take home finally exam - agriculture

8/9/2019 Take Home Finally Exam - Agriculture

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Article 1

Little Lettuces for Luscious Lunches

New Alchemists are not unlike typical American consumers. We like

salad: often for lunch and even more so for dinner. For almost a decade, we have

evaluated all types of lettuces for greenhouse production: loose-leaf, buttercrunch,

Bibb and Boston. We've favored many of the Dutch varieties because they have

proven themselves highly adaptable to our variable greenhouse climate. Until

recently, it has been a tedious process to obtain European strains of lettuce. Many

of the Dutch seed companies sell strictly wholesale and the one or two who sell

them to the retail market make it a painstakingly long process.

In 1985, one of our favorite seed companies, Johnny's Selected Seeds,

(Foss Hill Rd., Albion, Maine 04910) started to distribute three Dutch lettuce

varieties: Diamante, Salina and Vasco. Since we were familiar with Salina and

Vasco for hydroponic culture, we decided to plant them for spring production in

the Cape Cod Ark. Salina is a medium-small, compact, dark green Boston lettuce

that is bolt-resistant and mild tasting. It can be grown for spring, summer and fall

harvest. Vasco can be sown as a spring or fall crop; plant November through April

and late July through September. This variety forms light green heads with a mild

flavor; it, too, is bolt-resistant.

On Valentine's Day, we sowed the lettuce seeds in our standard seeding

mix: one part peat to one part vermiculite. Two seeds were sown in an individual

cell of one inch diameter; forty-eight cells filled a pack. They were placed on a

propagation mat for guaranteed successful seed germination; the soil thermostat

was set at 68 degrees F. A few weeks after germination, weak lettuces were

pricked out in order for one lettuce to develop in each cell. The lettuces were

planted out on March 26th in a randomized pattern in the two largest growing

beds in the Ark. The center bed contained 66 plants; the east end bed contained 88

plants. The lettuces were planted in a zig-zag pattern to ensure efficient use of the

growing area. Both beds were cultivated when necessary and both plantings were

fertilized with fish emulsion in mid-April.

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Naturally, March and April are dynamic months for growing in a

greenhouse, and within five short weeks, the lettuce was ready for harvest. We

started to harvest on April 24th and pulled the final heads on May 1st. Individual

lettuces were weighed after the roots and unmarketable leaves were removed.

Most of the lettuce was consumed by staff, students, interns and volunteers;

however, two or three dozen heads made it to the local natural food store. You can

imagine how happy health food fanatics were to see fresh, locally grown, organic

lettuce in April. When you're talking lettuce, taste is the bottom line, and both

varieties were flavorful; but we gathered some statistical information, too. We put

the lettuce varieties through a one-factor analysis of variance statistical program

with weight as the dependent variable. This test would indicate any significant

difference between the two varieties. Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at

171.4 grams (S.D.=35.0) than Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3

(S.D.=37.1) grams.

Eighteen heads of lettuce were lost to botrytis, commonly known as leaf

rot. Improved air circulation and a wider spacing between rows and individual

lettuces within the row would minimize this disease problem. We'd recommend

ten inches on center for spacing between heads.

Overall, we can recommend both varieties for spring lettuce production in

the greenhouse. Salina has a heftier weight and greener color. Both varieties were

vulnerable to wilt if not stored properly. This winter we will evaluate Diamante,

which has been suggested for winter lettuce production. Thank you, Johnny's

Selected Seeds, for distributing lettuce seeds that have been specifically bred for

greenhouse production. Now our home-scale greenhouse growers can raise top

quality lettuce in those unforgiving winter months.

Colleen Armstrong

Johnny's Selected Seeds; Foss Hill Road; Albion, Maine 04910 prints a catalog

for gardeners. Or write to them for further information on greenhouse-type

lettuce. Tell them we sent you.

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Original Article from:

New Alchemy Quarterly

Fall, 1986, No. 25

1986, New Alchemy Institute, Inc.

237 Hatchville Road

East Falmouth, MA 02536

http://www.fuzzylu.com/greencenter/

Scanning & HTML conversion: FuzzyLu MultiMedia.

http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htm

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http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htm


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Article 2

Solarization, green translucent mulch, "degradable" plastic, and 100%

recycled paper at New Alchemy

by Ralph DeGregorio

Solarization is the heating of soil with solar energy using clear plastic. All

edges of the plastic are covered with soil and no holes are made in it, unlike

ordinary black plastic mulch. This practice was pioneered in Israel for control of

certain plant diseases and later weeds, and the one year I tested it at the University

of Connecticut, it killed almost all the weeds growing under the plastic. I tried it at

New Alchemy with several strips of ultra-thin, ultra-clear, ultra-tough plastic.

Unfortunately, the plastic did not contain an ultraviolet inhibitor and began

disintegrating before solarization had a chance to work.

However, I was still able to conduct a modified experiment. Clear plastic

bags were filled with water-saturated soil from New Alchemy on August 13, 1988

and sealed. Next, bags were placed on top of a few layers of black plastic

covering the ground in the sunniest spot at our Hatchville, MA, site. Sealed bags

of the same saturated soil were placed in a cellar as a control.

Soil temperature in bags outdoors reached 126'F on Aug. 31 and 121'F on

Sept. 21; maximum air temperature at a weather station a few miles away was

only 78' and 79'F on those days (we now have a weather station at New

Alchemy). Annual bluegrass (Poa annua) seed is reported to die if held at 108'F

for 2 hours.

