Take out a blank sheet of paper Take out a blank sheet of paper

Number one side of the page from 1 to 10 Number one side of the page from 1 to 10 from top to bottom. Do NOT put your from top to bottom. Do NOT put your name on it.name on it.

As words appear on the screen, write As words appear on the screen, write down the first thought that comes into your down the first thought that comes into your mind in the order they appear from 1 to 10. mind in the order they appear from 1 to 10.

TimeTime DeathDeath LoveLove MotherMother RedRed WaterWater HomeHome FriendFriend FearFear Balloon Balloon

Fold the page in half and put it in the box as Fold the page in half and put it in the box as I come around. I come around.

As you read the person’s responses, what As you read the person’s responses, what are some assumptions you can make about are some assumptions you can make about them, write these assumptions on the right them, write these assumptions on the right side of the page and explain them. side of the page and explain them.

Psychology – the scientific Psychology – the scientific study of behaviour and mental study of behaviour and mental

processes. processes.

Comes from the Greek – Comes from the Greek – “psyche” – soul and “psyche” – soul and “logos” – to know“logos” – to know

It means literally “to It means literally “to know the soul”know the soul”

The goals of psychology:The goals of psychology:

To describe behaviour To describe behaviour by gathering by gathering informationinformation

Explain why people Explain why people behave as they dobehave as they do

Predict what humans Predict what humans will think, feel, or do will think, feel, or do based on acquired based on acquired knowledge knowledge

Influence behaviour in Influence behaviour in a helpful manner. a helpful manner.

History is an important part of History is an important part of psychology because all aspects psychology because all aspects

of psychological functioning of psychological functioning involve some form of history:involve some form of history:

Physiology – genes give you billions of years of stored Physiology – genes give you billions of years of stored history of successful mutationhistory of successful mutation

Perception – perception is never instantaneousPerception – perception is never instantaneous Memory – recall of the pastMemory – recall of the past Cognition – thinking, judging, decisions about the futureCognition – thinking, judging, decisions about the future Learning – past learning guides present behaviourLearning – past learning guides present behaviour Social/Cultural – knowledge passed down through Social/Cultural – knowledge passed down through

institutions, cultures, families.institutions, cultures, families.

Therefore the history of perceptions Therefore the history of perceptions creates creates ambiguity or uncertaintyambiguity or uncertainty that that leads to unpredictable and often harmful leads to unpredictable and often harmful effects. effects.

By studying the processes of these types By studying the processes of these types of history, we gain knowledge of our of history, we gain knowledge of our perceptions and a better, more clear perceptions and a better, more clear picture of reality. With this we can make picture of reality. With this we can make better decisions. better decisions.

The basis of all knowing is The basis of all knowing is howhow we learn about the world we learn about the world

The problem is that the world is NOT self-The problem is that the world is NOT self-explanatory – the reason for the being and explanatory – the reason for the being and becoming of things, events, and people are not becoming of things, events, and people are not made known to us be simple observation of our made known to us be simple observation of our universe nor by thinking about them.universe nor by thinking about them.

Basically, the causes of events/objects/changes Basically, the causes of events/objects/changes are not easy to discover are not easy to discover

The Poker ParadoxThe Poker Paradox

How can one person be good at poker and How can one person be good at poker and another, who understands the rules as another, who understands the rules as well, be bad?well, be bad?

Because the good player understands Because the good player understands psychology.psychology.

Imagine this table…Imagine this table…

RaymerRaymer

HelmuthHelmuth

FergusonFerguson

YouYou

LedererLederer

DealerDealer

What are some things you can What are some things you can OBSERVE to help you reach OBSERVE to help you reach

your decision?your decision?

Actions of your opponents (“tells”):

•Breathing

•Twitching

•Tapping

•Coughing

•Sweating

•Showing emotion

What are some things that you What are some things that you CAN’T observe that help you CAN’T observe that help you

make your decision?make your decision?•The situation of the game – bet/call/raise/check

•Your own hand!

•The history of the hand, the history of each player, the history of your last few games

•What cards are still out there, what odds do you have for an out.

Psychology is based on the same Psychology is based on the same set of problems and assumptions set of problems and assumptions

as poker.as poker. From the observable information, we From the observable information, we

attempt to discern the unobservable.attempt to discern the unobservable. 2 main outputs for “players” to study:2 main outputs for “players” to study: Behaviour – overt and public, can be Behaviour – overt and public, can be

observed and measured with high accuracyobserved and measured with high accuracy Cognition/Emotion – internal events that Cognition/Emotion – internal events that

can only be self-reported (introspection). can only be self-reported (introspection). Can be unreliable.Can be unreliable.

