CIVIL & STRUCTURE DEPARTMENTFACULTY OF

ENGINEERING & BUILT ENVIRONMENTTHE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF MALAYSIA

KKKH4284 SUSTAINABLE URBAN PLANNINGTASK 6: GLOBAL WARMING

Lecturers:PROF. IR. DR. RIZA ARIQ ABDULLAH BIN O.K RAHMAT

DR. MUHAMMAD NAZRI BIN BORHANPM. NORLIZA BT MOHD AKHIR

Students’ Name:MUHAMAD RAHMAD BIN MUSTAR A133094

Supposed you are living in a coastal city. The city administrator has noticed that the mean sea

level has been rising for the past 50 years. The raising is small but over a long period of time it

may cause problems in the city centre as the level of that part of the city is quite low. If you are

hired as a consultant, write a plan of action on what can be done to reduce or mitigate the

problems

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Measurements of temperature taken by instruments all over the world, on land and at sea have

revealed that during the 20th century the Earth’s surface and lowest part of the atmosphere

warmed up on average by about 0.6°C. During this period, man-made emissions of greenhouse

gases, including carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have increased, largely as a result of

the burning of fossil fuels for energy and transportation, and land use changes

including deforestation for agriculture. In the last 20 years, concern has grown that these two

phenomena are, at least in part, associated with each other. That is to say, global warming is now

considered most probably to be due to the increases in greenhouse gas emissions and concurrent

increases in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations, which have enhanced the Earth's natural

greenhouse effect. Whilst other natural causes of climate change can cause global climate to

change over similar periods of time, computer models demonstrate that in all probability there is

a real discernible human influence on the global climate.

If the climate changes as current computer models have projected, global average surface

temperature could be anywhere from 1.4 to 5.8°C higher by the end of the 21st century than in

1990. To put this temperature change into context, the increase in global average surface

temperature which brought the Earth out of the last major ice age 14,000 years ago was of the

order of 4 to 5°C. Such a rapid change in climate will probably be too great to allow many

ecosystems to suitably adapt, and the rate of species extinction will most likely increase. In

addition to impacts on wildlife and species biodiversity, human agriculture, forestry, water

resources and health will all be affected. Such impacts will be related to changes

in precipitation (rainfall and snowfall), sea level, and the frequency and intensity of extreme

weather events, resulting from global warming. It is expected that the societies currently

experiencing existing social, economic and climatic stresses will be both worst affected and least

able to adapt. These will include many in the developing world, low-lying islands and coastal

regions, and the urban poor.

The Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) and the Kyoto Protocol (1997)

represent the first steps taken by the international community to protect the Earth's climate from

dangerous man-made interference. Currently, nations have agreed to reduce greenhouse

gas emissions by an average of about 5% from 1990 levels by the period 2008 to 2012. The UK,

through its Climate Change Programme, has committed itself to a 12.5% cut in greenhouse gas

emissions. Additional commitments for further greenhouse gas emission reduction will need to

be negotiated during the early part of the 21st century, if levels of greenhouse

gas concentrations in the atmosphere are to be stabilised at reasonable levels. Existing and future

targets can be achieved by embracing the concept of sustainable development - development

today that does not compromise the development needs of future generations. In practical terms,

this means using resources, particularly fossil-fuel-derived energy, more efficiently, re-using and

recycling products where possible, and developing renewable forms of energy which are

inexhaustible and do not pollute the atmosphere.

2.0 MITIGATION

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to

enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming. This is in distinction to adaptation

to global warming, which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global

warming. Scientific consensus on global warming, together with the precautionary principle and

the fear of non-linear climate transitions, is leading to increased effort to develop new

technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming.

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a

solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions. However, CCS cannot deliver in time to avoid

dangerous increases in temperatures, as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected

before 2030.

Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets, more

opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power,

photovoltaics, and solar thermal technologies. The deployment of these technologies provides

opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases.

2.2 GOVERNMENT POLICY

Some components of the government's emissions reductions strategy have been:

the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme (CPRS) (which was a proposal for an emissions

trading scheme that would have established a market in greenhouse gas permits);

the Renewable Energy Target;

"investment in renewable energy technologies and in the demonstration of carbon capture

and storage";

"action on energy efficiency.”