Intern Sharon Barbour and I observed no broadleaf weeds growing in solarized

soil when it was spread out in trays and kept watered in a greenhouse from

October 10, 1988 to March 3, 1989, unlike the control. Though the control

averaged 2.7 times more weeds than solarized soil, differences were not

statistically significant. There is evidence that solarization can reduce plant

disease by repeated, rather than extreme, high temperature in the temperate zone.

Storing saturated soil in sealed bags in a cellar may have promoted rotting of

weed seed; storing it air-dry may have been a better "control" for solarization.

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Cape Cod is cooler and breezier than interior southern New England, and

maximum daily air temperatures may occur earlier in the summer than we started

testing, so I am optimistic about solarization for southern New England.

In another experiment here, clear plastic mulch with holes punched for

setting transplants eventually resulted in death of a considerable amount of weed

leaf tissue. This was not expected to happen; transplant holes are supposed to

prevent the necessary heat buildup.

In 1989, interns Albert Wurzberger, Heidi Hopkins, Joshua Levine, Judy

Browne, Guillermo Iranzo-Berrocal and researcher Mark Schonbeck and I

compared green translucent plastic to photo-degradable clear and ordinary black

plastic mulch. We used early lettuce followed by tomatoes as test crops. All data

have not been statistically analyzed yet, but soil temperature under translucent

green averaged slightly higher than under black plastic. Lettuce yields did not

differ significantly between plastics. It was obvious that this green plastic ripped

less than the black we used, despite the black being thicker. This may have been

due to the black not containing a UV inhibitor. Thus, be careful about hardware

store, multi-purpose black plastic for longer-term outdoor uses. The translucent

product, made by a kibbutz in Israel, is designed to absorb most of the red and

blue wavelengths of sunlight, which allow weed growth underneath the plastic. At

the same time, translucent green allows more light to enter than black plastic.

Contrary to popular belief, black plastic mulch does not warm soil very much, but

may cause crop leaves to overheat.

Two companies in 1990 are selling brown translucent plastic mulches that

are also reported to be the best of both worlds: warmer soil than black plastic and

fewer (an insignificant amount of) weeds than clear plastic (see their large ads in

the April 1990 issue of American Vegetable Grower). While we would all like not

to use plastic, given a choice between crops grown with plastic mulch or

herbicides (chemical weed killers), most prefer plastic.

If you visit New Alchemy soon, these plastics may still visible on the tour

route, though exposed parts of the clear photo-degradable strips have almost

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totally disintegrated. In our Visitor Center there is a neat display on film mulches

made by me and our site education coordinator, Betty Greene.

Beginning early in 1989, interns Albert Wurzberger, Lisa Parks and I

tested paper mulch - first one made in southern New England from virgin fiber,

and now others made from recycled paper. Our firs t experiment to delay the too-

rapid breakdown of the buried paper edges was successful. A second greenhouse

experiment attempting to confirm the first is almost completed, and uses two

completely recycled wastes. Suzanne Cady and I are also testing recycled paper

mulch vs. black plastic in her New Alchemy market garden. Stay tuned.

We are also working with shredded newspaper as bedding, a variation on

work Bruce Fulford and New Alchemy did in the mid-'80s. We hope to interest

cellulose insulation producers in diversifying into this product to save farmers

money on bedding, create jobs, and decrease the amount of paper being landfilled,

incinerated or shipped overseas. This may also reduce a problem sawdust creates

when manure and sawdust bedding is applied to soil: nitrogen immobilization (tie

up), which can cause nitrogen deficiency. Dioxin and heavy metals are not

problems with newsprint, but another class of substances, polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs), in a worst case scenario, may limit application of

newspaper to 400 1bs/acre; composting, however, reduces PAHs somewhat, and

at least 40 newspapers are already using very low PAH carbon black.

Funding is needed to further research and develop a recycled paper mulch and

animal bedding, and solarization of containers of soil for greenhouses and

nurseries. Contact New Alchemy if interested.

Original Article from:

New Alchemy Quarterly, No. 39

1990, New Alchemy Institute, Inc.

237 Hatchville Road

East Falmouth, MA 02536

http://www.fuzzylu.com/greencenter/

Scanning & HTML conversion: FuzzyLu MultiMedia.

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http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htm

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http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htm


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Article 3

Growing Mulch in Place

No-till broccoli using unconventional cover crops

by Mark Schonbeck and Ralph DeGregorio

Mark Schonbeck, Ph.D., is a New Alchemy researcher working on cover crops

and winter greenhouse vegetable production. Ralph DeGregorio, Ph.D. candidate,

is New Alchemy's research director.

Many New England vegetable growers use cover crops to protect their soil

against erosion, control weeds, replenish soil organic matter and hold nutrients

(Schonbeck 1988a, 1988b). Those who cannot afford to take land out of

production for an entire season use winter annual crops such as rye (Secale

cereale). Rye planted as late as October 15 in southern New England can suppress

weeds, prevent erosion and produce ample organic matter by spring. However,

since rye is not a legume, it does not have nitrogen-fixing symbiotic bacteria in its

roots, and in fact may temporarily tie up soil nitrogen after it is turned under.

Also, because of its coarse, tough texture, rye gets tangled in the tines of

rototillers, decomposes slowly and may grow back, thus requiring additional

tillage and delaying seedbed preparation. Some growers use oats (Avena sativa)

because they winterkill and are thus easier to manage in spring. However, oats

must be planted by mid August to ensure adequate soil protection.