Psychology uses scientific Psychology uses scientific method to achieve accuracy.method to achieve accuracy.

Identify a problemIdentify a problem Develop a hypothesis Develop a hypothesis

(and a null)(and a null) Gather dataGather data Analyze resultsAnalyze results ConclusionConclusion

The doctor gathered the notes from her The doctor gathered the notes from her observations and added them to the test results observations and added them to the test results she had obtained she had obtained

The patient walked into the doctor’s office and The patient walked into the doctor’s office and complained of fever and lack of energy.complained of fever and lack of energy.

The doctor concluded that the patient had the The doctor concluded that the patient had the flu.flu.

The doctor thought that the patient might have The doctor thought that the patient might have the flu that was going around.the flu that was going around.

The doctor prescribed rest, aspirin, and plenty of The doctor prescribed rest, aspirin, and plenty of liquids.liquids.

The doctor inspected the patient’s eyes, nose, The doctor inspected the patient’s eyes, nose, and throat and ordered some tests.and throat and ordered some tests.

All good scientific research has…All good scientific research has…

ReliabilityReliability – the extent to which an – the extent to which an experiment yields the same result on experiment yields the same result on repeated trials.repeated trials.

ValidityValidity – the extent to which an – the extent to which an experiment is accurately targeted to test experiment is accurately targeted to test the hypothesis stated.the hypothesis stated.

Empiricism and objectivityEmpiricism and objectivity

All psychological research ideas need to have two key All psychological research ideas need to have two key components to be scientific:components to be scientific:

EmpiricismEmpiricism – an approach to acquisition of knowledge – an approach to acquisition of knowledge that places a high emphasis on direct sensory information. that places a high emphasis on direct sensory information. There must be empirical evidence for ideas to be There must be empirical evidence for ideas to be scientifically validated.scientifically validated.

***Recent technological advances have made unobservable ***Recent technological advances have made unobservable behaviours (e.g. cognition) scientifically quantifiable or behaviours (e.g. cognition) scientifically quantifiable or observable.observable.

ObjectivityObjectivity – Researchers thoughts about the topic being – Researchers thoughts about the topic being studies should have no influence on the data gathered or studies should have no influence on the data gathered or the interpretation of it – unbiasedthe interpretation of it – unbiased

Characteristics of good Characteristics of good research:research:

Operational definitions Operational definitions – the behaviours or – the behaviours or aspects being studied must be clearly defined aspects being studied must be clearly defined in observable terms that are apparent and in observable terms that are apparent and measurable.measurable.

Eg. It is not good research to say that you are Eg. It is not good research to say that you are going to observe enjoyment of ice cream in going to observe enjoyment of ice cream in children. “Enjoyment” must be operationally children. “Enjoyment” must be operationally defined as measurable survey results, or defined as measurable survey results, or observable overt behaviours like smiling.observable overt behaviours like smiling.

ReliabilityReliability – can be established by – can be established by considering the following questions:considering the following questions:

1)1)Did more than one person collect the data and do their Did more than one person collect the data and do their data sets agree? This is known as data sets agree? This is known as inter-rater reliability.inter-rater reliability.

2)2)If you use the same method again in the same situation, If you use the same method again in the same situation, will you get the same results? Can the study even be will you get the same results? Can the study even be repeated? This is repeated? This is replicabilityreplicability. It relies on the author of a . It relies on the author of a study outlining clear operational definitions and study outlining clear operational definitions and methods. methods. If the study yields similar data in similar If the study yields similar data in similar circumstances, then the study has circumstances, then the study has test-retest reliability.test-retest reliability.

ValidityValidity – There are two types of validity: – There are two types of validity:

1)1)Internal validity Internal validity – the quality of the research itself, – the quality of the research itself, especially in cause-effect research claims. Are you especially in cause-effect research claims. Are you studying what you claim to be studying or measuring studying what you claim to be studying or measuring what you say you are measuring? This requires clear what you say you are measuring? This requires clear operational definitions of the operational definitions of the dependant and dependant and independent variablesindependent variables. Have extraneous variables been . Have extraneous variables been adequately managed or have their effects been adequately managed or have their effects been considered?considered?

2)2)External validity External validity – is concerned with the appropriateness – is concerned with the appropriateness of generalizing the results to an intended population.of generalizing the results to an intended population.

