sustainable land use and environmental design study airai...

Sustainable Land Use and Environmental Design Study

University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, Department of Urban and Regional Planning Saunders Hall 107, 2424 Maile Way, Honolulu, Hawai`i 96822

Fall 2009 Practicum

State of Airai, Palau

PLAN 754: Urban Design and Planning Studio

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Sustainable Land Use and Environmental Design Study

State of Airai, Palau

Department of Urban Regional Planning Fall 2009 Practicum

Plan 754: Urban Design & Planning Studio

Fall 2009

Prepared By:

Nassar Abujabal

Daniel Alexander

Imon Chowdhooree

Shem Lawlor

Aaron Mann

Hung Manh Nguyen

Asheshwor Man Shrestha

Dane Sjoblom

Shanah Trevenna

Faculty Participant:

Luciano Minerbi

Department of Urban and Regional Planning University of Hawai`i at Mānoa,

Honolulu, Hawai`i

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DISCLAIMER

This report was done with care by graduate planning students as part of a planning practicum class and it is not the work of certified planners. Therefore it needs to be reviewed by professional planners and pertinent scientists. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the agencies, organizations, or groups mentioned in the report or the Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Hawai`i at Mānoa.

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Department of Urban and Regional Planning Fall 2009 Planning Practicum Class

From Left to Right: Aaron Mann, Asheshwor Man Shrestha, Daniel Alexander, Hung Manh Nguyen, Nassar Abujabal, Shanah Trevenna, Dane Sjoblom, Shem Lawlor, Imon Chowdhooree.

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Table of Contents Acronyms............................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures......................................................................................................................... ix List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... xii Executive Summary............................................................................................................. xiii Chapter 1: Land Use ........................................................................................................................... xiii Chapter 2: Airai Land Use Zones ....................................................................................................... xiii Chapter 3: Development Suitability and Urban Growth Boundary .....................................................xiv Chapter 4: Natural Disasters and Climate Change: Implications for Land Use in Palau .....................xv Chapter 5: Urban Design.......................................................................................................................xv Chapter 6: Water and Sustainability .....................................................................................................xv Chapter 7: Energy, Waste and Sustainability.......................................................................................xvi Chapter 8: Economic and Implementation Principles of Land-Use ...................................................xvii

Introduction............................................................................................................................. 1 0.1 Purpose..............................................................................................................................................1 0.2 Methodology .....................................................................................................................................1 0.3 Limitations ........................................................................................................................................2 0.4 Paramount Considerations ................................................................................................................3 0.5 Scope .................................................................................................................................................3

Chapter 1: Land Use............................................................................................................... 5 1.1 Historical Context: Palau Land Use Trends......................................................................................6 1.2 Traditional Land Tenure ...................................................................................................................6 1.3 Land Use Planning Framework.........................................................................................................8 1.4 Adaptive Planning Process..............................................................................................................15 1.5 Compatibility-Focused Zoning .......................................................................................................17 1.6 Permitting Process...........................................................................................................................24 References .............................................................................................................................................28

Chapter 2: Airai Land Use Zones ....................................................................................... 33 2.1 Conservation ...................................................................................................................................33 2.2 Agriculture ......................................................................................................................................39 2.3 Urban...............................................................................................................................................42 2.4 Industrial .........................................................................................................................................44 References .............................................................................................................................................48

Chapter 3: Development Suitability Analysis and Urban Growth Boundary ................ 51 3.1 Development Suitability Analysis ..................................................................................................51 3.2 Urban Growth Boundary.................................................................................................................53 3.3 Conservation and Agriculture zone.................................................................................................58 References .............................................................................................................................................66

Chapter 4: Implications of Climate Change in Palau and Airai ...................................... 67 4.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................................67 4.2 Addressing Climate Change impact on Land-Use in Palau ............................................................68 4.3 Mitigation vs. Adaptation ...............................................................................................................73 4.4 Existing Adaptation/Mitigation Mechanisms and Constraints .......................................................74 4.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................77 References .............................................................................................................................................78

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Chapter 5: Urban Design ..................................................................................................... 79 5.1 Urban Morphology of Airai............................................................................................................ 79 5.2 Constraints and Challenges ............................................................................................................ 84 5.3 Urban Street Design and Land Use ................................................................................................ 89 5.4 Street Classifications: ..................................................................................................................... 89 5.5 Neighborhood Development Guidelines for Airai ......................................................................... 92 5.6 Ecological and Traditional Preservation ........................................................................................ 95 5.7 Territorial Definition, Safety, and Social Interaction ..................................................................... 96 5.8 Case Study: A Smart Growth Illustration Neighborhood for Kesebelau ....................................... 97 References .......................................................................................................................................... 104

Chapter 6: Water and Sustainability ................................................................................ 107 6.1 Challenge: High Consumption Rate, High System Losses, Poor Sewage System. .................... 107 6.2 Alternative Option: The Living Machine ..................................................................................... 108 6.3 Sample Neighborhood: ................................................................................................................. 112 6.4 Pumped Hydro Storage: ............................................................................................................... 114 References .......................................................................................................................................... 116

Chapter 7: Energy, Waste and Sustainability.................................................................. 117 7.1 Introduction: ................................................................................................................................. 117 7.2 Challenge: Peak Demand is High and Rising.............................................................................. 117 7.3 Alternative: Electric Vehicle Electricity Storage ........................................................................ 118 7.4 Challenge: Street Lighting as a State Energy Drain .................................................................... 119 7.5 Alternative: Solar Street Lights with Light Emitting Diodes (LED’s)........................................ 119 7.6 Challenge: Expensive, Unreliable Communications Networks .................................................. 120 7.7 Alternative: Solar Wi-Fi ............................................................................................................... 120 7.8 Challenge: Palau Depends on Foreign Fuel Supplies and is Vulnerable to Peak Oil ................. 121 7.9 Alternative: Distributed Solar Infrastructure............................................................................... 122 7.10 Challenge: Palau Lacks Efforts for Energy Conservation......................................................... 123 7.11 Alternative: Solar Hot Water Heating ....................................................................................... 124 7.12 Alternative: Desiccant Wheel for Dehumidifying..................................................................... 124 7.13 Alternative: Energy Conservation Recommendations .............................................................. 125 7.14 Challenge: Lack of Energy Policy............................................................................................. 126 7.15 Alternative: Recommendations from Hawai`i’s HCEI ............................................................. 126 7.16 Challenge: Solid Waste is Poorly Managed .............................................................................. 127 7.17 Alternative: Bio-char Production from Organic Waste............................................................. 127 7.18 Additional Resources: Adopt Proven Frameworks to Guide Unique Solutions for Airai ........ 128 References .......................................................................................................................................... 131

Chapter 8: Economic and Implementation Principles of Land-Use .............................. 133 8.1 Implementing an Economic/Environmental Framework ............................................................. 133 8.2 Community Participation in Land-Use Planning ......................................................................... 135 8.3 Statistical Analysis in Airai .......................................................................................................... 136 8.4 Airai Labor Force ......................................................................................................................... 138 8.5 Tourism Effects ............................................................................................................................ 140 8.6 Carrying Capacity of Airai ........................................................................................................... 141 8.7 Traditional Land-Use Practices .................................................................................................... 143 8.8 The Role of Airai’s Government .................................................................................................. 145 8.9 U.S. Assistance and Funding........................................................................................................ 150 8.10 State Government Revenue Generation ..................................................................................... 151 8.11 Ad Valorem Split-rate Property Taxation .................................................................................. 156 8.12 Impact Fees................................................................................................................................. 159

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8.13 Land Use Fee ..............................................................................................................................161 8.14 Land-use Regulatory Enforcement .............................................................................................162 8.15 Concluding Remarks...................................................................................................................163 References ...........................................................................................................................................164

APPENDIX 1: Noise Pollution Considerations for Land Use Zoning ........................... 167 References ...........................................................................................................................................176

APPENDIX 2: Erosion Mitigation and Stormwater Management................................ 177 References ...........................................................................................................................................180

APPENDIX 3: Local Government Reform Checklist ..................................................... 181

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Acronyms

A: Agriculture (Zoning) ALISH: Agricultural Lands of Importance to the State of Hawaiì ANSI: American National Standards Institute APA: American Planning Association ASLR: Accelerated Sea-level Rise ASMP: Airai Sate Master Plan ASPC: Airai State Planning Commission ASPLA: The Airai State Public Land Authority C: Commercial (Zoning) CFL: Compact Fluorescent Lighting CIAM: Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne (French) or International Congress

of Modern Architecture (English) CIZ: Change in Zoning COFA: Compact of Free Association CUP: Conditional Use Permit CV: Conservation (Zoning) DOA: Hawaiì State Department of Agriculture dB/dBA: Decibel Level DBEDT: Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism (State of Hawaiì ) EPA: Environmental Protection Agency (United States) EQPB: Environmental Quality Protection Board FSM: Federated States of Micronesia GAO: U.S. Government Accountability Office GDP: Gross Domestic Product GHG: Greenhouse Gas GIS: Geographical Information System(s) HCEI: Hawaiì Clean Energy Initiative HECO: Hawaiì an Electric Company I: Industrial (Zoning) IES: Illuminating Engineering Society IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change kW/kWh: Kilo-watts of Electricity, Kilo-watt Hours of Electricity LED: Light Emitting Diode LM: Living Machine (water system) LR: Land Readjustment (Land Polling, Land Assembly) LUC: Land Use Commission LUGS: Land Use Guidance System LUPAG: Land Use Pattern Allocation Guide (Big Island of Hawaiì )

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NMDP: Palau 2020 National Master Development Plan NR: Neighborhood Residential (Zoning) OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OSHA: Occupational Safety and Health Administration (United States) PACC: Pacific Adaptation to Climate Change PAN: Protected Area Network PIEPSAP: Pacific Islands Energy Policies and Strategic Action Planning PINS: Pacific Island Nations PNCA: Palau National Code Annotated PPUC: Palau Public Utilities Corporation RFP: Request for Proposal RMI: Republic of the Marshall Islands RPS: Renewable Portfolio Standard RV: Resort Center (Zoning) SIDS: Small Island Developing States SLUD: State Land Use Districts SMA: Special Management Area SPL: Sound Pressure Level SPREP: South Pacific Regional Program TDR: Transfer of Development Rights TOD: Transit-Oriented Development TW LM: Tidal Wetland Living Machine UN: United Nations UNEP: United Nations Environment Program UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change VC: Village Commercial (Zoning) VMT: Vehicle Miles Travelled

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List of Figures

Figure 0.01 - Land Use Study Plan for Airai, Palau............................................................................... 2 Figure 1.01 - Land Use Planning Process .............................................................................................. 5 Figure 1.02 - History of Land Tenure in Palau ...................................................................................... 6 Figure 1.03 - The Village Decision Making Process ............................................................................. 7 Figure 1.04 - County Planning Program............................................................................................... 10 Figure 1.05 - N. Hilo LUPAG Map 1................................................................................................... 13 Figure 1.06 - S. Hilo LUPAG Map 3 ................................................................................................... 13 Figure 1.07 - Adaptive Zoning ............................................................................................................. 14 Figure 1.08 - Zones Established by 31 PNCA 153 .............................................................................. 17 Figure 1.09 - Compatibility-Focused Zoning Flow Chart.................................................................... 19 Figure 1.10 - Simplified Zoning Groupings ......................................................................................... 22 Figure 1.11 - Compatibility-Focused Performance Zoning Establishment Process NR Zone............. 23 Figure 1.12 - Permitting Process Flow Chart ....................................................................................... 24 Figure 2.01 - Cultural and Historic Preservation Plan Development Process...................................... 35 Figure 2.02 - Conservation Divisions................................................................................................... 36 Figure 3.01 - Criteria Considered for Urban Development Suitability ................................................ 53 Figure 3.02 - Areas Excluded from Future Development Consideration............................................. 55 Figure 3.03 - Soil Suitability for Development .................................................................................... 55 Figure 3.04 - Airai Slopes .................................................................................................................... 56 Figure 3.05 - Proximity to Bridge ........................................................................................................ 56 Figure 3.06 - Proximity to Paved Roads .............................................................................................. 57 Figure 3.07 - Aggregated Development Suitability Scores.................................................................. 57 Figure 3.08 - Areas within Urban Growth Boundary........................................................................... 58 Figure 3.09 - Criteria for Conservation Zones ..................................................................................... 59 Figure 3.10 - Criteria for Agriculture Areas......................................................................................... 59 Figure 3.11 - Map of Historic, Agriculture, and Conservation Areas .................................................. 61 Figure 3.12 - Overlay Map of Conservation and Urban Development Suitability .............................. 62 Figure 3.13 - Overlay Map of Conservation and Urban Growth Boundary......................................... 63 Figure 3.14 - 8-Meter Tsunami Scenario ............................................................................................. 64 Figure 3.15 - 12.7-Meter Tsunami Scenario ........................................................................................ 65 Figure 4.01 - Policy Implications for Climate Change Impacts ........................................................... 69 Figure 4.02 - A 1 Meter Sea-level Rise Scenario for Airai .................................................................. 71 Figure 4.03 - Mangrove and Wetland Soil in Airai.............................................................................. 72 Figure 4.04 - Paths Depicting Course of Storm Events........................................................................ 73 Figure 5.01 - A Bai in Airai Village, Airai........................................................................................... 79 Figure 5.02 - Traditional Houses of Airai ............................................................................................ 80 Figure 5.03 - Layout of Irrai Village .................................................................................................... 81 Figure 5.04 - Stone Paned Pathway in Airai Village, Airai ................................................................. 82 Figure 5.05 - An Example of Contemporary Houses, Airai. ................................................................ 83 Figure 5.06 - The Neighborhood of Kesebelau, Airai.......................................................................... 83 Figure 5.07 - Haphazard Development in Airai ................................................................................... 84 Figure 5.08 - Negative Space between Two Buildings in Koror ......................................................... 84 Figure 5.09 - Relationship between Speed and Access for Streets ...................................................... 90 Figure 5.10 - Existing Road System in Airai ....................................................................................... 91 Figure 5.11 - Proposed External Road System for Airai...................................................................... 91 Figure 5.12 - Proposed Internal Road System in Kesebelau ................................................................ 92 Figure 5.13 - Mid-Rise Apartments with Open First Floor.................................................................. 95

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Figure 5.14 - Existing Layout of Kesebelau, Airai ...............................................................................98 Figure 5.15 - Proposed Layout of Kesebelau, Airai ...........................................................................100 Figure 5.16 - Proposed Layout of Kesebelau, Airai ...........................................................................101 Figure 5.17 - Central Open Space near Mid-Rise Apartment: Village Commercial Zone .................102 Figure 5.18 - Usable Open Space Accessible by Pedestrian Paths .....................................................102 Figure 5.19 - Pedestrian Path ..............................................................................................................103 Figure 5.20 - New Development around Old Buildings .....................................................................103 Figure 6.01 - Tidal Wetland Living Machine System ........................................................................110 Figure 6.02 - Hybrid Wetland Living Machine ..................................................................................110 Figure 6.03 - Model Neighborhood Location for Assessment of Sustainable Infrastructure .............112 Figure 6.04 - Magnified View of Model Neighborhood.....................................................................113 Figure 6.05 - The Methodology for the Suggested LM ......................................................................114 Figure 7.01 - Solar Wi-Fi System .......................................................................................................121 Figure 7.02 - Solar Potential in Palau .................................................................................................123 Figure 7.03 - Desiccant Wheel............................................................................................................125 Figure 7.04 - Producing Bio-char from a Cooking Stove ...................................................................128 Figure 8.01 - Model of the Economic and Environmental Interaction ...............................................135 Figure 8.02 - Airai Population Projection – 2020 ...............................................................................137 Figure 8.03 - Percentage of Foreign Workers in Palau’s Labor Force ...............................................139 Figure 8.04 - Palau Visitor Arrivals....................................................................................................140 Figure 8.05 - Palau Average Visitor Arrivals by Month.....................................................................141 Figure 8.06 - Split-Rate Taxation .......................................................................................................157 Figure A1.01 - Vegetative Buffers......................................................................................................172

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List of Tables

Table 1.01 - Hawai`i State Land Use Districts..................................................................................... 11 Table 1.02 - Heritage Mapping Elements............................................................................................. 12 Table 1.03 - Zones Implemented by PNCA 31-153............................................................................. 14 Table 1.02 - Example Criteria Matrix .................................................................................................. 24 Table 2.01 - Airai Soils Suitable for Agriculture ................................................................................. 40 Table 2.02 - Zoning Code: Permitted Uses .......................................................................................... 45 Table 3.01 - Example of Evaluation Criteria by Ian McHarg (1992)................................................... 52 Table 3.02 - Development Suitability Matrix....................................................................................... 54 Table 4.01 - Effects of Climate Change ............................................................................................... 68 Table 4.02 - Comparison of CO2 Emissions from the Energy Sector .................................................. 74 Table 5.01 - Walking Distances from Various Functions .................................................................... 86 Table 5.02 - Compatibility of Functions .............................................................................................. 87 Table 5.03 - Chart for FAR and MGC ................................................................................................. 94 Table 5.04 - Density in Dwelling Units per Acre................................................................................. 97 Table 6.01 - Comparison of LM’s and Traditional Systems .............................................................. 111 Table 6.02 - Sample Neighborhood Water Needs.............................................................................. 113 Table 8.01 - Land Densities by State in Palau.................................................................................... 142 Table 8.02 - Vehicle Use Projections for 2009 .................................................................................. 143 Table 8.03 - Airai Budget Categorization .......................................................................................... 147 Table 8.04 - Palau Per Capita Budget Allocation............................................................................... 149 Table 8.05 - U.S. State and Local Government Revenue................................................................... 154 Table 8.06 - State of Airai Revenue Sources - 2009 .......................................................................... 155 Table 8.07 - Primary U.S. Revenue Sources ...................................................................................... 156 Table 8.08 - Small Improvement Scenario......................................................................................... 158 Table 8.09 - Large Improvement Scenario......................................................................................... 158 Table 8.10 - Airai Construction Permits............................................................................................. 160 Table 8.11 - Estimated Yearly Airai Construction Permits................................................................ 160 Table 8.12 - EQPB Fees ..................................................................................................................... 161 Table 8.13 - Airai Businesses ............................................................................................................. 162 Table A1.01 - Perceived Doubling of Sound ..................................................................................... 168 Table A1.02 - Ambient Decibel Levels.............................................................................................. 169 Table A1.03 - Noise Generating Sources at Specified Distances ...................................................... 170 Table A1.04 - Materials for Structural Barriers ................................................................................. 172 Table A1.05 - Existing Ordinance Review......................................................................................... 174

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Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Governor of the State of Airai, Mrs. Vicky N. Kanai, the Planning Commission of the State of Airai, the Staff of the Planning Commission of the State of Airai, and Mrs. Umai Basilius of the Palau Conservation Society for the very special opportunity of allowing us to study some of the land use planning issues of Airai, for providing our instructor information and data for us to use, and for orientation, advice and field assistance during his visit to Palau with Ms. Harmonee Williams of Markline LLC.

We would like to thank the planners from Palau who have provided input for our work, and orientation on Palau culture and land use: Mrs. Klouldil Hubbard, Mrs. Ophelia Ongalibang, and Mr. Kevin Polloi, as well as Ms. Harmonee Williams of Markline LLC for advice provided to us and Mr. Bruce Tsuchida of Townscape Inc. for advise provided to Prof. Minerbi.

We appreciate that the President of the Airai Club of Honolulu, Johnson Iechad kindly invited us for the Palauan Independence Day event at Ala Moana Park on October 3, 2009 and that he gave us an opportunity to present our work in progress and power point to some of the Airai Club members who provided useful comments and advice at the Ala Moana Hotel meeting of November 7, 2009.

We appreciate the cooperation and information provided by Chad Durkin, coordinator of the Hawaii Nature Center Living Machine.

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Executive Summary

Chapter 1: Land Use

Airai is experiencing a combination of growth forces that is creating the need for a system of land use regulation. Over time many land use systems, with various strengths and weaknesses, have evolved. This section offers a review of selected elements from Hawai`i’s various county and state land use systems that might be useful to Airai. Key features of Hawai`i’s land use programs include:

o The public input process o Four overarching land use districts o Heritage Mapping, and o Land Use Pattern Allocation Guide.