Most legumes form a symbiosis with Rhizobium bacteria in root nodules

which fix atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use. Hairy vetch is a

hardy winter annual legume whose rhizobia fix large amounts of nitrogen, and

which has overwintered as far north as central Vermont. Hairy vetch and rye

grown together may give greater benefits than either alone, including more

organic matter, better weed control and support for the vetch vines in the spring

(Schonbeck 1988c). Also, the nitrogen-rich vetch may accelerate decomposition

of rye when the cover crop is turned under, and a grass-legume combination

sometimes maintains soil organic matter levels more effectively than does the

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legume alone (Gliessman, 1987). According to DeGregorio & Ashley (1985), two

other winter annual legumes which may be hardy at least in southern New

England are crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum) and Austrian winter field peas

(Pisum sativum ssp. arvense). We conducted a study at New Alchemy Institute to

compare the ability of several legume-grass combinations to produce organic

matter and nitrogen,' control weeds and provide nutrients to a subsequent

vegetable crop.

On August 26-27, 1988, we planted 10'x 10' plots at New Alchemy with

rye alone and in combination with each of these three winter annual legumes. We

also planted oats+ hairy vetch. Because oats are winterkilled north of Maryland,

this combination might be easier to manage than rye+ vetch, but oats offer little

support for vetch vines in spring. Treatments were replicated four times so that we

could make statistical comparisons. One replicate was eaten by rabbits, leaving us

three.

All cover crops grew vigorously, produced over 3000 pounds per acre of

dry matter by late May, and effectively suppressed weed growth (Figure 1). Rye +

crimson clover produced the largest biomass, significantly more than rye + hairy

vetch. Austrian winter peas were partially winterkilled, resulting in lower

biomass. However, rye growing with this crop appeared greener and more

vigorous than rye alone, suggesting that it may have benefited from symbiotically

fixed nitrogen from the peas. Nitrogen analyses showed that rye grown with any

of the legumes had significantly higher tissue nitrogen concentrations (1.1-1.4%)

than rye grown alone (1.0%).

In a similar experiment planted at Maplewood Farm in Amherst, MA, both

crimson clover and winter peas were winterkilled, whereas hairy vetch + rye

performed well, producing a combined biomass of 5600 pounds per acre. The

crops were planted too late (September 9), and suffered a-12 F freeze without

snow protection. It seems worthwhile to try crimson clover and winter peas again

in western Massachusetts, planting in mid-late August.

We decided not to till the cover crops in at New Alchemy, but to mow

them, leaving the clippings on the surface as a mulch. This has several possible

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advantages, including soil moisture conservation, weed suppression, and savings

on tillage. More importantly, tilling stimulates weed germination, may cause too

rapid breakdown of organic matter and may increase erosion. Many farmers use

no-till methods to save soil, time and fuel, and to reduce weed pressure, but they

often must use toxic herbicides such as paraquat to kill existing vegetation prior to

planting their crops. Winter annual cover crops can be killed by mowing after they

start to flower, thus making a no-till, no-herbicide system possible.

We tried this system in 1988 for producing tomatoes, and found that the

mulch lowered soil temperatures and thus slowed growth and reduced early-

season yield in this heat-loving cmp (Schonbeck & Doherty, 1988). However, it

also reduced weed growth and conserved soil moisture during the drought, and we

felt that the mulch might be advantageous for a cool-season crop such as broccoli.

In 1989, we mowed the cover crops in late May, when the rye had just shed its

pollen and all legumes were beginning to flower. On June 3, we transplanted

seedlings of 'Emperor' broccoli through the mulch, providing each with a heaping

teaspoon of bonemeal and a cup of water to get started. The seedlings grew

vigorously, but rabbits, slugs, earwigs and climbing cutworms soon came to the

banquet table, destroying half the crop. New Alchemy intern Albert Wurzberger

noted many spiders throughout the experiment, a potential predator of some pests.

We spent many frantic hours erecting a fence, replacing devastated plants with

seedlings purchased from a nearby nursery, picking nocturnal pests by flashlight,

and applying natural pest control sprays and dusts.

By the time we had all the varmints under control, we noticed that broccoli

plants in rye plots were far smaller and less green than plants in the other four

cover crops. On July 3, we gave each plant in all treatments a heaping teaspoon of

an organic fertilizer, but the size difference between the rye-only and the legume

treatments just kept on increasing. The bone meal and fertilizer together supplied

only 32 pounds of nitrogen, 23 pounds of phosphorus and 11 pounds of potassium

per acre, and the experiment was conducted on a soil testing low to medium in all

three nutrients. Leaf tissue tests showed that broccoli after grass + legume cover

crops had significantly higher foliar nitrogen and phosphorus concentration than

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broccoli after rye alone. The legume supplied nitrogen to the broccoli, and at least

indirectly improved phosphorous nutrition.

Main heads of broccoli were ready for harvest between July 22 and July

31. Broccoli heads produced in the four legume treatments were substantially

larger and heavier than broccoli heads from rye plots (Table 1).