2.3 AGRICULTURE

Feeding the planet’s ever-expanding population while dealing with climate change will require a

new way of thinking about agriculture. Current farming methods are depleting the earth’s

resources and producing alarming quantities of greenhouse gases—agriculture operations

currently produce 13 percent of human-based global GHG emissions. The environment is paying

a huge price in biodiversity loss and deforestation, while the global economy leaks billions of US

dollars per year on conventional agriculture’s economic side effects.

Turning agriculture a brighter shade of green will not only ease pressure on the

environment and help cope with climate change, but will also create opportunities to diversify

economies, increase yields, reduce costs, and generate jobs—which will in turn help reduce

poverty and increase food security. Increasing farm yields and improving ecosystems services

will be a boon to the 2.6 billion people who depend on agriculture for a livelihood, particularly in

developing nations where most farmers live on small parcels in rural areas.

Huge gains can be made for a greener future by simply reducing agricultural waste and

inefficiency. Nearly 50 percent of food produced is lost through crop loss or waste during

storage, distribution, marketing, and household use. Some of these inefficiencies—especially

crop and storage losses—can be addressed with small investments in simple farming and storage

technologies.

Greening agriculture will require investment, research, and capacity building. UNEP’s

contribution to this global effort includes the following innovative programmes:

CASCADe (Carbon Finance for Agriculture, Sylviculture, Conservation and Action

against Deforestation).

The UNEP Bioenergy Programme

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD)

2.4 FOREST

Forest goods and services support the livelihoods of over 1 billion people, most of whom are

poor and live in developing countries. They also sustain over 50 percent of the Earth’s species,

regulate our climate through the carbon cycle, and protect watersheds. Yet this priceless

resource, a fundamental component of our ecological infrastructure, is being threatened by

deforestation and forest degradation at a rate of 13 million hectares per year.

Halting deforestation may be a good investment: models suggest that investing just US$

40 billion per year from 2010 to 2050 in reforestation and payments to landholders for

conservation could raise value added in the forest industry by 20 percents, and at the same time

increase forest carbon storage by 28 percent.

What is needed is a stable global regime that would attract investment in forest-derived

goods and assure their equitable and sustainable production. Reducing Emissions from

Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD) may offer one of the best possibilities for

establishing this type of regime. REDD aims to create financial value for forest carbon storage,

while REDD+ goes beyond the programme’s initial mission and includes conservation,

sustainable forest management, and enhancing forest stocks.

2.5 ENERGY

As populations and incomes grow, so does the demand for energy. Our thirst for energy services

is one of the biggest challenges to mitigating climate change and building a greener future. While

the global community wrestles with climate change, it must also grapple with a host of issues

resulting from current patterns of energy consumption, including energy security, pollution, and

enduring energy poverty. The current fossil fuel-heavy energy system is not only

environmentally unsustainable, but also highly inequitable, leaving some 1.4 billion people

without access to electricity. Moreover, much of this growing energy demand is occurring in

developing countries, where rising fossil fuel prices and resources constraints are putting

additional pressure on the environment and the economy.

Fortunately, there is another way. Once considered an “unrealistic” alternative, today

renewable energies are a growing presence on the global scene. In 2010, new investments in

renewable energies reached a record high of US$ 211 billion, with noticeable growth in

emerging economies. While there is much progress to be made, decreasing costs and increasing

deployment experience are making renewables more and more competitive with fossil fuels,

especially when the latter’s negative externalities, like pollution and health impacts, are taken

into account. But in order to move towards a greener energy path, governments and local

institutions will need to increase their involvement.

UNEP’s Energy branch focuses on aiding governments and regions—particularly in

developing countries—make this green energy transition, offering support and training regarding

technical assessments, policies, and finance.

2.6 MANUFACTURING

Responsible for some 35 percent of global electricity use, 20 percent of CO2 emissions, and a

quarter of primary resource extraction, manufacturing has a major impact on the environment

and must be factored into the climate change equation. At the same time, the sector’s economic

importance cannot be ignored: including extraction and construction, manufacturing currently

accounts for 23 percent of worldwide employment.

Changing the way industries make things will go a long way towards mitigating

manufacturing’s negative environmental impacts. In some cases, simply re-designing a product

can improve not only the product’s life span, but also lead to a more efficient use of resources,

easier recycling, and less pollution during the manufacturing process and life of the product.

Modern innovations like recycling heat waste and closed-cycle manufacturing can save both

resources and money. Remanufacturing and reconditioning, both labor-intensive activities, can

create jobs and require relatively little capital investment.