To develop a land use zoning program appropriate for Airai, two prominent systems are considered in this chapter: conventional zoning and performance zoning. The strengths of each system are integrated to develop a system that meets Airai’s specific needs, which this report calls compatibility-focused zoning. Land use is divided into four (4) overarching categories, conservation, agricultural, industrial and urban districts. These districts can then be broken down into more explicit zones. Assigning zones follows an adaptive planning process in which initial zoning is simple and comprised of few zones with a wide range of uses and more specific zones are designated only as needed. Utilizing a Land Use Guidance System, land use is monitored and adapted as natural residential and commercial growth takes place. This system stems from a minimalist perspective, or the idea that many uses can coexist and, with appropriate placement and mitigation, can obviate the need for rigid and complicated zoning. To account for specific project impacts, such as noise, light, or air pollution, elements of performance zoning are incorporated into permit approval criteria. A review of noise impacts and mitigation is presented as one consideration for project review.

All the reviewed policies and programs are considered to design a regulatory system that integrates modern land use with traditional Palauan decision-making processes and knowledge.

Chapter 2: Airai Land Use Zones

The preceding chapter provides an overview of the general structure of a land use system. Chapter 2 offers an outline of the details that will determine the allowable uses of

Sustainable Land Use and Environmental Design Study: State of Airai, Palau Fall 2009

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lands within specific zones and presents an overview of zoning considerations in relation to existing policy in Palau.

This section is divided into the four (4) categories presented in Chapter 1: conservation, agricultural, industrial and urban zones. A discussion of the purpose and objectives of the overarching land use categories and allowable uses within established zones is included. Chapter 2 provides a framework for how these zones will be created and what their integration into a land use system might look like. This section presents the details of the compatibility-focused zoning implementation process.

This proposed system effectively captures the seventeen (17) zones established in Palau’s national code, PNCA 31-153, into six (6) zones:

o Conservation (C) o Agricultural (A) o Neighborhood Residential (NR) o Village Commercial (VC) o Industrial (I) o Resort Center (RV)

Two new zones are created in this system, neighborhood residential (NR) and village commercial (VC). Village commercial is a modification of the existing village zone (V). In this zoning system, a hamlet would begin as NR and would adjust to provide space for more intense commercial or residential development as needed.

Chapter 3: Development Suitability and Urban Growth Boundary

For development suitability analysis, this report identified the best locations for certain land uses based on the land ecology and current land uses. Based on the methodology for analysis in Ian McHarg’s book, Design with Nature, GIS data was used to analyze the land and to locate suitability for urban development, agriculture, and conservation zones.

In order to determine an urban growth boundary, prime agricultural lands, mangroves, conservation areas, a 30-meter riparian buffer zone around streams and an airport buffer zone were all excluded. Next, GIS layers of four separate criteria were created for determining where future development should be directed: soil suitability, slopes, proximity to existing paved roads, and proximity to the bridge. The land in each layer was weighted from one to five according to how well suited parcels were for development.

these four criteria layers were aggregated and the combined scores were normalized to create a total development suitability score from one to five. parcels of land with total suitability scores of three and above were included to create an urban growth boundary for the state of Airai. Because the state has very limited suitable land for urban development, some historic sites, steep slopes and the potential tsunami inundated areas are included within the urban growth boundary. However, development can be appropriately prevented from occurring in those areas through zoning or urban design standards.

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Chapter 4: Natural Disasters and Climate Change: Implications for Land Use in Palau

Palau has already committed itself for mitigation of GHG emissions through the signing of the Kyoto protocol. The impact of such mitigations will be small and Palau should put equal focus on adaptation measures of impact of climate change. Reducing oil use and moving towards renewable energy is essential for Palau’s future as rising oil price will have negative impact on tourism and raise the price of imported goods. Increased adaptability to climate change and a long term sustainable future of Airai can be achieved through land use regulations, urban design of new settlements and emphasis on renewable energy. Although climate change impacts are expected to have negative impacts in Airai, there are various measures that can be taken to increase the resiliency and also help mitigate the effects of impacts. The Office of Environmental Response and Coordination and The National Assessment Report-Barbados Program of Action + 10 Review has already identified constraints and key activities to address climate change impacts. Airai can take a lead in institutionalizing the activities through land use plan and building code. Private developers have initiated projects in Kesebelau area which can be regulated to follow energy efficiency standards. Other interventions include watershed management, protection of forests and mangroves, alternative transport through a comprehensive land use plan.

Chapter 5: Urban Design

Based on the principles of new urbanism, smart growth and transit oriented development, in the urban design section a set of guidelines are proposed for future urban development with a notion of compact development.

Walkability, connectivity, mixed use, diversity, mixed housing, quality architecture, traditional neighborhood structures, increased density, smart transportation, sustainability, and quality of life are identified as the desired features for new development as well as for redevelopment of existing neighborhoods. New connected and interlinked streets are proposed as an important component for urban services for the whole urban spine and neighborhood.

Finally, Kesebelau, an existing sub-division has been redesigned according to the proposed features to have a mix of traditional single-family and multifamily housing laid out on pedestrian-oriented streets and interspersed with urban public spaces, and a mix of commercial and civic uses and mixed-income housing.

Chapter 6: Water and Sustainability

The high water consuming habits for Airai residents, in addition to an estimated 40% - 50% loss of water in the system due to leakage, will make it very difficult, if not impossible, to meet their needs in the future. Extreme droughts, such as those that occurred in 1983,


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1997 and 2003, may increase in frequency due to global climate change and will also be a contributing factor to the difficulties in meeting the water demand of Airai.

The need to improve the security of the water supply for the Koror-Airai area is a major goal for the government. Tariff reform is often recommended as the water supply’s operation, maintenance, and capital costs are very high and much more than can be covered by current water rates and charges.

The majority of sewerage and wastewater systems in Palau are septic and leaching systems on site. The clay nature of the soil in Airai and the immense quantity of water discharged into the sewage system, (due to the high water consumption rate, and rainy climate of the country), cause many disruptions in the waste disposal systems. This includes occasional overflows of waste.

The Living Machine (LM) offers low operational costs, efficient energy consumption, small foot print, and an ability to fit in different places and serve various quantities of people. Due to these factors as well as Living Machines’ vast range of size flexibility and scalability, it is a recommended solution that can solve many of Airai’s sewage and water problems. Worrell Water, a pioneering company in the Living Machine invention and installation, defines it as “an ecological wastewater treatment system that treats wastewater for re-use. This allows communities or institutions to locally manage wastewater, create high quality reused water, and avoid sewer hook-up fees while dramatically reducing water and energy consumption and their associated costs” (Worrell Water, 2009).

As part of the comprehensive sustainable alternatives outlined for Airai, pumped hydro-storage connected to the water produced by the Living Machine, is an ambitious solution. This can be efficient, if modified by changing some factors such as speed and amount of water, to be used as an alternative energy source.

To fully establish the applicability of these solutions for Airai and the ability by its government to pay for them; will require site specific study and appropriate modification. Pilot projects of these solutions are recommended with the possibility of extension into other states throughout country.

Chapter 7: Energy, Waste and Sustainability

This chapter explores the complex nature of Airai’s energy and waste issues by itemizing challenges and suggesting alternative solutions. The format is intended to be a menu of suggestions that can be considered as a starting point for discussions and planning processes.

Palau is one of the most developed island countries with a relatively high GDP, which is closely coupled with high per-capita energy use. The citizens of Palau demand 22% more peak energy per person than those in Hawai`i for example. Since Airai is positioned for growth within Palau, it is expected that the demand for electricity will increase in the area. Expanded capacity for electricity generation is often recommended to accommodate growth, yet this can be avoided if the demand at peak times can be reduced. This is called peak

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shaving and can be accomplished by using electric vehicles charged at home to run high power appliances when individuals return home from work. This solution addresses the preference of those in Airai who enjoy air conditioned driving, while also reducing pollution and dependence on imported fuel.

Electricity demand can also be reduced by using solar powered technologies including solar powered street lights that use 20-50% less energy and solar hot water heating, which can reduce energy use by 30-50% for homes. Solar wi-fi systems also provide reliable internet access, which is a paramount ingredient for growing Airai’s wealth. The State should work with the government and the Palau Public Utilities Commission (PPUC) for implementation and coordination.

Other conserving technologies that do not rely on renewable energy are also recommended, such as compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFL’s), desiccant wheels, solar shelves, and painting roofs white .

Waste disposal in Airai faces similar developmental challenges to energy since landfill is the primary destination for waste and expanding capacity is a traditional solution. In the case of green waste, a bio-char process can be used to produce a beneficial product while also sequestering carbon. In implementing these solutions at the community level the strong social fabric and relatively small population make community planning a great strength for the State that should be leveraged at every opportunity, especially since these solutions have low pay back periods and benefit individuals and the community economically over time.

Chapter 8: Economic and Implementation Principles of Land-Use

This chapter of the study will turn to economic principles as a means to address land-use and urban design elements in Airai. The study of economics offers explanations regarding development and the choices people make concerning scarce natural, human, and capital resources. It is a widely accepted philosophy that pursuit of an improved quality of life and greater economic development should not endanger the natural environment. However, the act of balancing the economy, the environment, and society proves to be the greatest challenge facing decision-makers. Per-capita consumption and urbanized populations around the world and in Airai continue to increase, placing greater constraints on the resources necessary for survival, leading policymakers and governments to address land-use in terms of both an ecological and efficiency rationale. As a result, it becomes necessary to monitor and guide growth and land-use patterns to preserve the resources valuable to the future of Airai as outlined in the Airai Sate Master Plan (ASMP) and in accordance with the principles described in this study.

Often, in a cash-based society, the quest for economic growth overshadows the social and ecological costs of development. Therefore, governments exist to create and enforce regulations and laws that protect the economy, people, and environment from negative externalities. In addition, governments establish agencies for the provision and financing of


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public services such as; education, transportation, welfare, public safety, sanitation, and utility services, as a means to increase the quality of life for its citizens. In order to provide these public services, national, state, and local governments create and utilize a variety of financing and implementation mechanisms. This section addresses land-use economics including: the role of state and national governments, state revenue generation, and the regulatory instruments available to manage land-use and economic growth.

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Introduction

With the understanding that the planning of Airai’s future is the right and responsibility of the people who call Airai home, the study was conducted with the hope that it will help Airai attain many of the goals stipulated by the Airai State Planning Commission. Planning concepts are born from the exchange of innovative ideas and real lessons learned. As such, this report can be used to provide planning suggestions and guidelines for any coastal community seeking to improve regional development.

This report is divided into several sections which address land use and zoning considerations, areas suitable for development and setting an urban growth boundary, disaster resilience and climate change considerations, urban design recommendations, sustainable resource and waste management, and economic considerations. In each section the ‘most recommended’ planning options are provided as well as several other possibilities which may also be viable choices for Airai.

This report was prepared with the intention that it will serve as a resource that Airai can use in the formulation of a future Land Use Plan.

0.1 Purpose

The Palau Conservation Society (PCS) contracted Markline LLC., a Hawai`i based planning consulting firm, to assist in the finalization of the Airai State Master Development Plan that was developed by the Airai State Planning Commission (ASPC) and to follow up the Master Plan with a Land Use Plan. This study, developed concurrent with the finalization of the Airai State Master Plan, intends to provide background information and suggestions on how to integrate traditional knowledge, modern technology, planning practice and standards appropriate for this island community with an eye geared towards sustainability.

0.2 Methodology

Background research for this report included investigating what shape settlements take in Airai, how business can be incorporated into the existing built environment and into future sustainable communities, the type of economic activity that may improve the quality of life for residents, and how Airai can help improve resource and waste management.

Joining the efforts of the ASPC, PCS, and Markline LLC, this report provides suggestions for land use, resource management, and economic development. Background


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research has consisted of extensive literature reviews, case studies, focus group discussion, GIS analysis, and a review of the current planning documents of Palau and Airai.

Figure 0.01 - Land Use Study Plan for Airai, Palau

0.3 Limitations

Researchers outside of Airai are limited to the review of secondary sources and online research without the opportunity to see the land first hand, review current statistical data, or see a clear representation of land use and ownership. However a practicum student

Introduction

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representative will be sent to Palau to deliver this report and present a power point to the PCS and to ASPC sometime in the spring of 2010.

The lack of development standards in Airai State has left the people and environments of Airai vulnerable to the negative impacts resulting from unregulated development. Land use and environmental management standards are needed to preserve the quality of natural resources, preserve cultural practices and protect the interests of residents. Regulation of development through an established system of accountability, consistency, and the use of best management practices executed through a clear and comprehensive decision making process will assist in achieving these goals.

0.4 Paramount Considerations

The effects of global warming are likely to increase the frequency and severity of natural disasters resulting from climate change and sea level rise. Declining global oil supplies, known as peak oil, is likely to increase energy prices and competition for this resource. This report aims to identify strategies Airai can use to obviate these concerns. Many planning documents extrapolate known trends when forecasting future conditions. This report considers that social, economic and environmental changes cannot entirely be predicted. The suggestions made herein are modular and scalable to accommodate various potential future scenarios. The recommendations are designed to facilitate positive development in Airai regardless of future events.

0.5 Scope

The scope of this study includes the following:

• Review selected land use planning approaches, present lessons learned from existing examples and review innovative approaches to land use and land use planning.

• Provide suggestions for land use management approaches and examples of innovative technology that can assist in energy production and conservation, waste management, settlement design, and transportation.

• • Study examples of appropriate land use laws, urban design standards, and

economic development options and implementation processes.


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5

Chapter 1: Land Use

Daniel Alexander Dane Sjoblom

The use of land has always been a societal concern. The beautiful and functional hamlets of Airai show the thoughtful planning that has taken place. It is evident that cultural, religious, commercial, agricultural and residential elements were considered while composing these settlements. Recently, factors such as population influx, foreign property developers and increased development have presented challenges to Airai’s traditional form of land use planning, but traditional society in Airai remains strong.

The field of urban and regional planning has brought about many land use systems with various strengths and weaknesses. This chapter offers a selected review of land use systems that might be useful to Airai and provides a framework for an innovative land use planning system that integrates modern land use with traditional Palauan decision-making and knowledge. The many variables and interactions that must be considered in the creation of a Land Use Plan are shown in Figure 1.01.

Figure 1.01 - Land Use Planning Process1

1 This figure was created for this report through a board survey of the factors and process steps that conventionally constitute a land use plan.


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1.1 Historical Context: Palau Land Use Trends

It is estimated that the Islands of Palau were settled around 4,000 years ago amidst a vast Micronesian trade system (Nero, 2001). The Palauans lived on subsistence agriculture, harvesting from the ocean, and trading with nearby nations which maintained the balance of natural resources and preserved biodiversity. This system of early land tenure, in which lands were managed at the clan level and by family hierarchy, was eventually disrupted by the presence of Europeans when Germany introduced land ownership. Japan and the United States later controlled the islands and further altered traditional land tenure and governance practices. Land tenure in Palau since the period of European influence began can be divided into in three temporal frames (Ngiraingas, 2009):

1. Early colonization (prior to 1914) 2. Japanese administration (1914-1944) 3. U.S. Trusteeship-Compact Era (1944-present)

Figure 1.02 expands on these three frames, demonstrating the chronology of events that led from traditional land tenure to private ownership.

Figure 1.02 - History of Land Tenure in Palau2

1.2 Traditional Land Tenure

Before Western colonization, land in Palau was separated into different political units referred to as beluu. Each beluu was divided into clan lands called chutem era kebliil, and public domain lands called chutem buai. Public domain land was generally managed by the village council, knows as the klobak of the beluu, and members of the beluu could freely use public domain resources (McCutcheon, 1981).

2 This figure was created for this report. The timeline is adapted from the academic research and findings of Madelsar Ngiraingas (2009), Karen Nero (2001), and Mary Shaw McCutcheon (1981), and the definitions of the Palauan terms are taken from McCutcheon (1981).

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Ongalibang (2006) also explains that the village council, or local council of chiefs, consisted of senior ranking male title holders within a village. Public lands were openly available to residents for gathering resources (lumber, firewood, food, medicine, hunting), and included shoreline and forest areas around the village. Village residents could gather provisions without first obtaining permission from the chiefs, whereas residents of other villages were required to obtain permission before harvesting resources.

Clan land is still considered private and ownership is divided into three categories (1) lineage ownership; (2) sacred land; and (3) common use (Ongalibang, 2006). Lineage land accommodates homes, gardens and family taro patches. Lineage land is controlled by the head of family, who is also responsible for assigning land parcels to lineage members. Sacred land existed in each village to offer homes or physical space for local gods to occupy. The location of sacred land shifted as gods moved from one area to another. Clan land in common use was utilized for club houses (bai), canoe houses, village paths, and boat piers.

Ongalibang (2006) notes that boundaries for both public and clan land were originally determined by tradition, warfare, legends of migration, or other publicly known events. The existence of these land categories indicates that individual land ownership was not recognized. Homes were presented to family or clan members as a package that included the house site, a taro patch and garden space. While an individual did not own land in the Western sense, it is important to note that clan lands, house sites, and taro patches could not be alienated, assuring a family’s access to needed resources.

Traditionally, land use and inheritance were decided by individual clans and families, and clan chiefs would oversee larger decisions. Clan chiefs were given responsibility for overseeing or protecting clan lands. The chief also represented the clan’s interest in the community (Ongalibang, 2006). Traditionally, the hierarchical structure of the village council incorporated the community voice by default because of the importance of “cultivating relationships with the community, acquiring acknowledgement from the traditional leaders and the village and involves building consensus throughout the entire process of planning,” (Hubbard, 2009, p. 12) (See Figure 1.03).

Figure 1.03 - The Village Decision Making Process3

3 This figure was created for this report and was developed from the indigenous knowledge presented in the academic report “Local Knowledge as a Basis for Designing Planning Process: Approaches to Community-Based Planning in Palau” by Klouldil Hubbard (2009).


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Beginning in the early colonization frame, foreign influence and modernization pushed governance away from traditional practices and promoted the development of regulatory processes that eventually mimicked practices of the US. For a time, the adoption of these systems had largely forgotten the public voice in the planning process. The recent efforts of local organizations, such as the Palau Conservation Society, have helped reintroduce community perspectives into governance and land use regulation. Creation and administration of land use plans as well as the development approval process should include a public review process and incorporate input from traditional leaders.

Future Decision Making and Visioning Considerations

In “Local Knowledge as a Basis for Designing Planning Processes: Approaches to Community-Based Planning in Palau” Hubbard (2009) explains that in order to design a planning process that accommodates cultural differences and builds on traditional decision-making, a planner must consider the importance of culture, history, and ideology, and must be aware of how relationships in the political process, and how these relationships influence community involvement, play into the planning process. Hubbard (2009) explains that the importance of consensus building, which requires an understanding of omengull (respect) and kebotechereng (mutual understanding of needs) is paramount. Hubbard (2009) reminds that the Palauan decision making process of today stems not only from colonizers, but from the long established socio-political structure. Hubbard (2009) states, “[a]s the foremost chiefs of the village, traditional leaders are still expected to make those decisions that will have an impact on the community and the community itself still expects the traditional leaders as well as the new government leadership to make those decisions.” Traditional leaders are aware of what communities in Palau need and residents trust that current government leaders will make decisions that best meet their needs.

The community visioning process currently being practiced in Palau requires a shift in thinking away from the decision-making process imposed by colonizers.4 Hubbard (2009) believes that “the visioning process could use elements of the local culture to improve or redesign the process to reflect community understanding.” An improved visioning process that focuses on agreed upon values such as respect (omengull), cooperation (klaingeseu), relationships (klauchad) and like-mindedness (kltalrreng); could help guide land use and direct how challenges are addressed in the future. It is important to incorporate the roles of family and community in addressing land use, and the role of clan chiefs to represent community interests in the public input process.

1.3 Land Use Planning Framework

Airai’s Land Use Plan will set forth the goals, objectives, policies, and standards that will guide future growth and resource preservation. As a policy guide for growth 4 This statement was made by the Palau Conservation Society, (2005) in the Report to Small Island Voice on Community Visioning Activities in Palau; Challenges Section.