Weeds were never pulled or hoed during the experiment, and no additional

mulch was brought in. On August 3, after broccoli harvest was finished, the center

square meter of each plot was weeded and weed dry weight was determined. Plots

mulched with a rye-only cover crop had by far the most weeds, and broadleaves

were largely responsible for the difference (Figure 2). Rye plots contained far

more horseweed (Conyza canadensis), a serious weed of no-till agriculture, than

did grass+ legume plots. Weeds in the latter were so sparse that they cast

essentially no shade on the broccoli. Furthermore, very little cover crop regrowth

occurred in any treatment. This was accomplished without weeding or herbicides,

and since nitrogen deficiency and weeds are normally the organic farmer's biggest

headaches, mow-killed rye+ legume cover crops may be an important strategy.

Although oats died in winter and oats+ hairy vetch weighed less in May

than other cover crops, they still suppressed weeds well. However, tree leaves

blown across the plots from nearby compost piles accumulated in the oats + vetch

plots in amounts exceeding 3000 pounds of dry matter per acre, whereas other

treatments collected only 100-900 pounds per acre of leaves. The erect oat plants,

unlike the prostrate rye and legumes, trapped leaves effectively, a useful trait for

growers near urban areas who want to spread municipal leaves in the fall. The

leaves increased the total amount of dry matter mulching the oats + vetch plots to

over 7000 pounds per acre, higher than other treatments. Without this "subsidy,"

the oats + vetch may not have suppressed weeds any better than rye alone.

In 1990, we are repeating this experiment on rye, hairy vetch, rye + vetch,

and vetch + oats. Cover crops will be turned under in some plots, and mow-killed

in others, to determine how the two management systems influence weeds, crop

nutrition, soil temperature and moisture, and certain pests and beneficial

organisms in broccoli grown after the cover crops.

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Article 4

A New Garden Irrigation System

Fall, 1984

If energy conservation was the issue of the seventies, then water

conservation may be a priority for the eighties. In 1980, we consumed a record

high average of 450 billion gallons of water a day. Most of this - 83% - was used

for irrigation, passing through systems that, in fact, "lose" 50 to 80 percent of the

total supply to evaporation. Cities and towns use about seven percent of the

overall fresh water, and the amount is steadily increasing. Home consumption is

up from 95 gallons per capita per day in 1900 to 190 gallons in 1984.

At the New Alchemy Institute, town water costs us $1/100 cubic feet (750

gallons). So it's no surprise that we have been using water-conserving

technologies for many years. In the auditorium, we have installed two low-flow

toilets that use only one-sixth of the water of normal flush toilets. Our outdoor

fish ponds are filled by the rains and snow of winter. In the gardens, we've used

drip irrigation systems, and also recycled nutrient-rich fish pond water to irrigate

vegetable crops.

In 1983, we were introduced to a new garden irrigation system designed to

cut water consumption by 40-60% compared with conventional systems. As yet,

we have had limited experience with this system, and so cannot make

recommendations. However, we're excited by the prospects for an efficient garden

irrigation system that could be self-regulating, cost-effective and long-lived.

The system is based on a one-inch porous rubber hose manufactured from

old tires. The hose is placed several inches below lawns or gardens and linked to a

header tank and thence to the faucet. The header tank is fitted with a ball cock -

similar to those in flush toilets - and this maintains a constant pressure throughout

the irrigation system. Water seeps from the buried hose, spreading laterally for a

total width of three or four feet. When the soil is saturated, and water pressure

within the soil is equal to that produced by the header tank, the system stops. As

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CHAPTER ONE

CLAUSE, SENTENCE AND PHRASE














(S.D.=37.1) grams.

Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htm












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the same time, translucent green allows more light to enter than black plastic.Contrary to popular belief, black plastic mulch does not warm soil very much, but


Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htm

A. Clause And Sentence

Examples :

1. We started to harvest on April 24th and pulled the final heads on

May 1st.

We = Subject

started = V1

pulled = V2

and = Conjunction

2. Most of the lettuce was consumed by staff, students, interns and

volunteers; however, two or three dozen heads made it to the local

natural food store.

Most of the lettuce = Subject

was consumed = V1

made = V2

however = Conjunction

3. In 1989, interns Albert Wurzberger, Heidi Hopkins, Joshua Levine, Judy

Browne, Guillermo Iranzo-Berrocal and researcher Mark Schonbeck and

I compared green translucent plastic to photo-degradable clear and

ordinary black plastic mulch.

Albert Wurzberger, Heidi Hopkins, Joshua Levine, Judy Browne,

Guillermo Iranzo-Berrocal and researcher Mark Schonbeck and I =

Subject

Compared = V

4. All data have not been statistically analyzed yet, but soil temperature

under translucent green averaged slightly higher than under black plastic.

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All data = Subject1

soil temperature = Subject2

analyzed = V1

averaged = V2

but = Conjunction

5. Contrary to popular belief, black plastic mulch does not warm soil very

much, but may cause crop leaves to overheat.

black plastic mulch = Subject

does not = V1

may = V2

but = Conjunction

B. Phrase

Examples :

1. Nominal Phrases

A greenhouse

Individual

lettuces

The roots

The lettuce

varieties

Green translucent

plastic

Tomatoes

Black plastic

2. Verbal Phrases

Growing

Weighed

Gathered

Would indicate

Compared

Used

Did not

Have been due

Designed

3. Adjectival Phrases

Naturally

Significant

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Statistically

Slightly higher Significantly

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CHAPTER TWO

CONTEXTUAL REFERENCE










Many New England vegetable growers use cover crops to protect their soil

against erosion, control weeds, replenish soil organic matter and hold nutrients

(Schonbeck 1988a, 1988b). Those who cannot afford to take land out of

production for an entire season use winter annual crops such as rye (Secale

cereale). Rye planted as late as October 15 in southern New England can suppress

weeds, prevent erosion and produce ample organic matter by spring. However,

since rye is not a legume, it does not have nitrogen-fixing symbiotic bacteria in its

roots, and in fact may temporarily tie up soil nitrogen after it is turned under.