Common validity issues:Common validity issues: InternalInternal::

1) What is the researcher trying to manipulate or measure 1) What is the researcher trying to manipulate or measure and is it really what they ended up measuring? and is it really what they ended up measuring?

Face validityFace validity – the research appears to have been – the research appears to have been conducted wellconducted well

2) Did the location or nature of the research somehow make 2) Did the location or nature of the research somehow make the participants act in a certain way?the participants act in a certain way?

Demand characteristicsDemand characteristics – when the participants try to – when the participants try to guess the nature of the research being performed and act guess the nature of the research being performed and act accordinglyaccordingly

Hawthorne effectHawthorne effect – participants perform in a way they – participants perform in a way they think will meet the expectations of a researcher.think will meet the expectations of a researcher.

Internal validity issues cont’dInternal validity issues cont’d Screw-you effectScrew-you effect – opposite of the Hawthorne effect, – opposite of the Hawthorne effect,

participants attempt to generate data that will sabotage the participants attempt to generate data that will sabotage the researchresearch

Because of these effects, the researcher will often prefer Because of these effects, the researcher will often prefer to keep the targeted variables or the nature of the to keep the targeted variables or the nature of the research a secret from the participants research a secret from the participants

3) Has the researcher maintained objectivity in their 3) Has the researcher maintained objectivity in their interpretation of their results?interpretation of their results?

If the researcher has specific hopes for the outcome of If the researcher has specific hopes for the outcome of research it will affect their design, their measurement, and research it will affect their design, their measurement, and their interpretation to match these expectations – this is their interpretation to match these expectations – this is known as known as biasbias

External validity issuesExternal validity issues ExternalExternal::

1) Was the research done in an artificial environment or were the tasks 1) Was the research done in an artificial environment or were the tasks performed artificial?performed artificial?

Ecological validityEcological validity – the more a researcher tries to control the – the more a researcher tries to control the variables in an experiment the more unlike the natural world it will variables in an experiment the more unlike the natural world it will become and therefore the less reliable will be the generalization to the become and therefore the less reliable will be the generalization to the wider target population. wider target population.

Experimenting and measuring psychological processes becomes Experimenting and measuring psychological processes becomes difficult as the researcher is positing that a mental process can be difficult as the researcher is positing that a mental process can be indicated by an overt behaviour. This may not always be consistent indicated by an overt behaviour. This may not always be consistent throughout a population. **Technology is helping in this regard as throughout a population. **Technology is helping in this regard as researchers can now observe brain activity as a participant conducts researchers can now observe brain activity as a participant conducts various tasks but the variety of tasks that can be performed in an MRI various tasks but the variety of tasks that can be performed in an MRI bed is very limited. bed is very limited.

Two examples of issues Two examples of issues regarding regarding generalizationgeneralization::

1) Due to ethical constraints, many experiments are 1) Due to ethical constraints, many experiments are conducted on animals rather than humans because it is conducted on animals rather than humans because it is assumed that animals and humans are fundamentally assumed that animals and humans are fundamentally different in their perceptions of pain and consciousness. If different in their perceptions of pain and consciousness. If this is the case then generalizing from animals to humans is this is the case then generalizing from animals to humans is less reliable.less reliable.

2) An estimated 75% of all research participants are 2) An estimated 75% of all research participants are psychology undergraduates at university. There they provide psychology undergraduates at university. There they provide the most ready and willing pool of people, according to the most ready and willing pool of people, according to McCray et al., 2005, a third of all research samples are McCray et al., 2005, a third of all research samples are composed of psychology students. Are all people like those composed of psychology students. Are all people like those that select undergraduate psychology courses in university?that select undergraduate psychology courses in university?

Types of Research MethodsTypes of Research Methods

Case studies Case studies – intrinsic/instrumental– intrinsic/instrumental ExperimentsExperiments – lab, quasi, field – lab, quasi, field SurveysSurveys InterviewsInterviews ObservationObservation – structured/unstructured, – structured/unstructured,

participant, covert/overtparticipant, covert/overt

Case StudyCase Study

An observation of an An observation of an individual, a situation or a individual, a situation or a group over a period of timegroup over a period of time

N=1N=1 Instrumental – used to build Instrumental – used to build

a theorya theory Intrinsic – studied for its Intrinsic – studied for its

own merits with no intent to own merits with no intent to progress to a theoryprogress to a theory

ExperimentsExperiments

To determine how one factor To determine how one factor is related to another – is related to another – cause/effect is establishedcause/effect is established

All other factors controlled – All other factors controlled – lab experimentlab experiment

Pre-existing factors Pre-existing factors manipulated or no true control manipulated or no true control group – group – quasi-experimentquasi-experiment

Other factors left uncontrolled Other factors left uncontrolled – – field experimentfield experiment

Independent Variable Independent Variable

the factor to be manipulated in an the factor to be manipulated in an experiment experiment

Dependant Variable Dependant Variable

The factor of the experiment that will be The factor of the experiment that will be affected by a change in the independent affected by a change in the independent variable. variable.