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management it is important to thoroughly document Airai’s resources and the resident’s desired future vision, in addition to technical aspects such as infrastructure and land allocation. In Hawaiì control over land use districts is divided between the state and individual counties. This separation is unnecessary in Airai due to its small population.

For this report Hawaiì’s land use planning systems were reviewed and four (4) elements are identified that could be useful in developing a Land Use Plan for Airai:

• Hawaiì’s public input process • Hawaiì’s State Land Use Districts (categories and state and county control) • Heritage Mapping, Kauai County, Hawaiì • LUPAG program of Hawaiì County; (or similar Land Use Guidance System)

Hawaiì’s Land Use Regulatory Framework

Hawaiì is the first US State to have a State Land Use Law (1961) and a State General Plan, and remains unique because of the extent of control the State exercises in land use regulation. Administration of the state-wide zoning law is overseen by the State Land Use Commission (LUC). The need for land use planning in Hawaiì was recognized when the state legislature realized that “the lack of development controls was allowing the permanent loss of valuable lands, environmental degradation and inefficient land use.” (Hawaiì State LUC homepage) The Hawaiì State LUC established four districts: Urban, Rural, Agricultural, and Conservation.

Planning Process and Public Input

In Hawaiì the state creates and administers the Master Plan, counties create General Plans and Development Plans and oversees the creation of and approves individual Community Plans. Figure 1.04 shows the planning sequence for Oahu including the points at which the public is incorporated into the planning process.


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Figure 1.04 - County Planning Program Source: Created by the City & County of Honolulu Planning Department; located on the County of Hawai`i Planning Department website.

Hawai`i State Land Use Districts:

• The Urban District is generally defined as lands in urban use with sufficient reserves to accommodate foreseeable growth.

• The Rural District is defined as lands primarily comprised of small farms mixed with low density residential lots that have a minimum lot size of one-half acre.

• The Agricultural District reserves land for the cultivation of crops, aquaculture, raising livestock, wind or solar energy harvesting, timber cultivation, the development of supporting, and the preservation of land with significant agricultural potential. Lands in this designation are categorized by their capacity for sustained productivity. Use is permitted by the state, with a wider range of allowable activities in lands with lower category soils.

• The Conservation District is primarily comprised of existing forests and watersheds, and can include scenic and historic areas, open space, and recreation areas. The prevailing goal of the conservation district is to protect watersheds and water sources, habitats of endemic plants and animals, and the undersea lands

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along the coast. Lands that are subject to flooding and soil erosion are also included.

Land use within the Urban District is administered exclusively by the counties. In the Agricultural and Rural Districts, the State Land Use Commission establishes use regulations and the counties are responsible for their administration. The counties, however, may adopt more stringent controls than those imposed by the State within these two districts. Land use in the Conservation District is regulated by the State Board of Land and Natural Resources (County of Hawaiì General Plan, 2005; Section 14.1.1 Introduction and Analysis). Table 1.01 indicates the level of governmental control for each district and ranks them by the proportion of total land dedicated to each district.

Table 1.01 - Hawaiì State Land Use Districts Type Conservation Agricultural Urban Rural Rank* (1) (2) (3) (4)

County X XX X State XX X X *Rank by quantity of land in the district, 1 being the largest

The rural land district is the smallest, and is entirely absent on the Island of Oahu. This district preserves the rural character of some areas and provides landowners with the opportunity to pursue small scale farming. Consideration of a rural district in relation to land use planning in Airai is unnecessary since small scale farming is woven into the allowable uses of the urban district. The zoning program discussed later in this chapter and in Chapter 2 addresses a system that allows integrated uses and preserves rural character.

County Roles

Separating planning implementation and enforcement duties from the State to lower levels is unnecessary in Airai due to the relative small size and population and the limited amount of development taking place. However, two aspects of county planning programs offer helpful tools for mapping resources and guiding land use. These are Kauai County’s Heritage Maps and Hawaiì County’s Land Use Pattern Allocation Guide. Both of the island counties, Kauai and Hawaiì (Big Island), have a rural character but also have populous cities and therefore benefit from having detailed zoning ordinances.

Heritage Mapping, Kauai County

Kauai County Heritage Resource Maps are included in the General Plan. Airai could use this model to document important land elements at the hamlet level such as cultural and historical sites, special habitats, and view planes; traditional clan land divisions such as sacred land and common use land can also be added. Table 1.02 shows the elements included in Kauai County’s Heritage Resource maps.


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Table 1.02 - Heritage Mapping Elements Important Land Forms Major Taro Growing Areas Heiau Site Scenic Features Open Space, Parks, Agriculture Scenic Roadway Corridors Coral Reefs Marshes Streams, Reservoirs, Ponds Resource Parks & Sites Other Natural, Historic, Cultural Sites Small Boat Harbors/Ramps Registered Historic Buildings & Structures

Registered Archaeological Sites, (excluding burials & lava tubes)

Other Important Historic Buildings & Structures

Federal & State Natural Preserves

Conservation (outside of C zone) Streams vs. Special Streams

Transportation, Military Residential, Urban Center, Resort

LUPAG Program, Hawaiì County

In addition to identifying allowable uses through State Land Use Districts and County zoning, Hawaiì County incorporates the Land Use Pattern Allocation Guide (LUPAG).

LUPAG maps are created for each community to ensure that development activity and zoning changes are consistent with the Goals and Objectives of the General Plan. The county’s General Plan documents each region’s strengths, challenges, opportunities, and threats, and establishes the goals, policies, and standards to be pursued. These maps visually represent the intent of the General Plan and propose revisions to zoning districts based on natural growth patterns. Example LUPAG maps from the Hawaiì County General Plan are presented below. The first shows simple changes in a sparsely populated rural area and the second shows more complicated changes in an urban setting, (See Figure 1.05 and Figure 1.06).

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Figure 1.05 - N. Hilo LUPAG Map 1

Figure 1.06 - S. Hilo LUPAG Map 3


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As towns grow, business activities change, or as empirical knowledge of an area improves there may be a need to reallocate lands for different uses. LUPAG offers an example of institutionalized adaptive planning that helps county planners keep zoning ordinance consistent with the needs of a community. For example, if an area was once used for agriculture but that activity is no longer pursued it may be appropriate to change the land from agricultural to residential uses. Similarly, if biological studies reveal this land to be an ecologically significant or sensitive area it could be reclassified to conservation. Another example is a condition in which residential should shift to commercial, or commercial to industrial. Such a system could incorporate the 17 existing zones established by Title 31, Section 153 of the Palau National Code Annotated (PNCA 31-153), which are listed in Table 1.03 – Zones Implemented by PNCA 31-153.

Table 1.03 - Zones Implemented by PNCA 31-153 153:Residential-1 (R-1) Residential-2 (R-2) Residential-3 (R-3) Residential-commercial (RC) Commercial (C) Resort center (RV) Transportation center (TC) Industrial-1 (I-1) Industrial-2 (I-2)

Public (P) Village (V) Agriculture (A) Conservation (C) Watershed (W) Historic preservation (HP) Planned development (PD) Floating zone (F)

Through an adaptive land use planning process the zones would be converted to higher intensity or restriction as needed, (See Figure 1.07).

Figure 1.07 - Adaptive Zoning

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1.4 Adaptive Planning Process

These examples serve to offer helpful hints but should not be considered ideal models. Problems exist in possibly all planning programs, and commonly cited criticisms include:

• long, complicated and expensive permitting process • pseudo public review process due to difficulties in accessing or understanding

information • lack of a shared vision of desirable future scenarios between communities

An adaptive planning process that facilitates reasoning in a dynamic environment may offer a comprehensive approach to planning. This system would require planners to examine land use needs and the appropriateness of the planning process. If unanticipated events occur, the program can be adjusted to better suit the regions new needs. Regularly evaluating the land use program may help the community prepare for future challenges and reduce the costs that may result from unanticipated threats. Reevaluating the applicability of plans, ordinance, and the planning framework on a less frequent basis, i.e. ten years or more, may lower Airai’s ability to recognize and overcome such challenges. As community needs and interests change, zoning should be modified to ensure that not only are the resident needs met, but that public welfare, natural habitats, and ecological systems are protected.

A land use guidance strategy, adapted from Hawai`i County’s LUPAG system (or other Land Use Guidance Systems-LUGS) can provide a mechanism for documenting public opinion and the observations of planners and land use specialists on how growth is taking place in order to assess needed zoning revisions. Planning Department findings and recommendations can be presented to the planning commission for rezoning yearly.

An effective planning program should include the following (The League of Women Voters of Hawai‘i, n.d.):

• joint policy decisions for managing growth, preserving open space and regularly evaluating land needs

• opportunities for public input into the planning process • an institutionalized device to insure coordination between agencies in

planning and plan implementation

The LUPAG system presented above offers a start to the creation of an adaptive planning process that could guide future growth. Such a process could begin by mapping each community’s valuable resources and development goals with respect to acceptable land uses. Having these elements clearly mapped could help builders or the planning department to quickly and easily determine if a proposed project is consistent with community development goals and does not diminish or degrade community resources.


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Tools for Airai Land Use Planning:

Airai State’s land use planning program will require implementable and enforceable regulatory measures for monitoring and modifying the adopted policy. The following is a list of possible program elements:

• Zoning modification: o Change In Zoning (CIZ)

• Conservation Zones : o Conditional Use Permit (CUP): Proposed uses maybe found, through

individual review, to be consistent with the goals of the Conservation zone. o Special Management Areas (SMA): Coastal areas may require unique

considerations and restrictions. • Land Use Tools:

o Land Readjustment (LR): Infrastructure upgrades (i.e., road or sewer additions) or urban development (increasing density) use can be achieved equitably.

o Transfer of Development Rights (TDR): Dedication of land to Conservation may limit a land owner’s use of the property. TDR could allow the landowner to gain financial benefits by selling development rights to a developer building in an urban zoned area. TDR allows the receiver of the rights to increase the density of urban development projects above established standards, usually expressed in dwelling units per acre.

o Conservation Easements: Acquisition of development rights to protect sensitive areas, without having to transfer fee simple ownership of the land, thus avoiding expropriation of land owners. The landowner retains private ownership, is allowed to pursue agricultural activities and may be allowed to build a house for himself or his children.

o Conveyance Tax: Taxing the sale and transfer of lands and allocating a percentage of those revenues for the acquisition of sensitive lands or for providing affordable housing.

In identifying development, conservation, heritage, or industrial areas residents must consider economic and environmental impacts, not only community interest. Industrial uses, especially toxic material storage and disposal, are often controversial, but consensus must be reached for each and this will likely require extensive negotiation and mitigation. The implementing agent/agency should anticipate these problems and consider possible solutions before starting the visioning process.

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1.5 Compatibility-Focused Zoning

Zoning Background

The intent of zoning is to shape development by separating incompatible uses and ensuring the best use of land and resources. The development of any zoning system requires a mix of data gathering and community visioning processes. Zoning programs have evolved differently to suit regional variations in social, economic and environmental aspects. Valuable lessons arise from these differences and examples of existing zoning systems. A review of two popular zoning systems, conventional zoning and performance zoning, is offered below with an explanation of a new zoning system proposal referred to as Compatibility Focused Zoning.

Conventional Zoning

Over time, zoning systems have increased in complexity and use separation. Conventional zoning arose to protect resident interest and public health and has grown to address social disparity and city livability. Basic urban zoning districts separate residential, industrial, and commercial uses. Many current examples of conventional zoning include several districts for both residential and commercial uses depending on lot size and intensity of use. In this system, it is not uncommon to have more than twenty zoning districts with correlating permitted uses. The zoning system adopted by the Palau interim government is a similar example and incorporates 17 zones, resembling zoning codes of a highly populated US municipality, (See Figure 1.08).

Figure 1.08 - Zones Established by 31 PNCA 153


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In the US, conventional zoning has recently received much criticism. Critics argue that conventional zoning creates unlivable, unattractive, uninspiring, car-dependent communities. These criticisms are backed by decades of experience and remain relevant for consideration in Airai. It is important to note that conventional zoning has evolved to regulate development in highly populated and rapidly growing areas with a large tax base. It is also important to note that Airai has a relatively low population with low growth projections, (See Chapter 8).

Town character, urban form, convenience, functionality, safety, pollution impacts, important habitats and even view planes are all important considerations when determining the location of different activities. Because of Airai’s relatively small land area and low population a complicated zoning program may not be needed to balance resident and commercial interest.

Performance Zoning

Performance zoning developed from performance standards, which were originally created to ensure that industrial uses don’t have negative effects on surrounding communities. They set-out specific standards in areas like noise, odor, smoke, and airborne pollution. Ft. Collins (US) is the largest city to have implemented performance zoning. This city models many of the strengths and weaknesses of the system. The Ft. Collins system utilizes several hundred different criteria that are determined by the goals set forth through community input. These criteria give guidance to land use regulation and simultaneously provide landowners with more freedom to pursue individual goals. The focus on reducing negative impacts is effective in preventing undesirable development from taking place; however the excessive number of criteria complicate the system and make implementation difficult. There is also criticism that some of the criteria are too subjective. All these observations, both the strengths and weaknesses, offer valuable examples for Airai.

Compatibility-Focused Zoning in Airai

Conventional zoning and performance zoning provide two different and useful systems for the development of a land use system that best fits the state of Airai. Several factors specific to Airai state must be considered before any system is adopted, including:

• Relatively small population • Considerable recent growth and likely continued growth • Land use demands are mixed though dominated by residential • Financial capital is limited • Social capital is very strong implying community involvement will be

forthcoming, and furthermore is necessary.

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Figure 1.09, below, represents the summary of this review of conventional zoning and performance zoning and how the helpful elements these two programs can be combined to create a new and appropriate zoning program for Airai State.

Conventional Zoning + Performance Zoning Compatibility-Focused Zoning Conventional Zoning Pros Cons • Segregates incompatible uses • Guides land use • Useful for conservation • Well established • Relatively clear to landowners

• Limits freedom of landowner • Prevents mixed use • Resource intensive to implement • Designed for urban

Performance Zoning Pros Cons • Flexibility to land owner and

community • Community sets priorities & goals • Facilitates mixed-use • Focuses on impact • System design is flexible to locality • Fosters relationship between

community and planning agency

• Not well developed • Dependent on good criteria • Implementation is resource intensive • Criteria rating can be subjective • Clarity is a challenge

Compatibility-Focused Zoning

• Guides land use • Ensure best use of land • Segregate incompatible uses • Increase freedom of land owners • Achieve community goals • Facilitate mixed-use • Foster relationship between planning agency and community • Embrace Airai’s strong social capital • Create attractive development

Figure 1.09 - Compatibility-Focused Zoning Flow Chart


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Minimalist Zoning

Compatibility-focused zoning uses an adaptation of conventional zoning to take advantage of its strengths, which for the purposes of this paper is termed minimalist zoning. This adaptation retains two crucial functions of conventional zoning: it segregates the most incompatible uses and ensures the best use of land.

Minimalist zoning utilizes four major zones: conservation, agriculture, industrial and urban. As in a conventional zoning system, each zone has permitted uses. These four zones allow for intelligent allocation of land based on best use; and segregates uses that are irreconcilably incompatible. As an example, this system ensures that agricultural lands are protected and preserved for food production. Likewise, it ensures that a waste dump will not be inappropriately close to homes.

Within the four major zones, the urban zone is where most development will occur. In order to utilize the greatest strengths of conventional zoning four urban zones are created: neighborhood residential, village commercial, commercial and resort center. The first two zones are groupings of the urban zones in existence through PNCA 31-153. Whereas, the latter two -commercial and resort center- are direct utilizations from PNCA 31-153. These four zones provide a framework for dealing with any development needed in Airai. They are crafted to allow maximum freedom and flexibility, yet they still preserve the desired character of the neighborhood.

Minimalist zoning uses a common format to present the different zones:

1. A written document complete with: purpose and applicability, and permitted uses; 2. A table with all zoning districts and uses; 3. A map with zoning districts

These three techniques of presentation allow the zoning system to be easily represented and understood. The first, with the purpose and applicability section, gives the zoning code an avenue to express the desired attributes of the zoning districts. This is very important because it is a qualitative statement about the districts, which allows for the consideration of all the attributes of the community. This is also the best place to look for a description of the zones, as this is where it would appear on the final zoning code.

Neighborhood Residential

The NR (neighborhood residential) district provides for lower, low and medium density use for neighborhood family life. The NR district provides for small commercial business use, which is designed to service the community. The NR district provides for small manufacturing, fabrication and similar operations, which are designed to allow the members of the neighborhood to engage in small and independent business endeavors. The NR district provides for community and recreation uses, which service the neighborhood.

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All uses permitted allow landowners the most freedom possible, while not disturbing the neighborhood character.

Village Commercial

The VC (village commercial) district provides for, low, medium and medium-high density use for village family life. The VC district provides for commercial business uses to serve Airai. The VC district provides for small manufacturing, fabrication and similar operations, which are not incompatible with village life. The VC district provides for community and recreation uses, which service Airai. As with the NR district, the VC district allows landowners to pursue chosen activities while preserving the village character.

Commercial

The C (commercial) district applies to an area suitable for commercial uses and services on a broad basis to serve as the central shopping or principal downtown area for a city or a region. The C district does not provide for any residential uses, as it is intended to encompass intense commercial needs that cannot be accommodated by VC or NR districts. No C district shall be established until there is a demonstrated need for such action.

Resort Center

The RV (resort center and visitor facilities) district applies to areas that accommodate the needs and desires of visitors, tourists and transient guests. Special consideration should be taken to ensure that RV districts do not adversely affect neighboring zoning districts. It may apply to a single isolated hotel or resort with or without a commercial mall or shopping section.

The four urban zoning districts described above are capable of capturing most of the commercial activity proposed to take place in mixed-use residential/commercial areas. Industrial, agricultural, conservation districts cover other uses. As shown in Figure 1.10, Simplified Zoning Groupings, Commercial (C) is a subcategory of Village Commercial (VC) and will only be utilized if concentrated commercial activity occurs and the conversion of (VC) to (C) is deemed necessary. Figure 1.10 also shows how other zones established in PNCA 31-153 are captured in the six (6) primary zones.


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Figure 1.10 - Simplified Zoning Groupings

Compatibility-Focused Performance Zoning

Compatibility-focused performance zoning is a simplified adaptation of performance zoning, which concentrates on existing and desired character of a neighborhood. Compatibility-focused performance zoning focuses on the impacts of any development. This system allows for the maximum freedom and flexibility for landowners while ensuring the development fits with the character of the surrounding community.

The primary challenge to establishing compatibility-focused performance zoning is to develop the criteria. These criteria will correlate with a scoring system whereby any project must achieve a set score in order to receive approval. Since the success of the compatibility-focused performance zoning depends on the strength of the criteria and scoring system, the process by which these are established is extremely important. The number of criteria that could be added to the system is great, but an excessive amount will complicate and delay the permitting process. Using fewer criteria will lead to a more functional land use system for all parties involved including the planning agency, land owners and community. Through community assessment and visioning workshops it should be possible to identify the needed criteria. As indicated in the flowchart below, developing a good compatibility-focused performance zoning system is an involved process but it can help build an effective land use regulatory system, bolstered with community participation.

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Figure 1.11 - Compatibility-Focused Performance Zoning Establishment Process NR Zone

As is apparent in the process of developing the compatibility-focused performance zoning, this is a system that will need to be carefully created to suit Airai’s specific needs and desires. Though the criteria need to be developed with the Airai community, several criteria would presumably be important including noise, light, airborne pollutants, traffic impact, and open space. However, the matrix could easily include other important aspects like landscaping and building design. Though the criteria and their value are inherently subjective, because they involve peoples likes, dislikes, annoyances and pleasures, it is important that the criteria matrix is designed in the most objective manner possible. An objective criteria matrix will make implementation and compliances easier and more efficient.

With compatibility as a target, existing circumstances provide a baseline reference point around which to create objective criteria and standards. A functional system would create standards and scoring based around specific deviations from the baseline. In the case of noise for example, the existing noise level could easily be measured. Measuring any proposed project’s noise impact based on existing levels against agreed upon standards would allow for objective scoring as demonstrated in Table 1.02.