Also, because of its coarse, tough texture, rye gets tangled in the tines of

rototillers, decomposes slowly and may grow back, thus requiring additional

tillage and delaying seedbed preparation. Some growers use oats (Avena sativa)

because they winterkill and are thus easier to manage in spring. However, oats

must be planted by mid August to ensure adequate soil protection.







22/49


(Schonbeck 1988c). Also, the nitrogen-rich vetch may accelerate decompositionof rye when the cover crop is turned under, and a grass-legume combination








vegetable crop.

Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm

Examples :

1. Many of the Dutch seed companies sell strictly wholesale and the one or

two who sell them to the retail market make it a painstakingly long

process.

Who = Many of the Dutch seed companies

2. Those who cannot afford to take land out of production for an entire

season use winter annual crops such as rye (Secale cereale).

Who =

3. Hairy vetch is a hardy winter annual legume whose rhizobia fix large

amounts of nitrogen, and which has overwintered as far north as central

Vermont.

Whose = Hairy vetch

Which = Hairy vetch

4. According to DeGregorio & Ashley (1985), two other winter annual

legumes which may be hardy at least in southern New England are

crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum) and Austrian winter field peas

(Pisum sativum ssp. arvense).

Which = two other winter annual legumes
http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm


23/49

5. Also, the nitrogen-rich vetch may accelerate decomposition of rye when

the cover crop is turned under, and a grass-legume combination sometimes

maintains soil organic matter levels more effectively than does the legume

alone (Gliessman, 1987).


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CHAPTER THREE

DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION

A. Definition





of Connecticut, it killed almost all the weeds growing under the plastic. I tried it at

New Alchemy with several strips of ultra-thin, ultra-clear, ultra-tough plastic.



Thus, be careful about hardware store, multi-purpose black plastic for

longer-term outdoor uses. The translucent product, made by a kibbutz in Israel, is

designed to absorb most of the red and blue wavelengths of sunlight, which allow

weed growth underneath the plastic. At the same time, translucent green allows

more light to enter than black plastic. Contrary to popular belief, black plastic

mulch does not warm soil very much, but may cause crop leaves to overheat.











legume alone (Gliessman, 1987).

http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm


25/49

Eighteen heads of lettuce were lost to botrytis, commonly known as leafrot. Improved air circulation and a wider spacing between rows and individual

lettuces within the row would minimize this disease problem. We'd recommend

ten inches on center for spacing between heads.


Examples :

1. Solarization is the heating of soil with solar energy using clear plastic.

2. The translucent product, made by a kibbutz in Israel, is designed to absorb

most of the red and blue wavelengths of sunlight, which allow weed

growth underneath the plastic.

3. Hairy vetch is a hardy winter annual legume whose rhizobia fix large

amounts of nitrogen, and which has overwintered as far north as central

Vermont.

4. Eighteen heads of lettuce were lost to botrytis, commonly known as leaf

rot.

B. Description

In 1989, we mowed the cover crops in late May, when the rye had just

shed its pollen and all legumes were beginning to flower. On June 3, we

transplanted seedlings of 'Emperor' broccoli through the mulch, providing each

with a heaping teaspoon of bonemeal and a cup of water to get started. The

seedlings grew vigorously, but rabbits, slugs, earwigs and climbing cutworms

soon came to the banquet table, destroying half the crop. New Alchemy intern

Albert Wurzberger noted many spiders throughout the experiment, a potential

predator of some pests. We spent many frantic hours erecting a fence, replacing

devastated plants with seedlings purchased from a nearby nursery, picking

nocturnal pests by flashlight, and applying natural pest control sprays and dusts.

http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm


26/49

At the New Alchemy Institute, town water costs us $1/100 cubic feet (750

gallons). So it's no surprise that we have been using water-conservingtechnologies for many years. In the auditorium, we have installed two low-flow

toilets that use only one-sixth of the water of normal flush toilets. Our outdoor

fish ponds are filled by the rains and snow of winter. In the gardens, we've used

drip irrigation systems, and also recycled nutrient-rich fish pond water to irrigate

vegetable crops.

There are also other advantages. The system comes with a ten-year

warranty. Evaporation losses and soil erosion are reduced dramatically. Once

installed, the system is virtually maintenance-free. Because the irrigation hose is

buried, germination of weeds in the dry soil surface should be retarded.

Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q17/irrigation.htm

Examples :

1. On June 3, we transplanted seedlings of 'Emperor' broccoli through the

mulch, providing each with a heaping teaspoon of bonemeal and a cup of

water to get started.

2. In the gardens, we've used drip irrigation systems, and also recycled

nutrient-rich fish pond water to irrigate vegetable crops.

3. Once installed, the system is virtually maintenance-free. Because the

irrigation hose is buried, germination of weeds in the dry soil surface

should be retarded.
http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q17/irrigation.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q17/irrigation.htm


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CHAPTER FOUR

IMPERSONAL PASSIVE













plants absorb water, reducing soil water pressure, the system starts up again. If the

manufacturer's claims are accurate, irrigation labor is reduced to virtually zero.