Other variablesOther variables

Extraneous variables Extraneous variables – – any uncontrolled variable any uncontrolled variable in an experiment – not in an experiment – not necessarily badnecessarily bad

Confounding variables Confounding variables – extraneous variables – extraneous variables that affect the that affect the measurement of the measurement of the dependant variable – dependant variable – very badvery bad

Sample Sample SurveysSurveys

Using questioning to obtain information Using questioning to obtain information about the thoughts or behaviours of a large about the thoughts or behaviours of a large group of peoplegroup of people

Entire population not used – smaller Entire population not used – smaller segment used and assumed to reflect the segment used and assumed to reflect the entire whole - samplingentire whole - sampling

Random SamplingRandom Sampling

selecting participants directly from the selecting participants directly from the target population at randomtarget population at random

This can be difficult because:This can be difficult because: The target population is too large to The target population is too large to

enumerate and randomly select fromenumerate and randomly select from Coercion is required to avoid voluntary biasCoercion is required to avoid voluntary bias

Therefore – a truly random sample is not Therefore – a truly random sample is not possiblepossible

Sample sizeSample size

The larger the sample size – the more the The larger the sample size – the more the survey can account for individual survey can account for individual differences that could affect the resultdifferences that could affect the result

InterviewsInterviews

Dialogue between the researcher and the Dialogue between the researcher and the subject gaining detailed information.subject gaining detailed information.

Structured – prepared questions, no follow Structured – prepared questions, no follow up allowedup allowed

Narrative – one question, subject allowed Narrative – one question, subject allowed response freedomresponse freedom

Focus group – more than one subject at Focus group – more than one subject at one timeone time

ObservationObservation

Structured – observing Structured – observing and recording subjects and recording subjects with predetermined idea with predetermined idea of target behavioursof target behaviours

Covert – subjects are Covert – subjects are unaware they are being unaware they are being observedobserved

Participant – observations Participant – observations take place while take place while participating in subject participating in subject behavioursbehaviours

SamplingSampling

For complete generalization accuracy, a For complete generalization accuracy, a study would have to be carried out on the study would have to be carried out on the entire human population – this is not entire human population – this is not possiblepossible

In order to make generalization more In order to make generalization more reliable, reliable, samplingsampling must be performed must be performed carefully and should be appropriate for the carefully and should be appropriate for the experiment design.experiment design.

SamplingSampling Target population Target population – the group to which the researcher – the group to which the researcher

wishes to generalize their findings.wishes to generalize their findings. Often the target population can be narrowed by specifying the Often the target population can be narrowed by specifying the

culture, gender, age, or other parameter that would define culture, gender, age, or other parameter that would define themthem

Random sampling Random sampling – selecting participants directly from the – selecting participants directly from the target population at randomtarget population at random

Sampling bias Sampling bias – when the test population is altered from the – when the test population is altered from the target population due to the sampling method used target population due to the sampling method used

Eg. Research based on the students at the beginning of a class will Eg. Research based on the students at the beginning of a class will exclude those coming late – thus altering the nature of the tested exclude those coming late – thus altering the nature of the tested demographic. This population sample may affect the generalizability of demographic. This population sample may affect the generalizability of the study to the target population.the study to the target population.

Sampling TechniquesSampling Techniques

Random SamplingRandom Sampling Opportunity (Convenience) SamplingOpportunity (Convenience) Sampling Stratified (Quota) SamplingStratified (Quota) Sampling Cluster SamplingCluster Sampling Purposive SamplingPurposive Sampling Snowball Sampling Snowball Sampling

Opportunity (Convenience) Opportunity (Convenience) SamplingSampling

Using a group of participants not randomly Using a group of participants not randomly selected from the target population, but selected from the target population, but invited to participate because they are invited to participate because they are easily contactable or sympatheticeasily contactable or sympathetic

This can present significant sampling bias This can present significant sampling bias dangers – Eg. Undergraduates as dangers – Eg. Undergraduates as volunteer subjects.volunteer subjects.