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Table 1.02 - Example Criteria Matrix Criteria Standard Points Point combinations Maximum Points

a. Average ≥0 dB deviation 200

b. Average ≥5 dB deviation 185

c. Average ≥10 dB deviation 160

Noise

d. Average ≥15 dB deviation 100

N/A

200

The objective of any zoning system is to ensure that undesirable development does not occur. Just as importantly, the correlating objective is to guide any development. These objectives mean that any zoning system and implementing agency should assist landowners attempting development to successfully conform and earn approval for their projects. This implies that a step should be added to any zoning permitting process. If a project is rejected, the applicant should receive a detailed explanation. As an additional service, the zoning agency should develop a hand-book for mitigating project issues.

1.6 Permitting Process

Figure 1.12 - Permitting Process Flow Chart

Since the criteria and standards are specific to Airai and must be innovated in Airai, Airai’s future planning agency must have a very keen understanding of the various aspects. This will enable future planners to navigate the system with the community, thus facilitating its smooth implementation. During the process of creating the criteria matrix, a simultaneous effort to create a hand-book on compliances and mitigation should be created. The next section is an introduction on the important issue of sound. This section is designed as model for what could be done for each criterion.

Noise Pollution Considerations Regarding Compatibility-Focused Zoning

Noise ordinance is a common element in municipal development standards and noise from different activities should be considered when mixing commercial and residential

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development. A background study on the effects of sound at different levels, ways to buffer noise, and a review of existing noise ordinance was conducted for this report, (See Appendix 1: Noise Pollution Considerations for Land Use Zoning). Findings from Appendix 1 that are relevant to the zoning program proposed here are the perceived effects of noise and ways to buffer noise between properties.

The study shows that rural areas experience an ambient daytime noise level around 50 decibels (dB) and urban areas are typically 60 dB or higher. Eberhard Sengpiel (2009) states that an increase of noise from 6 to 10 dB gives a perceived doubling of loudness. This means that cities might seem to be twice as loud as rural areas. The study also found that exposure to increased ambient noise levels can detrimentally affect children’s mental health and ability to focus in school, and can cause sleep deprivation, stress, high blood pressure, and reduced productivity in adults (Appendix 1).

To effectively buffer sound with zoning codes and building ordinance, regulations should identify excessive noise producing activities, noise sensitive uses, and noise tolerant uses. Noises that disrupt the activities or cause discomfort to the people surrounding the noise source are considered excessive, and this level ranges from 80 dB and higher. Sensitive uses include schools, churches, hospitals, and can include courts. Noise levels at the property lines surrounding sensitive uses should be kept near 40 dB or less.

This paper proposes that noise levels from commercial activity can be damped by distance, adjacent sound tolerant commercial uses, vegetative buffers, or structural barriers. Any physical feature between the noise producer and receiver will reduce the noise impact to the receiver, and can reduce the required amount of distance between uses. Sound meters can be used to determine exact noise levels and allowable distances.

Sound Tolerant Uses

Sound tolerant uses are defined as commercial activities that produce lower noise levels than the activity requiring buffering and which are unaffected by the primary noise source. Sound tolerant uses could include businesses with walls or buffers that adequately damp sound so that activities inside are not affected by adjacent noises or so noises produced inside do not affect people outside. Sound tolerant uses could include the following, and may require vegetative or structural buffers to conform to regulations:

• Breweries, distilleries, and alcohol manufacturing facilities • Carpentry shops • Convenience stores • Crematoriums • Crop production or minor agricultural products processing • Food manufacturing and processing • Home improvement shops • Laundries


26

• Light manufacturing, processing and packaging, where the products produced are sold on premises

• Machine, welding, sheet metal, and metal plating and treating establishments • Plumbing, electrical, air conditioning and heating establishments • Self-storage facilities • Storage and sale of seed, feed, fertilizer and other products essential to

agricultural production • Telecommunication antennas and towers • Warehousing • Wholesaling and distribution operations5

Other uses that could serve as buffers include vacation rental units, motels, youth hostels, agricultural activities, or plant nurseries if such activities are considered appropriate by ASPC and residents and are incorporated as allowable uses.

Buffering Sound with Distance

Calculating noise level reduction over distance is difficult and inexact and can be effected by the damping effects of walls, vegetation, terrain, and weather, (both wind and humidity). Calculations of distances needed to reduce the noise levels of several activities to at or below 80 dB are presented in Appendix 1, Worth noting is that jack hammers and diesel truck can require up to 100 meters, and a handheld circular saw or a crying baby could require only 6 meters. Of course, increasing the number of noise sources also increases overall decibel levels, but not on a one-to-one ratio. For example, increasing the sources by 5 will raise the sound level 7 dB, (See Appendix 1).

Buffering Sound with Barriers

Vegetative buffers such as trees or hedges could reduce allowable distances. If vegetative buffers were used to achieve acceptable sound ranges around a commercial activity some provision must exist to ensure that the buffer be preserved.

Structural barriers consist of two types, reflective and absorptive. “The measured barrier noise reduction tends to level off at around 20 to 25 dB.” (Daigle, 1999) Daigle notes that plastic barriers can be constructed from recycled material. Example barriers are identified in Appendix 1.

Sample of Noise Ordinance in US Cities

A review of existing noise ordinances in four (4) US cities was conducted to assess ordinance consistency and seek examples upon which standards for Airai can be modeled. The conclusion of this limited search reveals vast inconsistencies in noise ordinances. The four (4) example ordinances, which represent the range of possibilities is offered in Appendix 5 This list is compiled from various land uses identified in the County of Hawaii Planning Department’s “Zoning Code Permissible Uses.”

Chapter 1: Land Use

27

1. The sample was intended to be random, a sample based on population density or regional character may be more appropriate for review in adopting noise regulation standards for Airai.


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Public Outreach Technologies”; Prepared for the HCPO Conference: http://www.co.Hawaiì .hi.US/planning/cdp/HCPO%20-%20Oahu.pdf, accessed on 12/09

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http://luc.state.hi.US/about.htm, accessed on 12/09. Hawaiì Legislative Reference Bureau. (2009). The Constitution of the State of Hawaiì ;

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Community-Based Planning in Palau”, unpublished AOC or Term paper for a course Department of Urban and Regional Planning, UH Manoa, HI.

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MWM Architects, Inc. Guam and California. (2003). “Resource management and Development Suitability Study, for the States of the Republic of Palau”; for The Association of Governors, Republic of Palau.

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California: http://www.mapsofworld.com/country-profile/palau-information-geography-history.html, accessed on 12/09.

McCutcheon, Mary Shaw. (1981). “Resource Exploitation and Tenure of Land and Sea in Palau.” Minnesota State Department of Planning. (N.D.). “Performance Zoning: Pocket Synopsis”. Local Planning

Assistance at the Department of Administration; St. Paul, MN. Miura, Jun, and Yoshiaki Shirai. (2000). “Knowledge-Based Control of Decision-Theoretic Planning,

Adaptive Planning Model Selection”; Osaka University, Japan. Montgomery County Department of Planning. (2001). “Montgomery County, VA: Planning Techniques and

Tools”: http://www.montva.com/departments/plan/cpfiles/EXISTING_PLANS/OPENSPACEPLAN/chap3c.php#4c, Accessed on 12/09.

Nero, Karen L. (2001). “Culture of Palau”; Countries and Their Culture:

http://www.everyculture.com/No-Sa/Palau.html; from “Endangered peoples of Oceania : struggles to survive and thrive”; Westport, Conn., London: Greenwood Press: http://mediatheque.adck.nc/mediath/notice.cfm?numnot=18620, accessed on 12/09.

Ngiraingas, Madelsar T. (2009). “Demographic Land Use Trends for Babeldaub Island”; Prepared for the

Ecosystem‐Based Management Initiative; Bureau of Arts and Culture Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs.

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unpublished AOC paper or Term paper for a corse,Department of Urban and Regional Planning, UH Manoa; HI.

Ottensmann, , John R. (N.D.). “The Alternative of Performance Zoning (ch. 4)” in Planning and Markets.

Indiana University. Palau Conservation Society. (2005). “Report on Community Visioning Activities in Palau”; Small Island

Voice: http://www.unesco.org/csi/smis/siv/Pacific/pal-act6_comvis.htm, accessed on 12/09.

Palau Interim Government. (N.D.). “Trust Territory Land Planning Act, 31 PNCA, Section 153”. Planning Wiki. (2009). “Performance Zoning”:

http://planningwiki.cyburbia.org/Performance_zoning, accessed on 12/09. Republic of Palau. (N.D.). “Title 31 Section 153 of the Palau National Code Annotated, of the Trust Territory”,

Land Planning Act.


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Staley, Samuel R. (1997). “Flexible Zoning: An Overview of the Issue”. Urban Futures. Available at

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Hawaiì . State of Hawaiì Department of Agriculture. (2009). IAL Fact Sheet Act 183:

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Compatibility Focused Zoning: County of Hawaiì . (2005). “Zoning Code, Subdivision Code, and Planning Rules, Chapter 25 – Zoning

Code”. Available at http://www.Hawaiì -county.com/planning/rules.htm, accessed on 12/09.

County of Hawaiì. (2005). “Zoning Code, Subdivision Code, and Planning Rules, Permitted Use Table”.

Available at http://www.Hawaiì -county.com/planning/rules.htm, accessed on 12/09.

Daigle, Gilles A. (1999). Technical Assessment of the Effectiveness of Noise Walls, International Institute of

Noise Control Engineering; Ottawa, Canada. Egger, William. (1990). “Land Use Reform Through Performance Zoning,” in Reason Foundation. 1990. Environmental Protection Agency. (2009). “Land Use Planning Techniques”. Available at

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University of Pittsburgh Law Review: Volume 68, p.915-952. Kaiser, Edward J., David R. Godschalk, and F. Stuart Chapin, Jr. (1995). Urban Land Use Planning, 4th

edition. Montgomery County Department of Planning. (2001). “Montgomery County, VA: Planning Techniques and

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Daniel Alexander Dane Sjoblom

2.1 Conservation

Kid a dimlak denguu tial beluu ra rucheled era irechar, Kede bai meleng er ngii era rengeleked (We do not inherit the earth from our ancestors; we are borrowing it from our children).6

Introduction

Conservation is the active preservation and management of natural and cultural resources. Conservation or stewardship has long been valued in Palauan culture. Traditional leadership and clan tenure-ships performed the important role of managing both natural and cultural resource.

Increasing development is putting considerable strain on many of Airai’s important resources, and the newly constructed Compact Road will likely lead to more development, potentially straining those resources even further. However, Palau has been proactive in establishing conservation systems. The Resource Management and Development Suitability Study (MWM, 2003) did much to document the situation. The currently in development Ecosystem-Based Management Initiative holds great promise for establishing a conservation management system for all the states of Babeldaob. Finally, the Palau National Conservation Society and Airai State Planning Commission are currently working to develop a master plan for the state of Airai that will develop ‘protection and management’ plans for Airai’s cultural and natural resources.

Airai has many and differing resources: these vary from an assortment of historical sites to its large protective mangrove forests. It is important to consider each individual resource when determining the best way to preserve them. Conservation requires a series of steps to determine best management practices:

• Identify resources: challenges and opportunities • Determine objectives: such as high water quality or species revival

6 Taken from “Financing the Protected Area Network Republic of Palau” by Alma Ridep-Morris. Available at http://coralreef.gov/meeting14/pan_susfin_palau.pdf


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• Necessary actions: identify allowable uses and needed mitigation measures

At each step the situation will differ for every resource, therefore it is essential that the planning process consider the resources both separately and together. In this effort, the conservation discussion will be broken into two broad sections: natural and cultural resources. For conservation purposes, natural resources should be further sectioned into mangrove, rock islands, forest, reef and watershed (with riparian buffer zones and wetlands).

Cultural Resources

Airai has many valuable cultural resources. The work of documenting these resources is already well underway. The Airai State Planning Commission has identified numerous cultural sites, including: bais, traditional villages, historical taro patches, burial sites, landmarks, terraces, and various WWII sites. These cultural resources are so plentiful that when mapped they cover significant portions of the developable areas of Airai, (See Figures 3.11, 3.12 and 3.13 in Chapter 3). Each site is valuable in its own unique way: some sites are important gathering places, while others are sacred farming patches. Given the uniqueness of each site, it is crucial that the management plan to protect these sites is specific and appropriate. As an example of the important differences consider two sites, a burial cave and a terrace: the value, appropriate uses, opportunities, and challenges are completely different.

Cultural resources are those that are specific to a particular people; in Airai it is the people. Any cultural resource conservation plan for the state should be guided by the people of Airai. However, there is much that must be done in the planning agency to facilitate this process. The process should involve the following steps:


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Figure 2.01 - Cultural and Historic Preservation Plan Development Process7

Once a resource is identified, conservation objectives are clearly defined, and appropriate management actions are determined; the conservation management must be integrated with other land use systems. An effective way to create this integration is through the utilization of overlay zoning.

Overlay zoning is a technique for integrating more constrictive zoning into a conventional zoning system. Overlay zoning allows the initial zoning district to remain intact while applying the more constrictive zoning on top. The result is a zoning code that efficiently brings conservation into the land use regulatory system. In a place like Airai, where many cultural and historical sites are interwoven within the community, this will allow for the implementation of conventional zoning over all lands.

7 Figure is inspired by State of Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources. “Historic Preservation Review Process”. Available at http://www.state.hi.US/dlnr/hpd/pdfs/revproc.pdf


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Natural Resources

Airai has many and diverse natural resources. These resources include: mangroves, rock islands, forests, reefs and watersheds. All of these combine to give Palau its beautiful island ecosystem. The conservation of one resource or habitat has a direct effect on the health of the ecosystem as a whole. The Ecosystem-Based Management Initiative’s embrace of “ridge to reef” approach exhibits this management approach well. While it is essential to consider each natural resource as part of the greater island ecosystem, it is also essential to develop a conservation plan catered to each resource.

Palau has been actively studying and assessing the best ways to manage their natural resources. Scientific research and conservation techniques can be resource intensive: requiring many hours from highly-skilled laborers. Furthermore, an active effort is occurring on the national level in the area of natural resource conservation. Given these factors, it is advisable that the state of Airai look to national efforts to help establish a conservation plan. A number of plans and reports exist including the Palau Mangrove Management Plan published in 2000. This plan involves a thorough survey of mangrove resources and considers best management plans. Undoubtedly, Airai state should attempt to collaborate with the national government to ensure the best use of financial resources. With these considerations, this report will not attempt any detailed survey of, or plan for the conservation of Airai’s natural resources.

This section will attempt to provide a framework for developing conservation land use policy. It utilizes the riparian buffer zone as an introduction to conservation and effective land use regulation. This section will include an introduction and policy proposal for riparian buffer zones. This is included for two purposes: first, due to the proximity of streams to developed areas in Airai it is paramount that a riparian buffer zone be integrated into land use regulations immediately; secondly, to provide a format for the presentation of a conservation area.

Figure 2.02 - Conservation Divisions


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Riparian Buffer Zones

I. Introduction Among the many challenges development has brought to Airai, soil erosion,

sedimentation, non-point pollution and deteriorated water quality has presented some of most serious concerns. These occurrences have led to both negative land-based and sea-based effects. The most noticeable negative effects can be seen in the deterioration of the reef and fish levels in Airai Bay. The preservation, re-establishment and management of appropriate riparian buffer zones around streams can play an essential role in reducing soil erosion, sedimentation and non-point pollution.

II. Realm of importance Conservation, watershed, erosion mitigation, disaster mitigation

III. Background A. Riparian Buffer Zones

A riparian buffer zone is the natural area of vegetation adjacent to streams, rivers, lakes and ponds. Riparian buffer zones naturally occur with plant species that thrive in water rich conditions and tolerate periodic total water immersion. These zones act as important natural biofilters: preventing excessive sedimentation, regulating water temperature, reducing water turbidity, stabilizing stream banks and preventing soil erosion. Collectively these benefits protect aquatic environments, both in stream and in deposit waters. In the built environment these zones serve an increased role: preventing non-point pollution, ensuring water quality and serving as a natural aesthetic asset. Ironically it is these built environments where human activity represents the greatest threat to riparian buffer zones.

Due to the importance of riparian buffer zones in mitigating potential damage from development, they have been widely studied. Particular attention has been given to establishing best width and acceptable uses within riparian buffer zones. Riparian buffer zones are considered to be dividable into two or three distinct sections: either streamside and outer; or streamside, middle, and outer sections. The sections are distinct in permitted uses and appropriate vegetation. The streamside section is to have restrictive uses (limited to unmodified walking paths) and requires a mix of vegetation including large trees. The middle and outer sections allow greater uses (including chemical free agriculture and grass lawns), but prohibit any structures. While much study has been done to determine appropriate widths for riparian buffer zones to best perform important riparian roles, the importance of local conditions prevents any universal standards. However, an extensive review of published research of riparian buffer zones allows for reasonable preliminary recommendations, until site-specific research is possible.

Along streams, 30-meter riparian buffer zones, composed of 8-meters stream-side section and 22-meter outer zone are recommend until site specific research is conducted which might justify different zone sizes.


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B. Airai’s Riparian Buffer Zones The negative effects of deteriorated riparian buffer zones are visible in Airai. Due to

mismanaged development and the damaging of riparian buffer zones, soil erosion, non-point pollution, excessive sedimentation and excessive nutrient loads have lead to the deterioration of stream and reef ecosystems where stream waters are deposited. This has been documented in several studies. Two studies which best document the situation are: “Community Consultations on Marine and Terrestrial Resource Uses” and “Impacts of Riparian Forest Removal on Palauan Streams”. The former study specifically identifies negative effects of deteriorated marine ecosystems in Airai: documenting decreasing numbers of invertebrates, clams and reef fish, and reef damage. The latter is a scientific study which directly examines the effects of damaged riparian buffer systems on stream water conditions throughout Babeldaob. The report concludes that streams in affected areas receive greater sun radiation, have higher temperatures and receive higher nutrient and sediment loads. Collectively, these conditions have had an adverse effect on the stream water quality and stream ecosystems.

IV. Policy Activities Airai should establish riparian buffer zones as a special conservation zone around all

streams: both perennial and seasonal. Airai should immediately implement 30-meter riparian buffer zones, composed of an 8-meter streamside section and 22-meter outer zone. In the stream-side section permitted uses should be strictly limited, to not greater than unmodified walking paths; and should require a mix of vegetation including large trees. In the outer section, permitted uses should allow chemical-free agriculture, grass lawns and similar vegetation, but not allow any structures. Airai should ensure that all streams (perennial and seasonal) are documented and correctly mapped. In order to integrate the riparian buffer conservation zones into the broader land use regulatory system, overlay zoning should be utilized.

If feasible, a study should be undertaken which will ascertain the health of all of Airai’s riparian buffer zones. This study should identify appropriate vegetation species, re-vegetation techniques, management techniques and appropriate size of zones according to water flow and terrain. In areas where riparian buffer zones have been harmed they should be rehabilitated. This study would best be conducted at the national level.

V. Immediate Objectives • Ensure riparian buffers zones are performing their natural role of preventing soil

erosion, sedimentation, nutrientization and non-point pollution. • Improve stream and down-stream ecosystems: including reef ecosystems.

VI. Long-term objectives • Protect Airai’s ecosystems and biodiversity. • Ensure Airai’s ecosystems are conserved for the enjoyment and livelihood of the

people of Airai.


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VII. Challenges Riparian buffer zones are a conservation district that is dependent on the natural

terrain of Airai. This means that these zones might limit the use rights of property owners. GIS mapping shows that some buildings are located in proposed riparian buffer zones.

If feasible, these buildings should be relocated. If relocation is not feasible, existing buildings should be classified as non-complaint and not be permitted to do any floor space enlargements.

2.2 Agriculture

The Agricultural (A) district provides for agricultural activity and very low density agriculturally-based residential use, encompassing rural areas of good to marginal agricultural and grazing land, forest land, game habitats, and areas where urbanization is not found to be appropriate.

Food Security

Preserving agricultural land can have several benefits such as maintaining aesthetic quality and character of an area, protecting ecological systems (groundwater, photosynthesis, species proliferation), and facilitating food production. The ability of a region to produce enough food to provide for its population is referred to as food security. Rising fuel costs and subsequently higher transportation costs make food security an important consideration. The Food Security Learning Center (2008) defines food security as "strong, sustainable, local and regional food systems that ensure access to affordable, nutritious, and culturally appropriate food for all people at all times."