Examples :

1. In 1983, we were introduced to a new garden irrigation system designed to

cut water consumption by 40-60% compared with conventional systems.

2. However, we're excited by the prospects for an efficient garden irrigation

system that could be self-regulating, cost-effective and long-lived.

3. The system is based on a one-inch porous rubber hose manufactured from

old tires.

4. The hose is placed several inches below lawns or gardens and linked to a

header tank and thence to the faucet.

5. When the soil is saturated, and water pressure within the soil is equal to

that produced by the header tank, the system stops.


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CHAPTER FIVE

PARALLEL STRUCTURE AND PAIRED CONJUNCTION

A. Parallel Structure Single Conjunction



















Examples :

1. Many of the Dutch seed companies sell strictly wholesale and the one or

two who sell them to the retail market make it a painstakingly long

process.

2. Since we were familiar with Salina and Vasco for hydroponic culture, we

decided to plant them for spring production in the Cape Cod Ark.

3. It can be grown for spring, summerand fall harvest.

4. Vasco can be sown as a spring or fall crop.


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B. Parallel Stucture Paired Conjunction













In a similar experiment planted at Maplewood Farm in Amherst, MA, both

crimson clover and winter peas were winterkilled, whereas hairy vetch + rye

performed well, producing a combined biomass of 5600 pounds per acre. The

crops were planted too late (September 9), and suffered a-12 F freeze without

snow protection. It seems worthwhile to try crimson clover and winter peas again

in western Massachusetts, planting in mid-late August.


Examples :

1. Both beds were cultivated when necessary and both plantings were


2. In a similar experiment planted at Maplewood Farm in Amherst, MA, both

crimson clover and winter peas were winterkilled, whereas hairy vetch +

rye performed well, producing a combined biomass of 5600 pounds per

acre.
http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm


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CHAPTER SIX

RELATIONSHIP SHOWING TIME




























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fertilized with fish emulsion in mid-April.Source : http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htm





of Connecticut, it killed almost all the weeds growing under the plastic. I tried it atNew Alchemy with several strips of ultra-thin, ultra-clear, ultra-tough plastic.



Two companies in 1990 are selling brown translucent plastic mulches that

are also reported to be the best of both worlds: warmer soil than black plastic and

fewer (an insignificant amount of) weeds than clear plastic (see their large ads in

the April 1990 issue of American Vegetable Grower). While we would all like not

to use plastic, given a choice between crops grown with plastic mulch or

herbicides (chemical weed killers), most prefer plastic.


Hairy vetch and rye grown together may give greater benefits than either

alone, including more organic matter, better weed control and support for the

vetch vines in the spring (Schonbeck 1988c). Also, the nitrogen-rich vetch may

accelerate decomposition of rye when the cover crop is turned under, and a grass-

legume combination sometimes maintains soil organic matter levels more

effectively than does the legume alone (Gliessman, 1987). According to

DeGregorio & Ashley (1985), two other winter annual legumes which may be

hardy at least in southern New England are crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum)

and Austrian winter field peas (Pisum sativum ssp. arvense).

http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q25/lettuce.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q39/recycled.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm


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If energy conservation was the issue of the seventies, then waterconservation may be a priority for the eighties. In 1980, we consumed a record





up from 95 gallons per capita per day in 1900 to 190 gallons in 1984.











Examples :

1. Until recently, it has been a tedious process to obtain European strains of

lettuce.

2. Since we were familiar with Salina and Vasco for hydroponic culture, we

decided to plant them for spring production in the Cape Cod Ark.

3. A few weeks after germination, weak lettuces were pricked out in order

for one lettuce to develop in each cell.

4. Both beds were cultivated when necessary and both plantings were


5. Unfortunately, the plastic did not contain an ultraviolet inhibitor and began



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6. While we would all like not to use plastic, given a choice between crops

grown with plastic mulch or herbicides (chemical weed killers), most

prefer plastic.





8. If energy conservation was the issue of the seventies, then water

conservation may be a priority for the eighties.

9. The header tank is fitted with a ball cock - similar to those in flush toilets -

and this maintains a constant pressure throughout the irrigation system.

10. If the manufacturer's claims are accurate, irrigation labor is reduced to

virtually zero.


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CHAPTER SEVEN

RELATIONSHIP SHOWING CONSEQUENCE

If energy conservation was the issue of the seventies, then water

conservation may be a priority for the eighties. In 1980, we consumed a record





up from 95 gallons per capita per day in 1900 to 190 gallons in 1984















There are also other advantages. The system comes with a ten-year

warranty. Evaporation losses and soil erosion are reduced dramatically. Once

installed, the system is virtually maintenance-free. Because the irrigation hose is

buried, germination of weeds in the dry soil surface should be retarded.



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This may have been due to the black not containing a UV inhibitor. Thus,

be careful about hardware store, multi-purpose black plastic for longer-termoutdoor uses. The translucent product, made by a kibbutz in Israel, is designed to

absorb most of the red and blue wavelengths of sunlight, which allow weed

growth underneath the plastic. At the same time, translucent green allows more

light to enter than black plastic. Contrary to popular belief, black plastic mulch

does not warm soil very much, but may cause crop leaves to overheat.


Examples :

1. If energy conservation was the issue of the seventies, then water

conservation may be a priority for the eighties.

2. As yet, we have had limited experience with this system, and so cannot

make recommendations.

3. As plants absorb water, reducing soil water pressure, the system starts up

again.

