources and information are rapidly and locally accessiblein forms appropriate for meeting conservation,agriculture, trade and other sustainable development needs. Focused on capacitybuilding for developing countries, BioNETactivities are particularly targeted on supporting the Global Taxonomy Initiative ofthe Convention on Biological Diversity and thetaxonomic capacity needs of parties to otherinternational agreements.

BioNET is comprised of a secretariat and agrowing, government-endorsed, institutionaland human network organised into ten subregional LOOPs, each independently managed by its member countries and partners.

At the global and regional levels, BioNEThelps coordinate and engage taxonomists,users of taxonomy and technology providers inthe capacity building partnerships needed toapply taxonomy to priority issues such as invasive alien species.

Why Taxonomy Matters is a series of shortcase studies that provide varied examples ofthe critical contributions of taxonomy to society. Further contributions are welcome.See: www.bionet-intl.org/case_studies.

Contact: bionet@bionet-intl.orgWebsite: www.bionet-intl.org

GISP, the Global Invasive SpeciesProgramme, was established in 1997 toaddress global threats caused by invasivealien species (IAS), and to provide support tothe implementation of Article 8(h) of theConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

Our founding core partners during GISP PhaseI were the Scientific Committee on Problems ofthe Environment (SCOPE), CAB International(CABI) and the World Conservation Union(IUCN). GISP Phase I, managed from headquarters in the USA and partly funded bythe United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP), largely relied on voluntary contributions from a substantial group of scientists, lawyers, and managers from allparts of the world.

Phase II, now headquartered in South Africa,is a contributory Partnership Network of organizations and programmes from aroundthe world with an interest in IAS issues.Building on this partnership approach, GISP isimproving cooperation with our existing andnew partners in the IAS world, to maximise theeffectiveness of joint programmes and promotethe sharing of best-practice information. GISPis an enabling body, focusing on effective information exchange, networking, capacitybuilding and practical tools for developingcountries. In this light, GISP works closely withBioNET, the IUCN Invasive Species SpecialistGroup and others to make tools and information available for users throughout theworld.

Contact: gisp@nbi.ac.za or barnard@nbi.ac.zaWebsite: www.gisp.org

The Invasive Species Specialist Group(ISSG) is a specialist group of the SpeciesSurvival Commission (SSC) of the WorldConservation Union (IUCN). ISSG was established in 1993 and currently has around160 voluntary members from over 40 countries, chaired by Prof Mick Clout (NewZealand). The mission of ISSG is: “to reducethreats to natural ecosystems and the nativespecies they contain, by increasing awarenessof alien invasions and of ways to prevent, control or eradicate them”. ISSG's scope isglobal.

The Global Invasive Species Database, isfreely available online. Records include information on the ecology, impacts, distribution and pathways of invasive alienspecies, and most importantly, information onmanagement methods as well as contactdetails of experts that can offer further advice(www.issg.org/database).

Aliens is the bi-annual newsletter of theInvasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG).

Aliens-L is a listserver that allows users tofreely seek and share information on alieninvasive species and issues. To subscribe,look for instructions on the ISSG website.

The Cooperative Initiative on Invasive AlienSpecies on Islands aims to enhance empowerment, capacity, cooperation and sharing of expertise in key areas of invasivealien species (IAS) management on islands;

The IUCN Guidelines For The Prevention OfBiodiversity Loss Caused By Alien InvasiveSpecies (As approved by 51st Meeting ofCouncil, February 2000 ) can be obtained fromthe ISSG office, orhttp://iucn.org/themes/ssc/pubs/policy/invasivesEng.htm

Contact: issg@Auckland.ac.nz Website: www.issg.org

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wwhhyytaxonomy matters

BioNET-INTERNATIONAL: the Global Network for Taxonomy

Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey, TW20 9TY, UK.

W: www.bionet-intl.org E: bionet@bionet-intl.org T: + 44 (0)1491 829036 F: + 44 (0)1491 829082

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