Soils Suitable for Agriculture in Airai

Appendix E of the MWM Palau Resource Management Report (MWM, 2003) identifies the following soils types found in Airai as suitable for agriculture:


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Table 2.01 - Airai Soils Suitable for Agriculture

MUSYM MUKEY Soil Type Slope

400 1 Aimeliik-Palau complex 6-12



406 7 Babelthuap-Ngardmau complex 12-30

408 9 Dechel-Mesei complex 0-2

420 21 Ngatpang Gravelly clay loam 2-6




424 25 Ngedebus sand 0-3

426 27 Ngersuul stilt loam 0-2

431 32 Palau-Aimeliik complex 2-6

435 36 Tabecheding silty clay loam 2-6

436 37 Tabecheding silty clay loam 6-12

Agricultural Land Protection Legislation in Hawaiì

Article XI, Section 3, of the Constitution of the State of Hawaiì (1978), established a framework for conserving and protecting agricultural lands in the State of Hawaiì . This effort indicates recognition of the development pressures on agricultural land and the importance of agricultural identity in the State. The main objectives of this legislation are highlighted below (Hawaii Legislative Reference Bureau, 2009):

• conserve and protect agricultural lands, • promote diversified agriculture, • increase agricultural self-sufficiency, and assure the availability of agriculturally

suitable lands.

The Hawaiì State Department of Agriculture (DOA) first defined important agricultural lands in Act 183 (now Act 233) as those that:

• Are capable of producing sustained high agricultural yields when treated and managed according to accepted farming methods and technology;

• Contribute to the State’s economic base and produce agricultural commodities for export, or local consumption; or,

• Are needed to promote the expansion of agricultural activities and income for the future, even if not in current production (DOA, 2005).

The State’s role is to promote agricultural development and support a land use planning objective that delineates blocks of productive agricultural lands and activity for protection from encroachment of nonagricultural uses. Act 183 (2005) set forth eight criteria:


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1. Land currently used for agricultural production; 2. Land with soil qualities and growing conditions that support agricultural

production of food, fiber, or fuel- and energy-producing crops; 3. Land identified under agricultural productivity rating systems, such as the

agricultural lands of importance to the State of Hawai`i (ALISH) system adopted by the board of agriculture on January 28, 1977;

4. Land types associated with traditional native Hawai`i agricultural uses, such as taro cultivation, or unique agricultural crops and uses, such as coffee, vineyards, aquaculture, and energy production;

5. Land with sufficient quantities of water to support viable agricultural production; 6. Land whose designation as important agricultural lands is consistent with general,

development, and community plans of the county; 7. Land that contributes to maintaining a critical land mass important to agricultural

operating productivity; and 8. Land with or near support infrastructure conducive to agricultural productivity,

such as transportation to markets, water, or power (DOA, 2005).

The commission may deem lands suitably qualified if they meet the following minimal requirements:

1) Land with sufficient quantities of water; 2) Land that contributes to a critical land mass important to agricultural operating

productivity (DOA, 2005).

MWM Proposed Objectives

Section 3.2.5.4 of the MWM Palau Resource Management Report addresses Agriculture and Forestry, and identifies the following objectives:

• Objective LUA-1.1: Protect existing, and increase, availability of agricultural lands and irrigation water systems.

• Objective LUA-1.2: Recognize and pursue differing scales of agricultural • production to meet differing needs • Objective LUA-1.3: Establish strong relationships between the agriculture and

visitor industries (MWM, 2003).

Objective LUA-1.4 of this report offers agricultural policies that integrate agricultural activities with environmental resource protection goals including:

a) Minimize use of sensitive wetland or mangrove habitat for agricultural

production; b) Integrate soil conservation practices to minimize sedimentation of stream courses

and marine habitats;


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c) Discourage unplanned or uncontrolled tillage on slopes over 12%; and d) Discourage widespread and uncontrolled clearing of healthy forest habitat for

agriculture (MWM, 2003).

2.3 Urban

To contain future development in more concentrated villages this report proposes criteria for establishing an urban growth boundary. Urban growth boundaries can be an effective strategy for discouraging sprawl and protecting valuable resources and sensitive ecosystems. The methodology and description of findings is detailed in section 3.2 Urban Growth Boundary, in this report. This report takes the position that future development should be directed and focused to reduce environmental impact, minimize infrastructure costs and conserve resources.

Contemporary urban design models favor mixed use villages that allow residents to live, work and pursue recreational activities in a walkable locality. Such a design should incorporate a mix of residential and commercial uses. If left unregulated, development of any sort can cause impacts to residents and resources.

This report attempts to lay out a zoning plan for Airai in a way that protects residents and ecological systems while allowing the integration of business into residential areas by buffering noise, air, and light pollution with distance, barriers, or other allowable uses. By sequencing allowable uses it is possible that appropriate town centers can develop naturally allowing business growth to guide urban form. Simply dropping a zoning map on top of a parcel map may not help Airai build functional and equitable settlements. Criteria typical to traditional zoning could be established to dictate the designation of particular areas for certain uses, but this would entirely ignore land ownership and the desired land use of residents. The zoning program proposed in this report would foster a more natural development and reduce the potential for “windfall and wipeout”, or the arbitrary reaping of large profits or suffering of heavy losses, which often result when lands are zoned.

Heavy industrial activities are excluded from this zone and do not fit into this criteria on principle. The potential for human or ecological harm is too great and these uses need to be concentrated in areas that meet different criteria. The industrial zone is explained in Section 2.4.

Urban Zoning District Regulations

Division 1. Neighborhood Residential (NR) Section 1: Purpose and Applicability

The Neighborhood Residential (NR) district provides for lower, low and medium density use for neighborhood family life. The NR district provides for small commercial business uses which are designed to service the community. The NR district provides for small manufacturing, fabrication and similar operations, which are designed to allow the members of the neighborhood to engage in small and independent business endeavors. The


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NR district provides for community and recreation uses, which service the neighborhood. All uses permitted are intended to allow residents the most freedom possible in employment and consumption, while not disturbing the neighborhood character.

Section 2: Designation of NR districts Each NR district shall be designated on the zoning map with the letters “NR”.

Division 2. Village Commercial (VC) Section 1: Purpose and Applicability

The Village Commercial (VC) district provides for, low, medium and medium-high density use for village family life. The VC district provides for commercial business uses to serve Airai. The VC district provides for small manufacturing, fabrication and similar operations, which are not incompatible with village life. The VC district provides for community and recreation uses, which service Airai. All uses permitted are intended to allow residents the most freedom possible in employment and consumption, while not disturbing the village character. Section 2: Designation of VC districts

Each VC district shall be designated on the zoning map with the letters “VC”.

Division 3. Commercial (C) Section 1: Purpose and Applicability

The Commercial (C) district applies to an area suitable for commercial uses and services on a broad basis to serve as the central shopping or principal downtown area for a city or a region. The C district does not provide for any residential uses, as it is designed for high density, high impact commercial uses. The C district is intended to deal with large commercial needs that cannot be accommodated by VC or NR districts. No C district shall be established until there is a demonstrated need for such action. Section 2: Designation of C districts

Each C district shall be designated on the zoning map with the letter “C”.

Division 4. Resort Center (RV) Section 1: Purpose and Applicability

The Resort Center (RV) district applies to areas to accommodate the needs and desires of visitors, tourists and transient guests. Special consideration should be taken to ensure that RV districts do not adversely affect neighboring zoning districts. It may apply to a single isolated hotel or resort with or without a commercial mall or shopping section.

The establishment a RC district should be integrated into the Airai State Master Plan. Section 2: Designation of RV districts

Each RC district shall be designated on the zoning map with the letters “RV”.


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2.4 Industrial

Section 1: Purpose and Applicability

The Industrial (I) district applies to areas for business and industrial uses which are generally in support of but not necessarily compatible with those permissible activities and uses in other commercial districts. Additionally, it applies to areas for uses that are generally considered to be offensive or have some element of danger.

Section 2: Designation of I districts

Each Industrial (I) district shall be designated on the zoning map with the letter “I”.

Permitted Uses by Zoning District

Permitted uses are detailed in Table 2.2 – Zoning Code: Permitted Uses, below. This list is compiled from various land uses identified in the County of Hawaii Planning Department’s “Zoning Code Permissible Uses”, (County of Hawaii, 2005).


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Table 2.02 - Zoning Code: Permitted Uses


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47


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References

Conservation: Environmental Protection Agency. (2005). “Riparian Buffer Width, Vegetative Cover, and Nitrogen

Removal Effectiveness: A Review of Current Science and Regulations”. http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/600R05118/600R05118.pdf

Fischer, Richard A, and J. Craig Fischenich. (2000). “Design Recommendations for Riparian Corridors

and Vegetated Buffer Strips”. http://dnr.wi.gov/org/water/wm/dsfm/shore/documents/sr24.pdf

Fischer, Richard A, Chester O. Martin, and J. Craig Fischenich. (2000). “Improving Riparian Buffer

Strips and Corridors for Water Quality and Wildlife” for International Conference of Riparian Ecology and Management in Multi-Land Use Watersheds, August 2000.

Kattelmann, Richard, and Michael Embury. (1996). “Riparian Areas and Wetlands”, in Sierra Nevada

Ecosystem Project: Final report to Congress, Volume III. Kwon, Hye Yeong, Rebecca Winer and Tom Schueler. “8 Tools of Watershed Management”. Watershed

Academy: US EPA. http://www.epa.gov/watertrain/protection/

MacKenzie, Richard A. (2008). “Impacts of Riparian Forest Removal on Palauan Streams,” Biotropica:

Volume 40, Issue 6: p. 666-675. Mayer, P.M., S.K. Reynolds, M.D. McCutchen, and T.J. Canfield. (2006). Riparian buffer width,

vegetative cover, and nitrogen removal effectiveness: A review of current science and regulations. EPA/600/R-05/118. Cincinnati, OH, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

MWM Architects, Inc. Guam and California. (2003). Resource Management and Development Suitability

Study. The Association of Governors, ROP: Koror, Palau Natural Resource Conservation Service, US Federal Agency. “NCRS Planning and Design Manual: Riparian

Buffer Zones”. http://www.abe.msstate.edu/csd/NRCS-BMPs/pdf/streams/bank/riparianzone.pdf

Ngiraingas, Madeslar T. (2009). “Demographic and Land Use Trends for Babeldaob Island”. Palau Conservation Society. (March 2003). “Community Consultations on Marine and Terrestrial Resource

Uses”. Republic of Palau Environmental Quality Protection Board. (1996). “Chapter 2401-1 Earthmoving

Regulations, Palau National Code.” State of Hawai`i Department of Land and Natural Resources. “Historic Preservation Review Process”.

http://www.state.hi.US/dlnr/hpd/pdfs/revproc.pdf


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Stormwater Manager’s Resource Center. “The Eight Tools of Watershed Protection”.

http://www.stormwatercenter.net/ Stormwater Manager’s Resource Center. “Why watersheds”

http://www.stormwatercenter.net/ Wenger, S.J., and L. Fowler. (2000). Protecting Stream and River Corridors: Creating Effective Local

Riparian Buffer Ordinances. Carl Vinson Institute of Government, University of Georgia, Athens, GA. http://www.cviog.uga.edu/pprs/57.pdf

Zoning Districts and Permitted Uses: The presentation format of the zoning district permitted use graph, the zoning district description and written

permitted uses are both modeled on the County of Hawaiì Zoning Code. The allowable use definitions are for the most part directly borrowed from the County of Hawaiì Zoning Code

definition section. However, some modifications have been made. Additionally, only select definitions are presented.

County of Hawaiì . (2005). “Zoning Code, Subdivision Code, and Planning Rules, Chapter 25 – Zoning

Code”. http://www.Hawaiì -county.com/planning/rules.htm

County of Hawaiì . (2005). “Zoning Code, Subdivision Code, and Planning Rules, Permitted Use Table”

http://www.Hawaiì -county.com/planning/rules.htm

Agricultural: Food Security Learning Center. (2009). Homepage:

http://www.whyhunger.org/programs/fslc.html Hawaiì Legislative Reference Bureau, (2009). The Constitution of the State of Hawaiì ;

http://Hawaiì .gov/lrb/con/conart11.html Hawaii State Department of Agriculture, IAL Fact Sheet Act 183. (2005)

http://hawaii.gov/hdoa/Info/ial/IAL%20Factsheet.pdf MWM Architects, Inc. Guam and California, (2003); “Resource management and Development Suitability

Study, for the States of the Republic of Palau”’; for The Association of Governors, Republic of Palau.

Urban and Industrial Zones: County of Hawaiì ; “Zoning Code, Subdivision Code, and Planning Rules”;

http://www.Hawaiì -county.com/planning/rules.htm


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Chapter 3: Development Suitability Analysis and Urban Growth Boundary

Shem Lawlor Hung Manh Nguyen

3.1 Development Suitability Analysis

According to Godschalk (Godschalk et. al., 1995) land use analysis includes three steps: suitability analysis, carrying capacity analysis, and committed land analysis. In the suitability analysis, the best locations for certain land uses were identified based on the land ecology and current land use. Each site was assigned a development suitability score based on different criteria using overlay maps. The most suitable sites had the highest aggregate score. In the second step, carrying capacity is analyzed in order to compare the demand for land with the natural and man-made system capacities. This step ensures the demand does not go beyond the threshold levels, which may result in the damage or breakdown of the system. Finally, committed lands analysis is conducted to measure the changes in production and capacity of the community facilities by analyzing the location related costs of public delivery.

In this report for Airai, due of time constraints, only the first step of suitability analysis was undertaken. The methodology for analysis is based on McHarg’s book, “Design with Nature”. In this method, McHarg develops a suitability map for urban development and conservation based on thirty ecological factors. They are divided into eight categories: climate, geology, physiography, hydrology, pedology, vegetation, wildlife, and land use. In each ecological factor, the features of unique scientific value are identified. They are evaluated in the gradient of five values. Next, they are ranked from most to least important according to two different values of conservation and urbanization. More specifically, the values rank Conservation, Passive Recreation, Active Recreation, Residential, and Commercial and Industrial Development. For example, in the climate category, air pollution is an ecological feature, the criteria for ranking is incidence from max to min (highest, medium, low, and lowest). Accordingly, the lowest polluted area will be most valuable for urbanization. Another example of an ecological factor is the Physiography or water features of significant value. The criteria are distinctive from most to least important. The following unique values are identified: bay, lake, pond and stream, marsh, and the narrows.


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Accordingly, bay is the most valuable for conservation. The following figure shows an example of how the system is evaluated for different values.

Table 3.01 - Example of Evaluation Criteria by Ian McHarg (1992) Phenomena rank Ecological factor Ranking criteria I II III IV V

Vegetation Existing forest Quality

Best ->Poorest Excellent Good Poor Disturbed Non

Forest type Scarcity Most -> Least

1 Lowland 2 Upland dry

Marsh Upland Upland moist Absence

Existing marshes Quality Best ->Poorest

Good Fair Poor (filled) None

Source: (Adapted from McHarg, 1992, p. 109)

To complete these steps requires intensive surveys and research to evaluate the features in each ecological factor. Due to time constraints the method was simplified to fit easily available data. However, the suitability analysis steps were followed for urban development as introduced by McHarg.

McHarg also developed a process for determining the degree of compatibility for different land use purposes. Table 3.01 shows the interaction and connection of each relevant factor. Based on this chart, criteria were chosen for residential or industrial development.

However, the chart only shows the natural features that determine the compatibility but does not consider the economic features. For example, to do the analysis for Airai, in addition to the natural features such as slope, soil foundation, erosion, other criteria were used such as proximity to the existing roads and proximity to the bridge that connect to Koror. Because most people work in Koror, this would reduce the commuting time promoting more efficiency in both economic and environmental terms.

To do the suitability analysis for Airai, first, ecological factors and current land uses were identified. These land uses can be divided into three types, urban, conservation, and agricultural. Figure 3.01 below displays the criterion considered to develop an Urban Growth Boundary (UGB) for Airai.


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Figure 3.01 - Criteria Considered for Urban Development Suitability

3.2 Urban Growth Boundary

Setting boundaries to contain future development has shown to be an effective strategy for discouraging sprawl and to protect valuable resources and sensitive ecosystems. While Airai is not expected to have tremendous growth in the next few decades, future development should be directed and focused to reduce environmental impact, minimize infrastructural costs and conserve resources.


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Using geographical information system (GIS) software Airai was examined to determine the areas most suitable for future development. After evaluating the criterion identified in Figure 3.01, the number of factors determining where future development should be directed was reduced to a managable number. First, the areas where development should not be allowed were established: mangroves, important water supply areas, and conservation zones; then a buffer zone area around the airport and an additional 30 meter buffer area around streams were excluded, (See Figure 3.02).

Next, four additional criteria are proposed to rate the suitability of the remaining areas for development. These criteria were: soils, slope, proximity to the bridge, and proximity to existing paved roads. Each criterion was broken down into 3-5 categories and each category was assigned a score based on how they affected development suitability.

• Soils- soils were determined to be well, moderately, poorly and very poorly suited to build on, (See Figure 3.03)

• Slope- the land was divided into 0% to 10%, 10% to 20%, 20% to 30%, and over 30% slopes, (See Figure 3.04)

• Proximity to Bridge- a layer which divided the land into four bands was created depending on the proximity to the bridge: 0 to 1600 meters, 1601 to 3200 meters, 3200 to 4800 meters, and 4801 to 6400 meters. Since a large number of Airai residents commute to and from Koror for jobs and school; directing future development towards the bridge side of the state will save time and resources, (See Figure 3.05)

• Proximity to Existing Paved Roads- the land was divided into four bands based on proximity to existing paved roads: 0 to 400 meters, 401 to 800 meters, 801 to 1600 meters, and over 1600 meters, (See Figure 3.06). Future growth should be directed near to existing paved roadways to reduce the costs of infrastructure (i.e. roads, power lines) and resources (i.e. petroleum)

Table 3.02 - Development Suitability Matrix

Criteria Scores

Soil Well Suited 5 Moderately Suited

3 Poorly Suited

1 Very Poorly Suited

0

Slope 0 – 10% 5 10 – 20% 4 20 – 30% 3 Over 30% 0 Prox. to Bridge 0- 1600m 5 1601-3200m 4 3201-4800m 3 4801-6400m 2 Over 6400m 1

Prox. to Roads 0-400m 5 401-800m 2 800-1600m 1 Over 1600m 0

The suitability score values were combined and each piece of land was given a final development suitability score from 1 to 5, with 5 being the most suitable, (See Figure 3.07). All pieces of land with a development suitability score below two (2) were eliminated. What remains is a distinct Urban Growth Boundary map based on the aggregate of all the criteria listed above, (See Figure 3.08)


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Figure 3.02 - Areas Excluded from Future Development Consideration

Figure 3.03 - Soil Suitability for Development


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Figure 3.04 - Airai Slopes

Figure 3.05 - Proximity to Bridge


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Figure 3.06 - Proximity to Paved Roads

Figure 3.07 - Aggregated Development Suitability Scores


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Figure 3.08 - Areas within Urban Growth Boundary

3.3 Conservation and Agriculture zone

In this study the suitability for conservation and agriculture zone are not ranked. as. Instead, the existing areas that are best suited for conservation and agriculture activities are shown. The criteria for mapping the conservation and agriculture areas are shown in the figure below:


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Figure 3.09 - Criteria for Conservation Zones

Figure 3.10 - Criteria for Agriculture Areas


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After defining the criteria, GIS was used to overlay the area of agriculture, conservation, and urban development zone. This could help decision makers in the State of Airai to evaluate the suggestion for an urban development zone. Based on the overlay map they can decide which conservation or agriculture area could be re-zoned for urban development. The overlay map also helps demonstrate to see the limitations of these recommendation regarding the urban development zone.

Limitation

The limitation of the conservation area map is that the data for habitat of different species is unavailable. For example the location of rare plants or habitat of endangered species would greatly enhance the conservation map. A case study of mapping the conservation area in Minnesota is a great example for Airai state to consider (Allmann, 2002). This would help demonstrate more clearly where urban development could be permitted.