4. If the manufacturer's claims are accurate, irrigation labor is reduced to

virtually zero.

5. Thus , be careful about hardware store, multi-purpose black plastic for

longer-term outdoor uses.


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CHAPTER EIGHT

RELATIONSHIP SHOWING OPPOSITION







In 1989, we mowed the cover crops in late May, when the rye had just

shed its pollen and all legumes were beginning to flower. On June 3, we

transplanted seedlings of 'Emperor' broccoli through the mulch, providing each

with a heaping teaspoon of bonemeal and a cup of water to get started. The

seedlings grew vigorously, but rabbits, slugs, earwigs and climbing cutworms

soon came to the banquet table, destroying half the crop. New Alchemy intern

Albert Wurzberger noted many spiders throughout the experiment, a potential

predator of some pests. We spent many frantic hours erecting a fence, replacing

devastated plants with seedlings purchased from a nearby nursery, picking

nocturnal pests by flashlight, and applying natural pest control sprays and dust.

Although oats died in winter and oats+ hairy vetch weighed less in May

than other cover crops, they still suppressed weeds well. However, tree leaves

blown across the plots from nearby compost piles accumulated in the oats + vetch

plots in amounts exceeding 3000 pounds of dry matter per acre, whereas other

treatments collected only 100-900 pounds per acre of leaves. The erect oat plants,

unlike the prostrate rye and legumes, trapped leaves effectively, a useful trait for

growers near urban areas who want to spread municipal leaves in the fall. The

leaves increased the total amount of dry matter mulching the oats + vetch plots to

over 7000 pounds per acre, higher than other treatments. Without this "subsidy,"

the oats + vetch may not have suppressed weeds any better than rye alone.

http://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q17/irrigation.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q17/irrigation.htmhttp://www.vsb.cape.com/~nature/greencenter/q38/growmulch.htm


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Examples :

1. As yet, we have had limited experience with this system, and so cannot

make recommendations. However, we're excited by the prospects for an

efficient garden irrigation system that could be self-regulating, cost-

effective and long-lived.

2. The seedlings grew vigorously, but rabbits, slugs, earwigs and climbing

cutworms soon came to the banquet table, destroying half the crop.

3. Although oats died in winter and oats+ hairy vetch weighed less in May

than other cover crops, they still suppressed weeds well.

4. Although oats died in winter and oats+ hairy vetch weighed less in May

than other cover crops, they still suppressed weeds well. However, tree

leaves blown across the plots from nearby compost piles accumulated in

the oats + vetch plots in amounts exceeding 3000 pounds of dry matter per

acre, whereas other treatments collected only 100-900 pounds per acre of

leaves.


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Examples :

This test would indicate any significant difference between the twovarieties. Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at 171.4 grams (S.D.=35.0)

than Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3 (S.D.=37.1) grams.

1. This test would indicate any significant difference between the two

varieties. For example, Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at 171.4

grams (S.D.=35.0) than Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3

(S.D.=37.1) grams.


varieties. Salina yielded, for example, a heavier mean weight at 171.4


(S.D.=37.1) grams.


varieties. For instance, Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at 171.4


(S.D.=37.1) grams.


varieties. Salina yielded, for instance, a heavier mean weight at 171.4


(S.D.=37.1) grams.

Solarization is the heating of soil with solar energy using clear

plastic. All edges of the plastic are covered with soil and no holes are

made in it, unlike ordinary black plastic mulch.


For example, All edges of the plastic are covered with soil and no

holes are made in it, unlike ordinary black plastic mulch.


All edges of the plastic are covered, for example, with soil and no



40/49


For instance, All edges of the plastic are covered with soil and no holes

are made in it, unlike ordinary black plastic mulch.


All edges of the plastic are covered, for instance, with soil and no



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CHAPTER TEN

RELATIONSHIP SHOWING EXPLANATION














(S.D.=37.1) grams.


Examples :

1. Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at 171.4 grams (S.D.=35.0) than

Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3 (S.D.=37.1) grams.

2. Salina yielded a heavier mean weight at 171.4 grams (S.D.=35.0) than

Vasco, which yielded a mean weight of 156.3 (S.D.=37.1) grams.


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CHAPTER ELEVEN

RELATIONSHIP SHOWING ADDITION :

REINFORCEMENT + SIMILARITY

A. Addition Showing Reinforcement

On August 26-27, 1988, we planted 10'x 10' plots at New Alchemy with

rye alone and in combination with each of these three winter annual legumes. We

also planted oats+ hairy vetch. Because oats are winterkilled north of Maryland,

this combination might be easier to manage than rye+ vetch, but oats offer little

support for vetch vines in spring. Treatments were replicated four times so that we

could make statistical comparisons. One replicate was eaten by rabbits, leaving us

three

Weeds were never pulled or hoed during the experiment, and no additional

mulch was brought in. On August 3, after broccoli harvest was finished, the center

square meter of each plot was weeded and weed dry weight was determined. Plots

mulched with a rye-only cover crop had by far the most weeds, and broadleaves

were largely responsible for the difference (Figure 2). Rye plots contained far

more horseweed (Conyza canadensis), a serious weed of no-till agriculture, than

did grass+ legume plots. Weeds in the latter were so sparse that they cast

essentially no shade on the broccoli. Furthermore, very little cover crop regrowth

occurred in any treatment. This was accomplished without weeding or herbicides,

and since nitrogen deficiency and weeds are normally the organic farmer's biggest

headaches, mow-killed rye+ legume cover crops may be an important strategy.