To enable these innovations, regulatory reforms and new policies will need to be set in

motion, as well as mechanisms that ensure that environmental cost is factored into producers’

calculations.

UNEP’s work on manufacturing-related climate change issues includes:

The Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production programme, which is implemented by

UNEPs Sustainable Consumption and Production branch

UNEP’s OzonAction programme

2.7 TRANSPORT

Current methods of getting from one place to another are generating serious problems for both

human wellbeing and the environment. Transport gobbles up over half of the planet’s liquid

fossil fuels and is responsible for almost a quarter of energy-related greenhouse gas (GHG)

emissions. Our motorized lifestyle is causing widespread air pollution, over a million fatal traffic

accidents per year, and chronic traffic congestion—impacts that can cost countries more than 10

percent of their gross domestic product.

For the moment, there is little sign that the global appetite for vehicular transport is

diminishing. Vehicle use in developing countries is increasing—at the current rate, the global

vehicle fleet is set to triple by 2050. Yet investments in public transportation and vehicle

efficiency can yield exceptional economic returns. Several studies show that a green, low-carbon

transport sector could reduce GHG emissions from the sector by as much 70 percent, with

minimal additional investment. And when sustainable regulatory policies are added to the mix,

the road to greener transport begins to look a lot shorter.

For this transformation to happen, however, there needs to be a major shift in the way we

think about investing in transport. UNEP proposes a three-pronged strategy: Avoid–Shift–Clean.

Help users avoid or reduce trips—without restricting mobility—through smarter city planning

and land use options. Shift passengers away from private vehicles to public and non-motorized

transport, and freight users from trucks to rail or water transport. Finally, make vehicles cleaner,

through both efficiency improvements and cleaner fuels.

UNEP’s Transport Programme is working towards this paradigm shift through several

initiatives and programmes, including:

Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles

Global Fuel Economy Initiative

Share the Road

2.8 TOURISM

Nothing seems to be able to quell the human urge to visit foreign places. The tourism sector

currently accounts for 5 percent of global GDP and continues to grow, particularly in developing

countries. Tourism is one of the top five export earners in 150 countries, and the number one

export in 60. While this may be good news for national economies, if not properly managed it

can be bad news for the environment and local populations. Tourists are traveling more often and

to more distant destinations, using more energy-intensive, fossil fuel-based transport, and the

sector’s greenhouse gas (GHG) contribution has increased to 5 percent of global emissions.

Other unsustainable practices, such as excessive water use, waste generation, and habitat

encroachment are threatening ecosystems, biodiversity, and local culture.

But if done right, tourism can be a positive force for both the local economy and the

environment. Green tourism aims to reduce poverty by creating local jobs and stimulating local

business, while establishing ecologically sustainable practices that preserve resources and reduce

pollution. Currently, far too little of tourism profits touch the people living in and near tourist

destinations. Increasing local involvement can not only generate income but also encourage

communities to protect their environment. Investing in energy efficiency and waste management

can reduce GHG emissions and pollution and also save hotel owners and service providers

money. Under the right circumstances, natural areas, biodiversity, and cultural heritage—three of

the main reasons people travel in the first place—can all reap the benefits of sustainable tourism.

UNEP hosts the secretariat of the Global Partnership for Sustainable Tourism  an

initiative designed to inject sustainability principles into the mainstream of tourism policies,

development, and operations.

2.9 BUILDINGS

Approximately one third of the world’s energy use takes place inside buildings. This has earned

the building sector the dubious honor of being the Earth’s biggest contributor to greenhouse gas

(GHG) emissions. What’s more, the construction industry consumes more than one third of the

planet’s resources and generates huge quantities of solid waste. Clearly, any attempt to improve

resource efficiency must take buildings into account.

If today’s building sector has an oversized ecological footprint, there is considerable hope

for reducing it in the green future. Improving energy efficiency in buildings through greener

construction methods and retrofitting existing structures can make an enormous difference in

reducing GHG emissions. Moreover, many of these improvements can be realized at a low cost,

using existing technologies. Green construction can also have a positive effect on productivity,

public health, and even employment: according to estimates, every US $ 1 million invested could

result in ten to fourteen jobs.

2.9.1 Cities

Cities are growing quickly, especially in developing countries. Urban areas are now home to

some 50 percent of the planet’s population, use a good 60 percent of available energy, and

account for an equal share of carbon emissions. Rapid urbanization is affecting water supplies,

public health, environment, and quality of life, especially for the poor. Fundamental changes in

urban development will have to take place in order to build a sustainable future.