In Figure 3.13, it is demonstrated that many historic sites fall inside the urban development boundary. Most of them are traditional villages and terrace sites. The urban growth boundary includes the historic sites but these sites should be protected from development regardless of inclusion within the urban growth boundary. Additionally, the most suitable area for urban development overlaps with the best land for agroforestry. However, the best agricultural land in the urban development zone has already been excluded. Therefore developing some urban area in the agroforestry land could be justified.

Another limitation of the recommended urban development boundary is that some of the areas identified could be affected by a 12.7 meter high tsunami if developed. These areas need to be identified as tsunami evacuation zones and public evacuation plans should be prepared. Since tsunamis have not affected Airai in the past and the land suitable for urban development is limited, the potential tsunami inundation areas were not excluded. However, when zoning urban lands the State of Airai should be aware of the potential inundation areas in order to apply appropriate development standards. However, GIS Maps for two tsunami scenarios for the State of Airai have been created, one is the biggest tsunami that happened in the Indian Ocean in 2004 with 12.7 meter height (National Geographic News, 2005) and the other is the tsunami which happened in Samoa in 2009 with a height of 8 meters (National, 2009).

The maps show that a tsunami of 8 meters in height would only slightly inundate the mangroves. However, a tsunami of 12.7 meters in height greatly affects current settlements as well as the areas within the recommended urban development boundary. Therefore it is important to consider this issue in the detailed zoning of the state to mitigate problems in the case a 12.7 meter tsunami were to hit Palau.


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Figure 3.11 - Map of Historic, Agriculture, and Conservation Areas


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Figure 3.12 - Overlay Map of Conservation and Urban Development Suitability


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Figure 3.13 - Overlay Map of Conservation and Urban Growth Boundary


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Figure 3.14 - 8-Meter Tsunami Scenario


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Figure 3.15 - 12.7-Meter Tsunami Scenario


66

References

All GIS maps were produced either using GIS data layers directly from the Palau Ministry of Resources and Development, PALARIS or with GIS data layers were created by performing GIS analysis on those geographic data.

Allmann, L. (2002). PROTECTING MINNESOTA’S NATURAL TREASURES. Innovative Land-Use

Planning . Kaiser, E. J., Godschalk, D. R., & Chapin, S. (1995). Urban Land Use Planning. Urbana and Chicago:

University of Illinois Press. McHarg, I. L. (1992). Design With Nature. New York: John Wiley and Sons, INC. National Geographic News. (2005). The Deadliest Tsunami in History? Retrieved from National Geographic

News: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/12/1227_041226_tsunami.html

National. (2009). National. Retrieved from Tsunami: reality worse than predicted.

http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/2934138/Tsunami-reality-worse-than-predicted

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Chapter 4: Implications of Climate Change in Palau and Airai

Hung Manh Nguyen Asheshwor Man Shrestha

4.1 Introduction

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has recognized that developing nations especially Small Island Developing States are particularly vulnerable to climate change (IPCC, 2007). Pacific Island locations including Palau are among the most vulnerable nations due to climate change effects which can claim damage to coastal land and infrastructure, failure of subsistence crops, loss of fisheries, loss of coral reefs and mangroves as well as increased vulnerability to vector borne diseases (IPCC, 2007). Although climate change impacts are global, the impacts on islands are made worse by their unique geographic location, small economies of scale and heavy reliance on fossil fuel for energy and transportation needs.

It should also be noted that there are various uncertainties associated with climate change impacts, but the Rio Declaration has advocated the precautionary principle that has been adapted by the UN. The precautionary principle states that, “where there are threats of irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation” (Barnett, 2001). The failure to act against climate change will be damaging to the world as a whole, but Pacific nations will be one of the firsts to bear the blow.

According to IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, the projected regional impacts on ‘small islands’ have been outlined as:

• Sea level rise is expected to exacerbate inundation, storm surge, erosion and other coastal hazards, thus threatening vital infrastructure, settlements and facilities that support the livelihood of island communities.

• Deterioration in coastal conditions, […] through erosion of beaches and coral bleaching, is expected to affect local resources.

• By mid-century, climate change is expected to reduce water resources in many small islands, e.g. in the Caribbean and Pacific, to the point where they become insufficient to meet demand during low-rainfall periods.


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• With higher temperatures, increased invasion by non-native species is expected to occur, particularly on mid- and high-latitude islands. (IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, 2007)

Additionally, the Fourth Assessment Report indicates that an increase in the incidence of extreme high sea-level rise (excluding tsunami events) is likely. This has a direct impact on coastal agricultural land-use.

4.2 Addressing Climate Change impact on Land-Use in Palau

Climate change is deemed to have multiple direct impacts in Palau related to temperature change, accelerated sea-level rise and change in climate extremes. There will also be a myriad of indirect impacts on the social and economic functioning of Palau. Some of the expected effects of climate change and its implication to Palau's land uses are as follows:

Table 4.01 - Effects of Climate Change

Effect Implication Increased average air and ocean temperatures Precipitation, sea level rise, winds

Increase in sea-surface temperature Possible increase in frequency and / or severity of tropical cyclones

Sea-level rise Flooding, coastal erosion, floods, salt intrusion in taro fields

Climate extremes Droughts, storms and floods

Change in precipitation Loss of water aquifers, impact on rain water harvesting

According to framework put forward by the IPCC, policy responses on climate change impacts are based on net or residual impacts that are the impact which is felt after natural or autonomous adaptations. Both mitigation and adaptation are suggested policy options. Mitigation policy address the human influence on climate change by controlling greenhouse gas emissions and encouraging carbon sinks, adaptation is a planned approach (or active approach) which deals with modifying impacts or vulnerability of systems to climate change and its subsequent effects (Smit et al., 1999). Adaptation to climate change consists of modifications of ecological and social systems to accommodate climate change effects so that the system stays in operation. Adaptation to climate change can be implemented in two ways (Barnett, 2001):

a) Through modifying systems to accommodate long-term incremental change b) Through Resilience which consists of modifying systems to enable them to absorb

and respond to short-term changes without passing critical threshold limits and so switching into alternative states of equilibrium


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Figure 4.01 - Policy Implications for Climate Change Impacts According to IPCC assessment (Adapted from Burton et al.)

Developed countries have shown less interest in their own need for adaptation, and have generally assumed that they have the financial and technical resources to adapt as and when necessary. For developing nations however, it is imperative to assess the vulnerability and use available funds to reduce it effectively (Burton, Huq, Lim, Pilifosova, & Schipper, 2002). Small Island nations will be hardest hit by the effects of climate change as it makes economical sense for developed nations to adapt rather than mitigate the effects of climate change.

The effect of sea-level rise will impact land use options for Airai in the following ways:

• Loss of coastal infrastructure: Although most infrastructures including the villages and airport lie at an elevation not impacted by foreseeable sea-level rise, there are a few buildings at the risk of flooding in such an event. Shifting of at-risk infrastructure uplands will incur substantial cost.

• Loss of mangroves: The mangroves will have to retreat inland. • Loss of agricultural land due to salt intrusion: Taro farms have to move to upper

grounds claiming forest land.

A 1m sea-level rise will not have significant impact on Airai’s settlements as all infrastructures are above that level, (See Figure 4.02). However, the mangroves will be


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affected as they occur right at the shoreline. Rising sea-level will push mangroves inlands and impact lands near the shoreline. Mangroves can resist inundation by salt water and provide food as well as shelter for many reef fish. Loss of mangroves will hence be detrimental to the local ecosystem due to soil erosion, loss of habitat and carbon dioxide removal. Palau’s main International airport, Roman Tmetuchl International Airport is situated at high elevation and any foreseeable sea-level rise is not going to impact the functioning of the airport which is an invaluable link in case of emergencies.

Another impact from sea-level rise is due to salt water inundation in taro fields. The Office of Environmental Response and Coordination (OERC) has identified a threat to soil type 408 with 0-2% slope occurring near Mangroves due to threat of salt water intrusion and Soil type 426 with 0-2% slope occurring near rivers due to dangers of sedimentation (Office of Environmental Response and Coordination, 2002). The location of the above mentioned soils in Airai are shown in Figure 4.03.

Although Palau lies outside the “Typhoon belt” of the northern equatorial Pacific, there have been high winds that veer close to the islands, (See Figure 4.04). Maximum winds recorded were during typhoon events that approached within 150 kilometers of Babeldaob (Office of Environmental Response and Coordination, 2009). Tsunamis are another hazard to coastal areas. In the advent of an earthquake in the pacific region, there may be a Tsunami which will affect Babeldaob island of Palau. The effects of 8m and 12.7m high Tsunami waves have been outlined in Chapter 3, Figures 3.14 and 3.15 respectively. The 8-meter tsunami8 estimate is taken from the October 2009 tsunami which hit Samoa and the 12.7 meter estimate9 from the Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004.

8 From National. (2009) 9 From National Geographic (2005)


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Figure 4.02 - A 1 Meter Sea-level Rise Scenario for Airai


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Figure 4.03 - Mangrove and Wetland Soil in Airai


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Figure 4.04 - Paths Depicting Course of Storm Events. Palau is located outside the typhoon region but still receives storms.

(Source: Nilfanion, Created using User:jdorje/Tracks on 2006-08-05. Background image from

Image:Whole_world_-_land_and_oceans.jpg (NASA).)

4.3 Mitigation vs. Adaptation

In comparison with total world emissions, the emission from Pacific Islands is very small (See Table 4.02). Even though Palau has signed the Kyoto Protocol (in 1999), the impact of reducing CO2 emissions from Palau is going to be negligible. However, initiatives to increase energy efficiency and use of renewable energy should be advantageous to Palau in the long run as it will pave a path away from oil as the only fuel source especially in the advent of a peak oil scenario. Although carbon tax on airplane fuel is currently not covered by the Kyoto Protocol, such tax will be inevitable in the case of peak oil. This tax will directly impact the cost of travel depending on the rate of the tax.

For an emission tax to have significant impact on reducing air-travel, the rate of tax has to be very high (Tol, 2007). Also, there is disproportionately large amount of emissions during take-off and landing that will make CO2 tax more expensive for short distance travel. However, if tax on water vapor (which is considered a greenhouse gas) is in effect, long distance flights will be hardest hit as water vapor are released during long haul cruises (Tol, 2007). While there may be expected shifts from airplane flights (which are highly oil-intensive) to shorter travels using mass transit options expected in an event of peak oil in continental regions, island locations do not have an alternative.


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Table 4.02 - Comparison of CO2 Emissions from the Energy Sector (Office of Environmental Response and Coordination, 2002)

Country / Region

Population (thousands)

CO2 Emissions from Energy Sector (MT CO2)

1990 Petroleum Consumption Expressed as Equivalent CO@ Emissions (MT CO2)

CO2 Emissions per Capita for Energy sector (tones of CO2 Per capita)

% of Global Emissions

% of Global Population

Palau 17 0.082 0.083 4.69 0.0004 0.0003 Pacific Islands

7100 6.82 0.96 0.0301 0.123

OECD 1092300 12117.05 11.09 54 19

World 5624400 22620.46 4.02

Energy efficiency and Investment in renewable energy both play a crucial role in Palau's future especially in a scenario after peak oil. As also mentioned in First Communication Report (Office of Environmental Response and Coordination, 2002), energy efficiency can be made mandatory and the application of which governed according to a comprehensive building code for Palau. Some points that can be addressed by the Building Code are as follows:

• Use of energy efficient appliances like energy saving light bulbs and other household appliances

• Use of solar water heater • Regulating insulation properties of building materials and components • Use of passive techniques for heating and cooling • Use of solar panels to generate electricity (This is explained in greater detail in

Chapter 7)

4.4 Existing Adaptation/Mitigation Mechanisms and Constraints

Palau ratified the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Kyoto Protocol on September 16, 1999 and also submitted the first national communication to the UNFCCC on June 18, 2003 (UNEP, 2005). Palau has also obliged with many other UN conventions such as the conventions related to biodiversity, pollutant reduction, and desertification (UNEP, 2005). Palau, as a non-Annex I country in the UNFCCC, can exploit the benefits of development and at the same time use economic incentives for development like selling credits and bring investments for low carbon operations from Annex II countries. Palau along with 12 other Pacific countries is also obliged to report to the Convention’s Secretariat on their national circumstances (SPREP, 1998). These reports include:

• Inventories showing each country’s greenhouse gas emissions • Assessment of how to reduce those emissions


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• Assessment of each country’s likely vulnerability to climate change and sea-level rise, and

• Evaluation of adaptation options available to each country (SPREP, 1998)

These reports are essential inputs to the knowledge base on climate change impacts needed to formulate adaptation plans for the region. Up to this point, many such reports have already been published and pilot projects initiated.

The National Assessment Report-Barbados Program of Action + 10 Review has outlined the following as key national constraints with respect to climate change in the context of the Republic of Palau (Ministry of Resources and Development, 2005):

• Lack of a targeted and holistic awareness program to increase both community and political awareness and participation in climate change issues;

• Lack of a comprehensive energy policy to reduce use of fossil fuels and promote alternative energy option;

• Lack of a public transportation system to reduce the number of vehicles on the road;

• Lack of climate change integration into national development planning processes; • Lack of a comprehensive strategy; • Lack of a coordinated effort for integrated coastal area management including

development of land-use master plans; • Limited technical and financial resources for data collection and long-term

monitoring of climate change impacts.

Furthermore, the Response Office of Environmental Response and Coordination has identified key activities for Palau as a response to climate change. Some of the activities are (Office of Environmental Response and Coordination, 2002).

3) Regulatory Process: a) Establish National Building Codes incorporating incentive measures for

energy efficiency, alternative energy options, and energy efficiency criteria within the government procurement process.

b) Develop National Land Use Plans incorporating climate change and sea level rise projection.

c) Incorporation of climate change trends into the environmental impact assessment process for proposed development.

d) Strengthen enforcement of GHG emissions controls and standards. e) Strengthen minimum standards for wastewater and solid wastewater

disposal and management. f) Establish watershed protection law.


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g) Update, adopt and implement forest management plan and mangrove management plan.

4) National Awareness: a) Develop and implement strategy to promote alternative modes of

transportation and associated infrastructures. b) Coordinate a holistic approach to existing energy conservation public

awareness programs. 5) National Development Planning:

a) Provide incentive measures to reduce coral dredging in construction activities.

b) Discourage development below 10 meters above sea level. c) Upgrade existing causeways against sea level rise and increase storm

activity. 6) GHG gas mitigation

a) Establish requirements for government procurement process to purchase only energy efficient products for public sector infrastructure

b) Promote energy efficiency through the establishment of building codes c) Develop and implement national energy efficient usage program d) Establish incentive measures for private sector to promote energy efficient

products e) Enhance the efficiency of existing energy technologies f) Identify and promote viable energy efficient public transportation

Compared to the old capital Koror, Airai is less densely populated and the residential units are sparsely distributed. Airai has ample room for residential development and also has geographical advantage of being situated near to the airport and has higher elevation than Koror. The local government of Airai can take initiative by introducing energy efficiency standards in building construction with state building code. Airai’s building code can serve as a base for a comprehensive national building code as well. It is evident from the current housing developments in Kesebelau area that there is an interest of private developers in Airai.

The government of Airai should act on the building code now to make all new developments comply with the standards that is best for the nation. The state’s land use policy should include the expected impacts of climate change and protect coastal areas, taro fields, and define an urban growth boundary for future development as well as ensure sustainable management of watershed, forests and mangroves. Airai can also set an example by opting for an alternative to cars for transportation, and minimize the use of transport for regular activities like grocery shopping and recreation. Airai’s land use master plan must address climate change issues already identified by OERC. This practicum report deals with some of the activities identified above especially those dealing with energy use, promoting


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energy efficiency, and efficient transportation, discouraging development in hazard prone areas in the case of Airai in the following chapters.

4.5 Conclusion

Airai is blessed with physical infrastructure like the one and only international airport in Palau, connection to Koror through Friendship Bridge and the compact road which links the whole of Babeldaob. Moreover, Airai has a geographic advantage of being situated in the middle of the old capital Koror and the new capital Melekeok and having higher elevation which will be unaffected by foreseeable sea-level rise. Palau has already committed to the mitigation of green house gas emissions through the signing of the Kyoto protocol. However, the impact of such mitigations will be small and Palau should put equal focus on adaptation measures regarding the impacts of climate change.

Besides the effects on land-use, there are various economic implications to Palau especially due to rise in cost of energy and travel due to the potential rise in fuel price and future emissions tax especially if there is a tax on airplane emissions which is now excluded in the Kyoto Protocol. It has been suggested that in an extreme case of peak oil, there will be a phase when oil will be affordable only to those essential industries and not for tourism (Gilbert & Perl, 2008). Reducing oil use and moving towards renewable energy is essential for Palau’s future as rising oil price will have negative impact on tourism and raise the price of imported goods. Through land use regulations, urban design of new settlements and emphasis on renewable energy, long-term sustainability is expected.


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References

All GIS maps were produced either using GIS data layers directly from the Palau Ministry of Resources and Development, PALARIS or with GIS data layers were created by performing GIS analysis on those geographic data.

Barnett, J. (2001). Adapting to Climate Change in Pacific Island Countries: The Problem of Uncertainty.

World Development , 977-993. Burton, I., Huq, S., Kim, B., Pilifosova, O., & Schipper, E. L. (2002). From Impacts Assessment to

Adaptation Priorities: the Shaping of Adaptation Policy. Climate Policy, 145 -159. IPCC. (2007). Fourth Assessment Report. New York: UNFCCC. Ministry of Resources and Development, Palau. (2005, 1). Republic of Palau National Assessment Report

Barbados Programme of Action + 10 Review. Retrieved 11 2, 2009, from Pacific Environment Information Network [PEIN] Country Profile and Virtual Environment Library: Palau www.sprep.org/att/IRC/eCOPIES/Countries/Palau/6.pdf

National. (2009). National. Retrieved from Tsunami: reality worse than predicted :

http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/2934138/Tsunami-reality-worse-than-predicted National Geographic News. (2005). The Deadliest Tsunami in History? Retrieved from National Geographic

News: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/12/1227_041226_tsunami.html Office of Environmental Response and Coordination. (2002). First National Communication to the United

Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Koror: Office of Environmental Response and Coordination.

Office of Environmental Response and Coordination, Palau. (2009, 6 30). PACC Palau Project Proposal.

Retrieved 10 6, 2009, from PACC Report of in-country consultations: Palau http://www.sprep.org/att/publication/000674_Palau_NationalPACCReport_Final.pdf

Smit, B., Burton, I., Klein, R. J., & Street, R. (1999). The Science of Adaptation: A Framework for

Assessment. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change , 199-213. SPREP. (1998). SPREP Annual Report 1998. SPREP Publication. Tol, R. S. (2007). The impact of a carbon tax on international tourism. Transportation Research Part D, 129-

142. Gilbert, R., & Perl, A. (2008). Transport Revolutions - Moving people and freight without oil. London:

Earthscan. UNEP (2005). Palau: Preparation of the Second National Communication under the UNFCCC. UNEP.

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Nassar Abujabal Imon Chowdhooree Hung Manh Nguyen Asheshwor Man Shrestha

5.1 Urban Morphology of Airai

Villages in Airai have their own traditional settlement features. Airai’s urban morphology (the form of human settlements and the process of formation and transformation of those settlements) needs to be analyzed to formulate guidelines for its future urban development. This study seeks to understand the spatial structure and character of settlements, roads, and street networks by examining spatial patterns of its component parts and the process of its development.

Figure 5.01 - A Bai in Airai Village, Airai (Source: Luciano Minerbi, 2009)

Airai’s settlement morphology is the unconscious result of the accumulation of many generations of building activity. Existing land uses in the State of Airai are primarily residential and agricultural. Airai contains several hamlets or villages that bear traditional Palauan characteristics. A majority of households still earn a part of their livelihood from


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subsistence fishing and farming. Women traditionally cultivated taro patches, tapioca and sweet potato gardens; while men went fishing and sold their catch at fish markets in Koror.

A growing number of farmers operate small farms and bring their products to stores and markets in Koror (Airai Master Plan, 2009). Historically there were nine villages in Airai, but only six can be identified today (Pacific World, 2009). The physical organization and spatial quality of these villages echo their ancient settlement form. Palau has a tradition of clan land ownership. This means people from the same clan can reside within their clan lands and each village belongs to a specific clan or group of clans. However, this is changing as more and more outsiders (non-clan members) are purchasing properties in the villages and building residential houses and businesses nearby.