Examples :

1. On August 26-27, 1988, we planted 10'x 10' plots at New Alchemy with

rye alone and in combination with each of these three winter annual

legumes. We also planted oats+ hairy vetch.


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2. Weeds in the latter were so sparse that they cast essentially no shade on

the broccoli. Furthermore, very little cover crop regrowth occurred in any

treatment.

B. Addition Showing Similarity

We are also working with shredded newspaper as bedding, a variation on

work Bruce Fulford and New Alchemy did in the mid-'80s. We hope to interest

cellulose insulation producers in diversifying into this product to save farmers

money on bedding, create jobs, and decrease the amount of paper being landfilled,

incinerated or shipped overseas. This may also reduce a problem sawdust creates

when manure and sawdust bedding is applied to soil: nitrogen immobilization (tie

up), which can cause nitrogen deficiency. Dioxin and heavy metals are not

problems with newsprint, but another class of substances, polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons (PAHs), in a worst case scenario, may limit application of

newspaper to 400 1bs/acre; composting, however, reduces PAHs somewhat, and

at least 40 newspapers are already using very low PAH carbon black.


Example :

1. We hope to interest cellulose insulation producers in diversifying into this

product to save farmers money on bedding, create jobs, and decrease the

amount of paper being landfilled, incinerated or shipped overseas. This

may also reduce a problem sawdust creates when manure and sawdust

bedding is applied to soil: nitrogen immobilization (tie up), which can

cause nitrogen deficiency.


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CHAPTER TWELVE

RELATIONSHIP SHOWING CONDITIONS













the same time, translucent green allows more light to enter than black plastic.

Contrary to popular belief, black plastic mulch does not warm soil very much, but



Example :

Observation

Soil temperature under translucent green averaged slightly higher than

under black plastic.

Conclusion

1. This is shows that translucent green allows more light to enter than

black plastic.

2. This indicates that translucent green allows more light to enter than

black plastic.

3. This is an indication that translucent green allows more light to enter

than black plastic.


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4. This is a sign that translucent green allows more light to enter than

black plastic.

5. This means that translucent green allows more light to enter than black

plastic.

6. We may conclude that translucent green allows more light to enter

than black plastic.

7. So, translucent green allows more light to enter than black plastic.

8. Therefore , translucent green allows more light to enter than black

plastic.

Generalization

1. If Soil temperature under translucent green averaged

slightly higher than under black plastic, translucent green allows more

light to enter than black plastic.

2. If Soil temperature under translucent green averaged

slightly higher than under black plastic, then translucent green allows

more light to enter than black plastic.

3. When Soil temperature under translucent green

averaged slightly higher than under black plastic, translucent green

allows more light to enter than black plastic.

Recommendation

1. Soil temperature under translucent green

averaged slightly higher than under black plastic. This is shows that

translucent green allows more light to enter than black plastic. This

deficiency should be corrected by used translucent black.

2. Soil temperature under translucent green

averaged slightly higher than under black plastic. This is shows that

translucent green allows more light to enter than black plastic. This

deficiency can be correted by used translucent black.

Prediction

1. If translucent green

allows more light to enter than black plastic, soil temperature under


46/49


47/49

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

COMPARATIVE SENTENCES
















vegetable crop.

All cover crops grew vigorously, produced over 3000 pounds per acre of

dry matter by late May, and effectively suppressed weed growth (Figure 1). Rye +

crimson clover produced the largest biomass, significantly more than rye + hairy

vetch. Austrian winter peas were partially winterkilled, resulting in lower

biomass. However, rye growing with this crop appeared greener and more

vigorous than rye alone, suggesting that it may have benefited from symbiotically

fixed nitrogen from the peas. Nitrogen analyses showed that rye grown with any

of the legumes had significantly higher tissue nitrogen concentrations (1.1-1.4%)

than rye grown alone (1.0%).

By the time we had all the varmints under control, we noticed that broccoli

plants in rye plots were far smaller and less green than plants in the other four

cover crops. On July 3, we gave each plant in all treatments a heaping teaspoon of


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an organic fertilizer, but the size difference between the rye-only and the legume

treatments just kept on increasing. The bone meal and fertilizer together suppliedonly 32 pounds of nitrogen, 23 pounds of phosphorus and 11 pounds of potassium

per acre, and the experiment was conducted on a soil testing low to medium in all

three nutrients. Leaf tissue tests showed that broccoli after grass + legume cover

crops had significantly higher foliar nitrogen and phosphorus concentration than

broccoli after rye alone. The legume supplied nitrogen to the broccoli, and at least

indirectly improved phosphorous nutrition.


Examples :

1. Hairy vetch and rye grown together may give greater benefits than either

alone, including more organic matter, better weed control and support for

the vetch vines in the spring (Schonbeck 1988c).





3. Rye + crimson clover produced the largest biomass, significantly more

than rye + hairy vetch.

4. However, rye growing with this crop appeared greener and more vigorous

than rye alone, suggesting that it may have benefited from symbiotically

fixed nitrogen from the peas.

5. Nitrogen analyses showed that rye grown with any of the legumes had

significantly higher tissue nitrogen concentrations (1.1-1.4%) than rye

grown alone (1.0%).

6. By the time we had all the varmints under control, we noticed that broccoli

plants in rye plots were far smaller and less green than plants in the other

four cover crops.


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