Fortunately, the very density of cities may turn out to be their strongest advantage.

Characterized by proximity, variety, and density, cities can be fertile ground for collaboration

between local and national governments, civil society, private partnerships, and academia—all of

whose input will be essential to the greening of our urban areas. With the right policies,

practices, and infrastructures in place, cities can be green models for efficient transport, water

treatment, construction, and resource use.

UNEP’s Sustainable Buildings and Climate Initiative (SBCI) is a partnership of major

public and private stakeholders in the buildings sector working to promote sustainable building

policies and practices worldwide.

Other UNEP work on buildings and cities includes the following projects:

Integrated Approach for Low Emissions Project Development in the New Town of

Boughzoul, Algeria

Efficient Lighting for Developing and Emerging Countries (en.lighten)

2.10 WASTE

As countries’ economies grow, so does the volume of their garbage. According to estimates,

some 11.2 billion metric tonnes of solid waste are currently being collected around the world

every year, and the decay of the organic portion is contributing around 5 percent of global

greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). What’s more, rubbish is becoming increasingly complex. The

fastest growing waste stream in both developing and developed countries is electrical and

electronic products, which contain hazardous substances that make disposal even more of a

challenge. Human health and the environment are increasingly at risk, particularly when

dumpsites are uncontrolled or volume becomes unmanageable. Illnesses and infections, ground

water pollution, GHG emission, and ecosystem destruction are just some of the impacts of our

overfilled global dustbin.

Turning the waste stream a brighter shade of green, however, can actually create

economic opportunities. Managing waste, from collection to recycling, is a growing market,

currently estimated at US$ 410 billion per year, not including the substantial informal segment in

developing countries. Recycling, in particular, will grow with a greening of the waste sector, and

actually creates more jobs than it replaces. Investment in greener waste management can produce

many environmental and economic benefits, including resource savings, nature protection, and

employment and business opportunities.

Of course, the best way to manage waste is to produce less of it, and minimizing waste is

the first essential step towards greening the sector. The goal is to produce as little waste as

possible, recycle or remanufacture as much as possible, and treat any unavoidable waste in a

manner that is the least harmful to the environment and humans—or even as a source of

sustainable energy.

UNEP’s Sustainable Consumption and Production branch is working on several aspects of

the waste puzzle. Other UNEP offices running waste-related projects and programmes include:

The International Environmental Technology Centre

3.0 ADAPTATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION

“Adaptation” refers to efforts by society or ecosystems to prepare for or adjust to future climate

change. These adjustments can be protective (i.e., guarding against negative impacts of climate

change), or opportunistic (i.e., taking advantage of any beneficial effects of climate change).

Adaptation to changes in climate is nothing new. Throughout history, human societies have

repeatedly demonstrated a strong capacity for adapting to different climates and environmental

changes--whether by migration to new areas, changing the crops we cultivate, or building

different types of shelter. However, the current rate of global climate change is unusually high

compared to past changes that society has experienced. In an increasingly interdependent world,

negative effects of climate change on one population or economic sector can have repercussions

around the world.

Ecosystems will also be faced with adaptation challenges. Some species will be able to

migrate or change their behavior to accommodate changes in climate. Other species may go

extinct. Society's ability to anticipate some of the impacts of climate change on ecosystems can

help us develop management programs that help ecosystems adapt.

Even if current climate changes seem readily absorbed today, governments and

communities are beginning adaptation planning. Many greenhouse gases remain in the

atmosphere for 100 years or more after they are emitted. Because of the long-lasting effects of

greenhouse gases, those already emitted into the atmosphere will continue to warm Earth in the

21st century, even if we were to stop emitting additional greenhouse gases today. Earth is

committed to some amount of future climate change, no matter what. Therefore, steps can be

taken now to prepare for, and respond to, the impacts of climate change that are already

occurring, and those that are projected to occur in the decades ahead.

There are limits to the ability to adapt, so actions to mitigate climate change must

continue. For example, the relocation of communities or infrastructure may not be feasible in

many locations, especially in the short term. Over the long term, adaptation alone may not be

sufficient to cope with all the projected impacts of climate change. Adaptation will need to be

continuously coupled with actions to lower greenhouse gas emissions.