Traditional villages of Airai are very distinct with respect to the organization of spaces for daily activities. Though all villages are not identical, there are some traditional features they share in common. The villages were controlled and ruled by the male chiefs, and their place of meeting, (referred to as bai), is the most important structure. There are a series of Bais in a single village and the main and most elaborate one is for the chiefs. Bais also depict the authentic architectural morphology of Palau. As a structure, a bai is a steep-pitched, single chambered, elongated rectangular hall, built on a raised platform.

The overall shape of a bai can be compared to a canoe sitting on top of logs. The tie beams of this highly ornamented and decorated structure contains the murals depicting local legends, and historical and mythological stories. Besides the main bai, the other smaller and less decorated ones were used for the association of young men. The chiefs’ bai acts as the central part of a village and all other functions are encircled around it. The chiefs’ bai with their houses around it is like the main hub for the whole village for meeting or gathering (Pacific Worlds, 2009).

Figure 5.02 - Traditional Houses of Airai (Source: Pacific Worlds, 2009)


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Figure 5.03 - Layout of Irrai Village (Adapted from Krammer, 1999; Map 22, p 182)

In most cases, the village chief’s house is located closest to the bai as he has to take care of the guests and operations of the bai. When bais were built, the highest ranking clan provided the land. In cases where the village chief has a separate location for a bai, permission was sought with the leader of the highest ranking clan. An elaborate ceremony called ocheraol is held when constructing a bai. The ocheraol is a way to raise money for the bai. The placement of villages does not follow any specific rule. However, village houses are spread around the bai and usually, a bai is located close to the ocean as the canoe was the main means of transport10. There are also canoe sheds called diangel for all villagers to use with reserved locations for chiefs (Palau Society of Historians, 2003).

Each village contains certain aspects of zoning. All functions are at their desired and somewhat fixed locations and are accessed by a network of raised stone pathways. The starting point of the stone pathway is called Diberdii and it leads the visitors into the village. The end of the stone pathways is called Bdelulacharengioi, denoting the end of a village.

10 Based on practucum focus group discussion


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Past the Bdelulacharengioi there are only trails leading to the next village or gardens. The stone pathways are raised above the surrounding land and have gutters on either side to channel off rainwater. Some locations contain extra spaces for seating or small gatherings. There is also a recent addition within the traditional pedestrian pathway network called Kombas which serve as village squares (Pacific Worlds, 2009).

Figure 5.04 - Stone Paned Pathway in Airai Village, Airai (Source: Luciano Minerbi, 2009)

Traditional Palauan houses are based on the traditional rule for orientation and layout of rooms. This is comparable to Chinese Feng Shui, geomancy, or the Indian Vaastu principle which guides the orientation of buildings, and locations of specific functions inside a building or site. For example, in a house facing the road, the location of bedrooms is on the right when one looks outside sitting at the center of the house. The bedroom locations, (referred to as uchul, orngodel, or eldegn) are sacred places where guests are not allowed.

Anything beyond the orngodel is restricted for visitors and even kids are not allowed to play by themselves in these locations. This concept is still in practice today as these principles are learned while growing up and listening to elders11. The houses are similar to the bai in form and are made from the same local materials. Modern Palauan houses are similar to typical western housing units with living spaces and multiple bedrooms, and are very different from traditional Palauan houses. Today, younger people often move and live in their own house when they get married if they are able to afford it. 11 Based on practicum focus group discussion


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Figure 5.05 - An Example of Contemporary Houses, Airai. Photo Courtesy: Ebil Matsutaro, 2009

The pedestrian-oriented traditional settlements have been hindered recently by western style sub-division plots being introduced in the area. Currently, there is a housing development being built in Kesebelau jointly by the Airai State government and Amescon Holdings, a Malaysian investment firm. Additionally, other housing developments are being built at Yelch, Ked, Ikoranges, Ngebubel, Owatel, and Ngerikiil (ASPC, 2009). They are providing individual plots to the client to build single unit houses on those plots, which resemble American-style suburban sprawl.

Figure 5.06 - The Neighborhood of Kesebelau, Airai (Source: Minerbi, 2009)

Other land uses include two large hotels, various small retail stores, as well as state and national facilities. Several Churches, like the Assembly of God, Evangelical Church are situated in Kesebelau Area, and the Catholic Church is in the process of planning to construct a church building in this area. The little amount of planning intervention is visible only in the recently developed sub-divisions. Other than these, all residential and commercial buildings are haphazardly located and constructed in the absence of building by-laws and construction standards.


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Airai hosts Palau’s international airport and some of these new sub-divisions are being built directly adjacent to it. The island of Babeldaob is connected with Koror by only one bridge, the Friendship Bridge. The road following the bridge connects the villages and the airport. The Palau Compact Road connects the whole island of Babeldaob with the airport and the Friendship Bridge.

Figure 5.07 - Haphazard Development in Airai (Source: Minerbi, 2009)

5.2 Constraints and Challenges

Figure 5.08 - Negative Space between Two Buildings in Koror (Source: Minerbi, 2009)


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The new-sub-divisions are the present trend of residential development, which resembles the urban sprawl of the US. Here the plots form grid-iron patterns with a notion of car-dependent, low-density and low-rise development. The sub-divisions of Airai contain several negative aspects of urban sprawl. These impacts include:

a) Loss of traditional features b) Monotonous suburban landscape c) Less useable, accessible proper open space (public space) d) Difficult to provide services and facilities e) Sprawl’s negative impacts upon ecosystems and other environmental resources f) Auto-dependency is increasing at a high rate, whereas all parts of a neighborhood

cannot be accessed by motorized vehicle.

Sprawl’s impact upon ecosystems and other environmental resources cannot be ignored. Sprawl and associated activities are responsible for several forms of environmental degradation. It has negative impacts on surface and ground water, air quality, and landscape aesthetics, and destroys wildlife habitats (CGIS, 2009). Furthermore, due to a lack of building by-laws, land development policies, building codes, construction standards, and uniform guidelines; the buildings and structures are being built haphazardly in an unplanned manner.

These new urban settlements are not pedestrian friendly, while the traditional villages had a good network for pedestrians. Now, the sidewalks are unplanned, poorly designed, scattered and act as a threat to the safety of pedestrians. Due to the introduction of cars, traditional villages have lost many of their authentic features, especially their pedestrian networks. Auto-dependency has increased, but still not all parts of neighborhoods have vehicular access. The marine habitats and cultural sites are also threatened because of population growth and unplanned, haphazard development. There is now more clearing of mangrove areas and building on agricultural areas that will have a long term negative effect on the food supply for villages (ASPC, 2009). The State of Airai needs strong development guidelines to direct future growth towards more sustainable, compact development.

Components of Good Community Design

The concept of neighborhood changes along with the concept of urbanization. From the early 1970s the notion of compact cities and neighborhoods started to be promoted by transportation and community planners. Much post-modern thought on urban development advocates for this kind of development as a strong contrast to urban sprawl. This has led to the ideologies of New Urbanism, Smart Growth, and Transit-Oriented Development (TOD).

Due to the social, environmental, and economic impacts of the continued expansion of metropolitan areas; communities throughout the United States are turning to a variety of planning strategies which fall under the umbrella of “smart growth.” (Song at el, 2002).


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Smart growth strategies promote good design policies to allow communities to maintain or enhance the aesthetics of building design. These ensure efficient use of lands, and try to protect natural resources. New Urbanist principles have resonated and been incorporated within the goals and agendas of individuals and organizations from other fields, including environmental protection, sustainable development, historic preservation, growth management/smart growth, transit, pedestrian and bicycle planning, and main street programs (Bohl, 2000). Based on these principles, the following objectives for future development in Airai are recommended:

• Incorporate traditional features • Integration with the main roadways of Airai • Increase accessibility • Reduce traffic congestion, driving and car ownership; • Create capacity for more walking and biking • Close proximity to retail and services; • Create environment conducive to meaningful relationships with more people, and

a friendlier, safer town • Increase diversity of shops and services • Create better sense of place and community identity with more unique

architecture • Provide more useable, and easily accessible open space • Promote more efficient use of tax dollars with less spent on utilities and roads

Table 5.01 - Walking Distances from Various Functions

Adapted from (Chiara, 1974)


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To fulfill these objectives, the desired features of new developments should be:

A. Walkability • Most services within a 10-minute walk of home and work. (See Table

5.01) • Pedestrian friendly street design (buildings close to street; porches,

windows and doors; tree-lined streets; narrow, traffic calmed streets) • Pedestrian streets free of cars in special cases

B. Connectivity • Interconnected street grid network disperses traffic and eases walking • A hierarchy of alleys, narrow streets, and boulevards • High quality pedestrian network and public realm makes walking

pleasurable

Table 5.02 - Compatibility of Functions

Adapted from (Chiara, 1974)

C. Mixed-Use and Diversity


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• A mix of shops, offices, apartments, and homes on site. Mixed-use within neighborhoods, within blocks, and within buildings. (See Table 5.02)

• Diversity of people – of ages, income levels, cultures, and races D) Mixed Housing

• A range of types, sizes and prices in close proximity E) Quality Architecture and Urban Design

• Emphasis on beauty, aesthetics, human comfort, and creating a sense of place; special placement of civic uses and sites within community

• Human scale architecture and beautiful surroundings nourish the human spirit

F) Traditional Neighborhood Structure • Discernable center and edge • Public space at center • Importance of quality public realm; public open space designed as civic

art • Contains a range of uses and densities within a 10-minute walk

G) Increased Population Density • More buildings, residences, shops, and services closer together for ease of

walking, to enable a more efficient use of services and resources, and to create a more convenient, enjoyable place to live.

• New Urbanism design principles are applied at the full range of densities from small towns, to large cities

H) Smart Transportation • A network of public transportation connecting Koror and other

neighborhoods together • Pedestrian-friendly design that encourages a greater use of bicycles, and

walking as daily transportation for short distances. I) Sustainability

• Minimal environmental impact of development and its operations • Eco-friendly technologies, respect for ecology and value of natural

systems • Energy efficiency • Reduced use of finite fossil fuels • Increased local production • Increased walking, reduced driving

J) Quality of Life • Taken together these add up to a high quality of life well worth living, and

create places that enrich, uplift, and inspire the human spirit.


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5.3 Urban Street Design and Land Use

Streets are a very important factor in forming the image and identity of any city or neighborhood. The components of the street, like width, number of lanes, sidewalks, shade cover from trees, etc.- affect and control the look of the neighborhood, development along the street, and the behavior of the drivers and pedestrians (Southworth, 2003). The activities that a street is designed for, affect the degree of mobility and accessibility of that street and the degree of safety for drivers and pedestrians. For example, streets in industrial areas are wide to accommodate large trucks and are not usually pedestrian friendly (Burden, 2000).

The connection between land use and transportation systems is very clear. People use public transportation rather than private cars in cities with higher population densities because it is cheaper and more efficient both in regards to commute time and parking. In addition to using public transportation, people in population dense areas also are more likely to walk and bike. The mixed land uses of densely developed areas reduce the need to drive because people can work, shop, and live in the same area (Southworth, 2003). In lower density areas, like Airai, private cars are often the most practical means of transportation. However, it is possible to have a simple public transit system which utilizes a good road system with good connectivity.

Often streets define the activities conducted on them and the activities create streets. Certain activities, like car washes, drive-through light industrial, gas stations, etc., create environments that are not pedestrian friendly. The lack of pedestrians, in turn, makes the area suitable only for businesses that depend on vehicular traffic rather than pedestrians, creating a positive feed-back system of auto dependency. This cycle is often codified by land use regulations, zoning codes or building guidelines (Burden, 2000).

5.4 Street Classifications:

The relationship between the degree of mobility, compared to accessibility, is the basis controlling the classification of any system of urban streets. The highest degree of mobility is provided by interstate highways, while local streets provide the highest land access. Arterials and collectors are between the extremes of the interstate highways and local streets, and they provide a mixture in degree of mobility and land access. The relationship between speed and access for streets is displayed in Figure 5.09.


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Figure 5.09 - Relationship between Speed and Access for Streets (Adapted from http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/fcsec2_1.htm)

Streets in Airai

The need to have a transportation management plan that encompasses both financing new roads and maintaining old ones is becoming increasingly important as the low cost of imported cars and low taxes on fuels and registration have led to significant growth in the percentage of vehicle ownership (8% increase per annum in the last 4 years) (MWM, 2003). However, more cars mean more travel and therefore, demand for more roads and improved street lay-out.

To improve the quality of life for Airai State residents, two types of street-systems are proposed as models for the decision makers and urban planners (although a more site specific study is necessary to create a more detailed plan):

• An external road system for the whole state. (See Figure 5.11) • The internal road system in Kesebelau. (See Figure 5.12)

When designing any street, planners should consider safety, convenience, connectivity, and harmony between all components of the street to ensure the comfort of drivers, pedestrians, and the surrounding neighborhoods. Collaboration between the


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residents and all interested departments is essential to the process of planning and designing streets to ensure that all points of view are being considered12.

Figure 5.10 - Existing Road System in Airai

Figure 5.11 - Proposed External Road System for Airai

12

Transportation Project Management, taken in December 19th, from http://www.charmeck.org/Departments/City+Engineering/See+OUR+Projects/Transportation/Transportation+Project+Management.htm


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Figure 5.12 - Proposed Internal Road System in Kesebelau

5.5 Neighborhood Development Guidelines for Airai

Planning for Neighborhoods Instead of Projects

Developing individual plots or constructing structures in individual plots is the common trend in Airai now. These small scale developments, however, eliminate opportunities to provide communal benefits. This kind of development is the result of modernist planning thoughts, much of which has been generated by the CIAM (Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM) (or International Congress of Modern Architecture) and Garden City–inspired urban design. As an alternative, New Urbanism considers the neighborhood as the basic element of development rather than the isolated plot.

If Airai were to follow a New Urbanist development strategy, it would take the form of traditional neighborhoods characterized by smaller blocks, open spaces, having an interconnected network of streets, stone paved pedestrian ways, kombas or village centers, bais and public transportation would be woven into the urban fabric.

The neighborhood unit would be limited to an area approximating a 5 - 10 minute walk from center to edge, ensuring that all neighborhood activities are within convenient walking distance of residents. Within the neighborhood there would be a variety of housing


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types and land uses, a mix of shops, services, and civic uses capable of satisfying many of the residents’ daily needs. All vehicular streets would be designed for pedestrian use, with generous sidewalks, street trees, and on-street parking to provide a buffer from street traffic; making walking a safer, more appealing option. The local streets would be narrow, one-way and ‘loop-road’ so that all lots or buildings can be accessed with vehicles.

At the same time, there would be a separate pedestrian pathway network. It would make the pedestrian experience safer. Buildings would generally be low- to mid-rise, set close together, and built close to the street to promote pedestrian use through open space from one side and the other side would be accessible by vehicles. There would also be small parks and communal facility buildings in such a neighborhood (Bohl, 2000). Neighborhoods would contain different kinds of housing unit typologies like single-unit, double-unit or multiple units; and also community buildings like markets, community halls and grocery stores.

Type of Housing

The types of buildings used for housing range from detached single-family dwellings to high-rise apartment houses. Housing types can be divided into several categories:

a) Single-Family Detached homes are those located on independent lots. This type is generally owner-occupied.

b) Two-Family and Town houses are those that have two or more housing units in a group. This includes duplexes, quadruplexes, row houses, and town houses. Most frequently this type of housing is located on separate lots and also owner-occupied.

c) Garden Apartments are clusters of apartments with higher densities and generally rental units.

d) Low and High-Rise Apartments are those types of housing with the greatest densities.

Single-family detached housing for single family promotes the trend of urban sprawl and high-rise apartments provide urban density. Considering the present and projected population and required numbers of additional residential units, Airai should be able to develop low to mid-rise apartments to facilitate compact development.

Low-Rise Units

These low-rise units will provide denser neighborhoods than single-family detached housing, but will still be able to provide a similar environment as single family detached housing. Instead of fully detached structures, there should be semi-detached units sharing a single wall, but having no internal connections.

Fully detached units lose the use of open space because the sometimes narrow spaces between two buildings are too small to be usable and often have a wall in between dividing


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that space even further. Two units on adjacent plots should share a common wall and keep some open space on the opposing sides of the plots. A set-back rule should provide the opportunity to have zero (0) set-back from one side of the plot and a fixed minimum set-back from the other three sides. When there is no boundary wall or any kind of fencing, the wider set-back spaces of two adjacent plots can be used as a single open space.

The buildable area of a single plot will be defined according to Floor Area Ratio (FAR13) and Maximum Ground Coverage (MGC14) and this will allow the construction of multiple-unit buildings on a single plot, (See Table 5.03). Building height will also be restricted by FAR and MGC. Instead of uniform building height and ground coverage this flexibility will help to break the monotony of single-unit residences and increase the density of neighborhoods. These plots can be shared by multiple owners who can divide the units among themselves or rent them out; however, they will not be allowed to build separate structures on any single plot.

Mid-Rise Apartments

Table 5.03 - Chart for FAR and MGC Plot Size Building Type: A1 (Low rise unit) Building Type: A2 (mid-rise apartment)

Square Meter Width of Road (meter)

FAR MGC (%)

Width of Road (meter) FAR MGC (%)

800 sqm or less than 800sqm

6.00 0.60 40% -- -- --

More than 800 6.00 0.5 38% -- -- -- 800-1500 -- -- -- 9 2.3 38% 1500/more than that 9 2.5 37%

The mid-rise apartments should consist of buildings with several stories and multiple units in a single floor. The fixed FAR and MGC standards should dictate the exact foot-print and height of the buildings, but they should be between 5 and 7 stories tall, (See Table 5.03). The first floor should be open and can be used for parking. This type of apartment building should be built in only those plots which are designated for such structures in the neighborhood master plan. The rest of the open spaces should be preserved for communal use and restrictions on boundary walls or fencing should be similar to those for low-rise units.

13 Floor Area Ratio or FAR = (Total covered area on all floors of all buildings on a certain plot)/(Area of the plot)

14 MGC (Maximum Ground Coverage) = (Foot-print area of the building X 100) / (Area of the Plot)


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Figure 5.13 - Mid-Rise Apartments with Open First Floor

Community Facilities

A percentage of land being developed should be sold for residential plots and the rest of the land should be reserved for community facilities. Parcels of land should be reserved for essential community facilities according to the size and density of the population. These should include the following:

1. Outdoor cooking facilities, retail establishments, religious structures, community centers, and graveyard/cremation grounds;

2. Health centers, clinics, and hospitals; 3. Parks, playgrounds, open green space, swimming pools, places of recreation and

pedestrian routes; 4. Utility services including: water supply, sewerage treatment, waste water

management, garbage disposal, electric power, gas, communication networks, police stations, fire service, post office, and public transportation stops.

5. Necessary educational facilities should be provided in every community.

Natural water bodies should not be included within the space for community and utility facilities. The road network should be designed according to the traffic conditions of adjacent areas and the size and population of those areas.

5.6 Ecological and Traditional Preservation

Proper environmental impact assessments and social impact assessment should be done before any kind of development takes place. Rivers, natural watersheds, and canals should be preserved and their natural flows should not be adversely affected. The natural status and ecological balance of adjacent lands should be unhampered. In the planning and design process the use of local traditional features: traditional building lay-out norms, stone pathways, etc., should be emphasized.


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5.7 Territorial Definition, Safety, and Social Interaction

The concept of territories is based on the private space of a person’s home; the public space of streets, parks, and playgrounds; and the transitional areas in between the public and private spheres. The concept of New Urbanism puts great emphasis on the creation of small urban public spaces and semipublic and semiprivate transitional areas and stresses on their potential for controlling crime, encouraging neighboring, and increasing the personal connection between residents and their homes (Bohl, 2000). In a neighborhood, houses with entrances on both sides and windows facing the vehicular streets and pedestrian ways will create opportunities for greater eye contact, visual identification, and verbal communication between residents and passersby (Bohl, 2000).

Narrow streets and one-way circulation will reduce vehicular speed and will discourage through-traffic. Short blocks, street trees, small public spaces, wide sidewalks, architectural variety, and neighborhood shops and activities will increase pedestrian friendliness (Briggs, 1997; Bohl, 2000). A mixture of housing types, pedestrian friendly activities, and the elimination of negative set-back spaces and boundary walls will create safer and more secure neighborhoods.