Stratified (Quota) SamplingStratified (Quota) Sampling

Participants are grouped according to Participants are grouped according to similar characteristics and a proportional similar characteristics and a proportional number of random selections are made number of random selections are made from each sub-group.from each sub-group.

Cluster SamplingCluster Sampling

The target population is broken down into The target population is broken down into smaller subgroups and only those are smaller subgroups and only those are testedtested

Eg. Focus groups – political opinion Eg. Focus groups – political opinion researchresearch

Purposive SamplingPurposive Sampling

Purposeful selection of a sample group Purposeful selection of a sample group based on their perceived beneficial based on their perceived beneficial responsesresponses

This is the most liable to researcher’s This is the most liable to researcher’s prejudice but it also will yield the most rich prejudice but it also will yield the most rich data setdata set

Snowball Sampling Snowball Sampling

Participants are asked to invite others they Participants are asked to invite others they know to participate as well. In this manner, know to participate as well. In this manner, the sample size will grow exponentiallythe sample size will grow exponentially

Qualitative vs. QuantitativeQualitative vs. Quantitative Data collection methods can be roughly divided into two Data collection methods can be roughly divided into two

groups. It is essential to understand the difference groups. It is essential to understand the difference between them…between them…

QuantitativeQuantitative – – Research conducted with the aim of Research conducted with the aim of generating measurable numerical data. It assumes that generating measurable numerical data. It assumes that variables can be identified and the relationships variables can be identified and the relationships between them measured using statistics, with the aim of between them measured using statistics, with the aim of inferring cause-effect relationships. The hypothesis is inferring cause-effect relationships. The hypothesis is tested using numerical data – i.e. statistical significancetested using numerical data – i.e. statistical significance

Eg. Experiments; correlational studies; numerical Eg. Experiments; correlational studies; numerical surveyssurveys

QualitativeQualitative

QualitativeQualitative – – Research conducted with the Research conducted with the aim of generating subjective, descriptive aim of generating subjective, descriptive data. Rather than testing a theory with a data. Rather than testing a theory with a hypothesis, qualitative research tries to hypothesis, qualitative research tries to construct these theories.construct these theories.

Eg. Eg. Interviews, case studies, observationsInterviews, case studies, observations The emphasis of this research is not on The emphasis of this research is not on

reliability and validity but on the detail and reliability and validity but on the detail and coherence of the designcoherence of the design

TriangulationTriangulation

In order to increase the reliability and In order to increase the reliability and validity of an experiment. Researchers will validity of an experiment. Researchers will use BOTH qualitative and quantitative use BOTH qualitative and quantitative methods in a single study and compare methods in a single study and compare the results.the results.

The use of combinations of methodologies The use of combinations of methodologies and approaches to corroborate results is and approaches to corroborate results is referred to as referred to as triangulationtriangulation

Data TriangulationData Triangulation

The use of different data from different The use of different data from different sources to corroborate each other over sources to corroborate each other over multiple times or multiple sitesmultiple times or multiple sites

Researcher TriangulationResearcher Triangulation

Using different people as researchers Using different people as researchers focussing on the same gathering of data focussing on the same gathering of data sets. This increases confirmability and sets. This increases confirmability and credibility. This helps to eliminate credibility. This helps to eliminate researcher bias.researcher bias.

Theoretical TriangulationTheoretical Triangulation

Using different theoretical approaches to Using different theoretical approaches to the same hypothesis. This requires the the same hypothesis. This requires the researcher to look at the data analysis researcher to look at the data analysis from different viewpoints and justify why from different viewpoints and justify why they consider a particular theory to be a they consider a particular theory to be a relevant explanation of observed relevant explanation of observed phenomena.phenomena.

Methodological TriangulationMethodological Triangulation

Using multiple methods to gather data on Using multiple methods to gather data on a single topic. This way, qualitative and a single topic. This way, qualitative and quantitative data can be used to create a quantitative data can be used to create a fuller picture of the phenomena under fuller picture of the phenomena under investigation investigation

ReflexivityReflexivity

Refers to the researchers need to Refers to the researchers need to constantly be aware of how and why they constantly be aware of how and why they are conducting the research and identify are conducting the research and identify possible points where their own beliefs or possible points where their own beliefs or opinions may have influenced data opinions may have influenced data collection or analysis.collection or analysis.