3.2 ADAPTATION THROUGH LOCAL PLANNING

Local landuse and municipal planning represent important avenues for adaptation to global

warming. These forms of planning are recognised as central to avoiding the impacts of climate

related hazards such as floods and heat stress, planning for demographic and consumption

transition, and plans for ecosystem conservation. This type of planning is different from the

National Adaptation Programs of Action (NAPAs) which are intended to be frameworks for

prioritizing adaptation needs. At the local scale, municipalities are at the coal face of adaptation

where impacts are experienced in the forms of inundation, bushfires, heatwaves and rising sea

levels.

Cities are planning for adapting to global warming and climate change. The New York

Times began a series of articles on this subject with Chicago's adaptation initiatives being

highlighted. Projects include changing to heat tolerant tree varieties, changing to

water permeable pavements to absorb higher rainfalls and adding air conditioning in public

schools. New York and other cities are involved in similar planning. Carefully planned water

storage could help urban areas adapt to increasingly severe storms by increasing rainwater

storage (domestic water butts, unpaved gardens etc.) and increasing the capacity

of stormwater systems (and also separating stormwater from blackwater, so that overflows in

peak periods do not contaminate rivers). According to English Nature, gardeners can help

mitigate the effects of climate change by providing habitats for the most threatened species,

and/or saving water by changing gardens to use plants which require less.

Adaptation through local planning occurs in two distinct modes. The first is strategic

planning, which is important but not unique to local governments. At the local scale it fosters

community vision, aspirational goals and place-making, along with defining pathways to achieve

these goals. The second form is land-use planning, and is focused on the allocation of space to

balance economic prosperity with acceptable living standards and the conservation of natural

resources. Although these two types of planning are quite different in practice, and in many cases

are managed by different departments, we propose that both are highly important to climate

change adaptation, and can contribute to achieving adaptation at the local scale. Significant

constraints are recognised to hinder adaptation through planning, including limited resources,

lack of information, competing planning agendas and complying with requirements from other

levels of government. Examples of adaptation include defending against rising sea levels through

better flood defenses, and changing patterns of land use like avoiding more vulnerable areas for

housing.

Planning for rising sea levels is one of the key challenges for local planning in response to

climate change. Many national governments around the world have attempted to address the

problem of rising sea levels through policy and planning reforms designed to increase adaptive

capacity. In the United States, many state and local governments are now assessing innovative,

locality-specific options for sea-level rise adaptation. Although adaptation planning occurs

through a variety of processes, local adaptation initiatives in the U.S. often pass through three

stages of adaptation planning:

1. building community awareness of sea level rise as a local risk,

2. undertaking a scientific assessment of these risks in the medium and long-terms, and

3. using a public process to develop an adaptation plan and supportive policies.

3.3 ENHANCING ADAPTIVE CAPACITY

In a literature assessment, Smit et al. (2001) concluded that enhanced adaptive capacity would

reduce vulnerability to climate change.  In their view, activities that enhance adaptive capacity

are essentially equivalent to activities that promote sustainable development. These activities

include:

improving access to resources

reducing poverty

lowering inequities of resources and wealth among groups

improving education and information

improving infrastructure

improving institutional capacity and efficiency

Promoting local indigenous practices, knowledge, and experiences

3.4 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

A significant effect of global climate change is the altering of global rainfall patterns, with

certain effects on agriculture. Rainfed agriculture constitutes 80% of global agriculture. Many of

the 852 million poor people in the world live in parts of Asia and Africa that depend on rainfall

to cultivate food crops. As the global population swells, more food will be needed, but climate

variability is likely to make successful farming more difficult. Extended drought can cause the

failure of small and marginal farms with resultant economic, political and social disruption.

However, such events have previously occurred in human history independent of global climate

change. In recent decades, global trade has created distribution networks capable of delivering

surplus food to where it is needed, thus reducing local impact

3.4.1 Drought tolerant crop varieties

Agriculture of any kind is strongly influenced by the availability of water. Climate change will

modify rainfall, evaporation, runoff, and soil moisture storage. Changes in total seasonal

precipitation or in its pattern of variability are both important. The occurrence of moisture

stress during flowering, pollination, and grain-filling is harmful to most crops and particularly so

to corn, soybeans, and wheat. Increased evaporation from the soil and accelerated transpiration in

the plants themselves will cause moisture stress. As a result, there will be a need to develop crop

varieties with greater drought tolerance.

3.4.2 More spending on irrigation

The demand for water for irrigation is projected to rise in a warmer climate, bringing increased

competition between agriculture—already the largest consumer of water resources in semi-arid

regions—and urban as well as industrial users. Falling water tables and the resulting increase in

the energy needed to pump water will make the practice of irrigation more expensive,

particularly when with drier conditions more water will be required per acre. Other strategies

will be needed to make the most efficient use of water resources. For example, the International

Water Management Institute has suggested five strategies that could help Asia feed its growing

population in light of climate change. These are:

modernising existing irrigation schemes to suit modern methods of farming

Supporting farmer's efforts to find their own water supplies, by tapping into groundwater

in a sustainable way

Looking beyond conventional 'Participatory Irrigation Management' schemes, by

engaging the private sector

Expanding capacity and knowledge

Investing outside the irrigation sector

3.4.3 Forest resources

The forestry resources are most crucial means of adaptation to forest dependent people whose

lives have been depending on it. If long duration of drought persist, definitely affect to rain-fed

agricultural system. In this situation, people can collect the edible fruits, roots and leaves for

their life survival. Similarly, forest resources provides not only goods but also services such as

regulation of ecosystem, maintain linkage of upstream-downstream through watershed

conservation, carbon sequestration and aesthetic value. These services become crucial part of life

sustained through increased adaptive capacity of poor, vulnerable, women and socially excluded

communities.

3.4.4 Rainwater storage

Providing farmers with access to a range of water stores could help them overcome dry spells

that would otherwise cause their crops to fail. Field studies have shown the effectiveness of

small-scale water storage. For example, according to the International Water Management

Institute, using small planting basins to 'harvest' water in Zimbabwe has been shown to boost

maize yields, whether rainfall is abundant or scarce. And in Niger, they have led to three or

fourfold increases in millet yields.

3.5 WEATHER CONTROL

Russian and American scientists have in the past tried to control the weather, for example

by seeding clouds with chemicals to try to produce rain when and where it is needed. A new

method being developed involves replicating the urban heat island effect, where cities are

slightly hotter than the countryside because they are darker and absorb more heat. This creates

28% more rain 20–40 miles downwind from cities compared to upwind. On the timescale of

several decades, new weather control techniques may become feasible which would allow

control of extreme weather such as hurricanes.

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) through its Commission for

Atmospheric Sciences (CAS) has issued a "STATEMENT ON WEATHER MODIFICATION"

as well as "GUIDELINES FOR THE PLANNING OF WEATHER MODIFICATION

ACTIVITIES" in 2007, stating among others that "Purposeful augmentation of precipitation,

reduction of hail damage, dispersion of fog and other types of cloud and storm modifications by

cloud seeding are developing technologies which are still striving to achieve a sound scientific

foundation and which have to be adapted to enormously varied natural conditions."

3.6 DAMMING GLACIAL LAKE

Glacial lake outburst floods may become a bigger concern due to the retreat of glaciers, leaving

behind numerous lakes that are impounded by often weak terminal moraine dams. In the past, the

sudden failure of these dams has resulted in localized property damage, injury and

deaths. Glacial lakes in danger of bursting can have their moraines replaced with concrete dams

(which may also provide hydroelectric power)

3.7 GEOENGINEERING

In a literature assessment, Barker et al. (2007) described geoengineering as a type of mitigation

policy.  IPCC (2007) concluded that geoengineering options, such as ocean fertilization to

remove CO2 from the atmosphere, remained largely unproven. It was judged that reliable cost

estimates for geoengineering had not been published.

The Royal Society (2009) published the findings of a study into geoengineering. The authors of

the study defined geoengineering as a "deliberate large-scale intervention in the Earth's climate

system, in order to moderate global warming" (p. ix). According to the study, the safest and most

predictable method of moderating climate change is early action to reduce GHG emissions.

Scientists such as Ken Caldeira and Paul Crutzen, suggest geoengineering techniques, which can

be employed to change the climate deliberately and thus control some of the effects of global

warming. These include:

Solar radiation management may be seen as an adaptation to global warming. Techniques

such as space sunshade, creating stratospheric sulfur aerosols and painting roofing and

paving materials white all fall into this category.

Hydrological geoengineering - typically seeking to preserve sea ice or

adjust thermohaline circulation by using methods such as diverting rivers to keep warm

water away from sea ice, or tethering icebergs to prevent them drifting into warmer

waters and melting. This may be seen as an adaptation technique, although by preventing

Arctic methane release it may also have mitigation aspects as well.