Accessibility

Accessibility to the functions of daily life should be encouraged by placing living, retail, employment, recreation, and civic and educational institutions in close proximity to each other. The streets, sidewalks, and public spaces will also ensure that the neighborhood is an integral part of the larger city by emphasizing an interconnected network of streets, sidewalks, and public transportation.

Density

The density of a neighborhood depends on its residential unit typology. Neighborhoods having multiple unit apartment buildings are denser than those which have only single unit detached residences. Urban sprawl promotes less dense development, where as smart growth increases the efficiency of land and services through denser development. Density standards also depend on the overall socio-economic condition, projected population, available resources and environmental factors. Density standards are useful as guides for preliminary design schemes, and for estimating population loads and required areas of land (Chiara, 1974). Design practices which provide adequate open spaces at relatively high densities should be promoted for healthy development.


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Table 5.04 - Density in Dwelling Units per Acre

(Adapted from Chiara, 1974)

5.8 Case Study: A Smart Growth Illustration Neighborhood for Kesebelau

The following is an illustration of how a smart growth neighborhood in Palau might look. An undeveloped area in Kesebelau was selected and a neighborhood was designed there using the smart growth principles outlined in this chapter. This illustration aspires to demonstrate an alternative to suburban sprawl contextualized within existing urban morphology. The main intention is to have a full range of urban settings—rural hamlets and villages, small towns, and dense urban neighborhoods and districts—to provide compact development alternatives appropriate to each setting.


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Figure 5.14 - Existing Layout of Kesebelau, Airai

The first step was to identify some of the problems with the existing development in Kesebelau. The following conditions were found:

• Poor walkability • Poorly integrated with main roads • Lay out promotes only low density development • No traditional features • Auto-dependent • No accessible open space • Negative set-back spaces • Poor quality of life • Little opportunity for interaction and socialization • Limited provision of community facilities


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For the illustrative neighborhood design the following goals were included:

• A mix of traditional single-family and multifamily housing laid out on pedestrian-oriented streets and interspersed with urban public spaces.

• A mix of commercial and civic uses, and mixed-income housing. • Smaller urban public spaces and semipublic/semiprivate transitional areas,

generated by using building layouts, streets, fencing, and other elements. • A combination of traditional housing with entrances, windows, and yards oriented

toward streets and pedestrian-ways and a gradation of public, semipublic, and private space.

• Two and three-story houses and mid-rise apartment buildings to promote the historically modest scale of the neighborhood’s small lots.

Proposed Features

After weeks of refinement, an illustrative neighborhood design for Kesebelau was completed which meets the goals stated above. This example neighborhood and it features are displayed below in Figures 5.15 through 5.20.

Here is a list of the features included in the final illustrative design:

A) Housing (2 types of houses) • Low Rise Units: Semi-detached houses without boundary walls. • Mid-Rise Apartments: six-story apartments on super blocks adjacent to

the village commercial area. B) Connectivity

• A peripheral two-way road is proposed to provide greater integration with the main roadway.

• Internal Street Layout: Internal streets are proposed to lay in a loop so that one way vehicular movement can serve all the plots and four-way intersections are avoided.

• Stone-Paved Pathways: Stone-paved pathways run on the back sides of each plot and to provide access to community facilities. They provide an inclusive pedestrian network with minimum crossing with vehicular traffic.

C) Village Commercial • The commercial and community facilities around the central open space

will form the mixed-use village commercial. D) Open Space

• All smaller units are provided with accessible and useable open space.


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Figure 5.15 - Proposed Layout of Kesebelau, Airai


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Figure 5.16 - Proposed Layout of Kesebelau, Airai


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Figure 5.17 - Central Open Space near Mid-Rise Apartment: Village Commercial Zone

Figure 5.18 - Usable Open Space Accessible by Pedestrian Paths.


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Figure 5.19 - Pedestrian Path

Figure 5.20 - New Development around Old Buildings


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References

All photographs are taken by Luciano Minerbi (if not mentioned otherwise) Bohl, C.C. ( 2000). “New Urbanism and the City: Potential Applications and Implications for Distressed Inner-

City Neighborhoods”, Housing Policy Debate , Volume 11, Issue 4, Fannie Mae Foundation 2000 Briggs, Xavier de Souza. (1997b). Moving Up Versus Moving Out: Neighborhood Effects in Housing

Mobility Programs. Housing Policy Debate 8(1):195–234. Chiara, J. D. (1974). Manual of Housing Planning and Design Criteria, Prentice-Hall (Englewood Cliffs,

N.J.) CGIS. (2009). ‘Urban Sprawl’, Towson University Center for Geographic Information Sciences,

http://chesapeake.towson.edu/landscape/urbansprawl/ accessed on Nov 11, 2009 Duany Plater-Zyberk & Company. (1999). The Lexicon of the New Urbanism. Miami. Gehl, Jan. (1987). Life between Buildings. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Jacobs, J. (1961). The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random House. Katz, Peter. (1994). The New Urbanism: Toward an Architecture of Community. NewYork: McGraw-Hill. Krämer, Augustin. (1919). Results of the South Pacific-Expedition 1908-1910 (Ergebnisse der Südsee-

Expedition 1908-1910), (G Thilenius, Ed.), II Ethnography: B. Micronesia, vol. 3, part-vol. 2, (Translated by Carmen C. H. Pertosian-Husa, Bureau of Arts and Culture, 2002) Hamburg L. Friedrichsen & Co.

Krieger, Alex, and Lennertz, W. eds. (1991). Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk: Towns and

Town-Making Principles. New York: Rizzoli. Leccese, Michael, and McCormick, K. eds. (2000). Charter of the New Urbanism. New York: McGraw-Hill. Newman, Oscar. (1996). Creating Defensible Space. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, Center for

Urban Policy Research. Newman, Oscar. (1972). Defensible Space: Crime Prevention through Urban Design. New York: Macmillan. Pacific World. (2009). ‘Orientation to Airai’,

http://www.pacificworlds.com/palau/home/oriented.cfm , accessed on Nov 04, 2009 Song, J; Rajamani,J; Handy,S., and Paterson, R. (2002), “Matching Smart Growth Policies to Community

Needs: the Smart Growth Matrix for Transportation Planning Agencies”, Transportation Research Board, http://www.its.berkeley.edu/itsreview/ITSReviewonline/spring2003/trb2003/handy-matching.pdf , accessed on Nov 9, 2009

UrbanDesign.org. (2009).,‘New Urbanism’,

http://www.newurbanism.org/newurbanism.html , accessed on Nov 19, 2009


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Whyte,William H. 1988. City: Rediscovering the Center. New York: Doubleday. ASPC (2009), Airai State Master Plan Draft. ASPC, Airai. Burden, D. (2000). Streets and sidewalks, people and cars: the citizens' guide to traffic calming / produced by

Local Government Commission Center for Livable Communities. Sacramento, CA: Sacramento, CA : Local Government Commission Center for Livable Communities.

Division of Planning, Kentucky Transportation Cabinet. (2009). Street Connectivity, Zoning and

Subdivision Model Ordinance. Kentucky: Division of Planning, Kentucky Transportation Cabinet. MWM, A. (2003). Resource Management and Development Suitability Study for the States of the Republic of

Palau. Palau: The Association of Governors, Republic of Palau. Southworth, M. (2003) Streets and the Shaping of Towns and Cities. Washington, DC: Island press.


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Due to the relatively small size and low density of Airai, the best way to study and make recommendations for infrastructure improvements is to identify challenges and suggest possible alternative sustainable solutions. Palauans are recognized as having high water consuming habits. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) notes that Palauans consume twice as much water compared to any other pacific country, even more than Western countries, 5-10 times higher than most of the Asian countries (ADB, 2009), and around 15 times higher than what the United Nations (UN) suggests the amount of safe freshwater needed per capita per day to ensure the basic needs for drinking, cooking and cleaning, (UN Water Statistics, n.d.). This has already been a problem in recent drought years and will become more problematic if the population increases. Droughts may also increase in frequency and duration in years to come due to global climate change. In addressing these challenges this report concentrates on sustainable alternatives over traditional solutions.

6.1 Challenge: High Consumption Rate, High System Losses, Poor Sewage System.

Water:

The infrastructure, fee structure, and policies related to Palau’s water supply and sewage management are currently unsustainable for Palau’s needs. It is estimated that around 50% of the water in the system is lost due to leakage (ADB, 2009). Even with the high estimated system losses, per capita demand for treated water is high and is attributed to limited consumer appreciation of the value of water and inadequate tariffs. The cost of water is $0.85 per 1,000 gallons (ADB, 2009), while in Hawai`i the cost of water is a minimum of $2.79 per 1,000 gallons with an even greater sewage fee (C&C Honolulu, BWS).

Despite the poor water service standards in Palau, the provision of public water supply consumes a considerable amount of the government finances. Irregularities, inconsistencies, and insufficiency have affected the water supply for 14,000 people in Palau during the serious drought years of 1983, 1997 and 2003 (ADB, 2009). Climate change is increasing Palau’s government concerns of more frequent drought years. Consequently, the need to improve the security of water supply to Koror and Airai is a major goal for the government. Tariff reform is often recommended as the water supply’s operation,


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maintenance, and capital costs are very high and require more funding than is covered by current water rates and charges. As a result, developing a transparent mechanism for cost recovery, and implementing it quickly, is an urgent and strongly recommended step for the Federal government to ensure sustainability and stability of water supply and sewerage services for Palauans (ADB, 2009).

Airai’s aquifer plays a major role in meeting Palau’s water needs. The current production of the Koror - Airai water supply system, which is almost 3.8 million gallons (14.4 million liters) of treated water per day, equates to an astoundingly high per capita consumption rate of approximately 230-240 gallons per day (approximately 870 liters) (ADB, 2009). Extrapolating from the current water consumption rate, the demand for water from the Koror-Airai water supply system is expected to be 4.4 million gallons per day by the year 2020, and the demand is expected to exceed the production capacity by the year 2010 (ADB, 2009).

Waste water:

Palau’s sewerage systems and on-site wastewater treatment and disposal systems have been administrated by the Ministry of Health and the Environment Quality Protection Board, and are regulated through the individual Sewage Disposal Act 1971, Sewer Use Act 1984, and the Environment Quality Protection Board Regulations Toilet Facilities and Wastewater Disposal Systems Regulations 1996, (ADB, 2009). New law is needed to improve the current water supply arrangements. The government’s desire to establish a centralized State-owned water supply and sewerage corporation has been hindered by the insufficiency of the current laws and legislative basis related to the operation of public water supply systems (ADB, (2009).

The majority of sewerage and wastewater systems in Palau are on site, except for Koror’s sewer system. Septic tanks and leaching fields are the most common systems being used by Airai’s households and businesses for the collection, treatment, and disposal of human waste. The clay nature of the soils in Airai and the small size of leased lots, in combination with the immense quantity of water discharged into the sewage system, due the high water consumption rate, and Palau’s rainy climate, has caused many disruptions in the system. This situation has also caused septic tank overflows and discharges onto neighboring properties.

6.2 Alternative Option: The Living Machine

The Living Machine is “an ecological wastewater treatment system that treats wastewater for re-use. This allows communities or institutions to locally manage wastewater, create high quality reuse water, avoid sewer hook-up fees while dramatically reducing water and energy consumption and their associated costs” (Worrell Water, 2007, Fact Sheet).

Many locations utilize a Living Machine including Guilford County Schools, North Carolina Dallas Animal Shelter, Ohio Esalen Institute, California YMCA Camp Campbell,


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California Oberlin College, and the Hawai`i Nature Center in Makiki. These sites were attracted to the technology because it is a “‘turbo charged’ wetland system, which speeds up natural processes for a smaller footprint and a faster return on investment” (Worrell Water, 2007, Fact Sheet). The “biological advantages” of the Living Machine over the other onsite systems include adding aesthetic quality and speeding up the natural process of tidal wet lands while providing more effective water treatment.

There are two main options for the Living Machine, Tidal Wetland Living Machine system (TW LM), and Hybrid Wetland Living Machine.

Tidal Wetland Living Machine system (TW LM):

The two main elements of the system design for the living machine are similar to any other wastewater treatment system: the hydraulics and the flow rate of the waste water. Worrell Water Technologies (WWT), one of the companies that have invested in extensive research and development to create a viable Living Machine that performs reliably and economically, described the TW LM system hydraulic design (Worrell Water, 2007, TW LM System):

“The TW LM system hydraulic design is based primarily on recycling rate capacity. Process recycle rates will vary by wastewater characteristics from three to twelve times forward flow. An environmental enclosure is not needed for the TW LM system if planted with native wetland vegetation and located in a suitable environment. Thermal simulation models have been developed to quickly evaluate climate and site conditions. The overall treatment system consists of four or six tidal wetland cells. Each cell is lined with a highly porous traffic rated HDPE under drain system. Influent and recycle (Cell 1 only) is distributed to the cells through a sump hydraulically connected to the under drain system or for the final cell through a surface distribution system. Each cell is connected to a pump sump that lifts water from one cell to the next, thereby draining one cell and filling the next. Hydraulic areal loading rates should be considered cautiously because mass loading rates that actually determine wetland sizing vary widely with wastewater characteristics.”

Retention time of 24-hours is proven by pilot modules to be enough time for full treatment in TW LM. Avoiding clogging by removing grit and other inorganic material through initial treatment is an essential step. This step can be achieved in many ways depending on the scale of the TW LM; it can vary from interceptor tank in small systems to more complicated means in the larger systems. Inorganic material can also be removed by other means like pressure washing. Performing all these processes is simple and has been done adequately by various TW LM (Worrell Water, 2007, TW LM System). The process is represented in Figure 6.01, Tidal Wetland Living Machine System, below.


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Figure 6.01 - Tidal Wetland Living Machine System (Adapted from http://insourceoutsource.blogspot.com/2007_09_16_archive.html)

Hybrid Wetland Living Machine:

The same principle elements of system design as TW LM, the main difference is that there is an open wetland component that requires little to no energy for treatment, but needs a larger footprint.

Figure 6.02 - Hybrid Wetland Living Machine (Source: WorldPress.com, 2008, http://agalinski.wordpress.co))


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Comparison to Other Conventional Wetland and Traditional system:

Some of the benefits that the Living Machine provides more effectively than any other conventional constructed wetlands or traditional systems are identified below, (Worrell Water, 2009, Press Release):

• Low operational costs. • The quality of treated water produced by the Living Machine is very good, better

than most of the other systems, and it can be used directly for many uses and especially for irrigation. Even though the effluent is relatively clean, using the drip or ground irrigation rather than sprinkler irrigation should be taken in consideration.

• More efficient energy consumption. • Smaller foot print, and the ability to fit different places and number of people due

to the size flexibility and scalability. • The aesthetic property has given the Living Machine the ability to be integrated

easily with many places, giving visitors educational experience, and connecting them to real nature.

Table 6.01 - Comparison of LM’s and Traditional Systems

Conclusion:

The TW LM system has been chosen for application in Airai. Since urban growth occurs with a small number of houses in increments, it is not economically efficient to build an open wetland system. The TW LM has a smaller footprint and is more easily scalable and controllable. Chad Durkin, coordinator of the Hawai`i Nature Center Living Machine,


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reported that the TW LM has been operating in Hawaiì successfully for 10 years15. Hawaiì has similar conditions to other Pacific islands, so this successful demonstration of the concept is useful to Palau. For example, the TW LM system in Hawaiì successfully endured forty days of continuous rainfall.

The amazing combination of low energy consumption and high performance that produces high quality treated water, have been the important factors in the choice of the TW LM as the sustainable alternative for Airai’s sewerage and water problems. Additionally, the plants living atop the TW LM add an aesthetic quality that can integrate well with the beautiful nature of Airai.

6.3 Sample Neighborhood:

For the purpose of this analysis, a sample neighborhood on the west segment of the compact road has been chosen as a model. It does not have existing infrastructure and relies on septic tanks for waste water treatment. This sample neighborhood is positioned for urban growth since it lies outside of buffer zones designated for mangroves, the airport, conservation lands, streams, and agricultural lands and is in close proximity to the existing compact road and the bridge to Koror. The neighborhood has also been selected since houses are already built at five different elevations.

Figure 6.03 - Model Neighborhood Location for Assessment of Sustainable Infrastructure

15 http://www.hawaiinaturecenter.org/


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Figure 6.04 - Magnified View of Model Neighborhood

The analysis will assume an addition of four houses at each of five elevations. The lowest elevation is 0-10m and the highest is 41-50m. Since the 2005 census reports that the average household in Airai has 3.78 people per household, the number of people is estimated according to the number of houses. Utilizing the previously mentioned per capita water use data for Palau, then the amount of water requiring treatment is calculated.

Table 6.02 - Sample Neighborhood Water Needs

Number of people/house: 3.78 people Daily water use per capita: 235 gallons For an increase of 4 houses/ elevation: Number of houses: 4 houses Number of people: 15 people Daily water use: 3525 gallons For a total increase of 20 houses at 5 elevations: Number of houses: 20 houses Number of people: 75 people Daily water use: 17625 gallons

Using 15,000 gallons as an estimate of total daily water use simplifies calculations and represents only a 15% reduction compared to the calculations above that use daily per


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capita estimates from the centralized water system. Since it is assumed that 40% of water is lost from the centralized system due to leakage, using 15,000 gallons for total daily water use, and 3000 gallons for daily water use for 4 homes per elevation, will still ensure there is ample capacity.

Figure 6.05 - The Methodology for the Suggested LM

Major concepts in the design:

• Gravity, rather than pumps carries the black water from all five levels to the LM (See Figure 6.05).

• Irrigation is sub-surface to avoid direct contact with food and humans, (even though the water is clean).

• Majority of local distributed agriculture to be irrigated should be at the same elevation or below the LM.

6.4 Pumped Hydro Storage:

Pumped hydro storage is another idea that can be modified as an alternative energy source for Airai by optimizing factors like the speed and amount of water. The following tow equations are used:

Kinetic Energy = ½ (mV2) Newton’s Law of Motion for liner acceleration:

V2100 = 2a(s – s1)

Using these two equations and equations presented by Bedi, CANCEE, and Falk of “Energy Saving Now” (2000) to calculate the energy of falling water, it is determined that 1m3 of water falling 50 meters will create 0.136 kWh. And assuming that 50% of a


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household’s energy is needed during non-solar hours, 5kWh/day must be generated, which equals 36.7 m3 per day

The 10,000 gallons/day coming from the LM in the sample neighborhood, which is 37.85 m3 per day, will produce enough energy for one house during off-solar times.

As Worrell Water mentioned in their description for the affectivity and scalability of their Living Machine project in Ghana “The demonstration system has an 8,000 gallon per day (30 m3) wastewater capacity. Living Machines can be designed to treat much larger flows (>200,000 gallons per day -- >750 m3)”. (Worrell Water, 2007, TW LM System) The Living Machine can be designed to serve bigger communities in Airai up to 1500 inhabitants. Increasing the amount of water treated and emitted by the LM by serving a larger community could make the creation of a Pumped Hydro Storage system, capable of generating alternative sustainable energy, more feasible and cost effective.

The applicability of these solutions and the ability of Airai to fund a LM system requires site visits and surveys at appropriate locations, case specific technology research, and identifying the modifications needed to assess project specific costs and benefits and the applicability of this technology to the locale. The movement toward these types of alternative solutions seems necessary and inevitable. Pilot projects for these solutions, or other sustainable solutions, to serve as demonstration projects for the state and the country are highly recommended.


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References

Asian Development Bank “ADB”, (2009), “Water and Sanitation Sector Road Map, PALAU: Country Partnership Strategy. 2009–2013. From: http://www.adb.org/Documents/CPSs/PAL/2009/PAL-Water-Sanitation-Sector.pdf; Accessed: 12/09.

Bedi, Emil, CANCEE, and Hakan Falk. (2000). “Guidelines for Small Hydro Power Plants; Determining

Power”; Energy Saving Now; From: http://energy.saving.nu/hydroenergy/guide.shtml; Accessed on 12/09.

City & County of Honolulu, Board of Water Supply Customer Service web page:

http://www.hbws.org/cssweb/display.cfm?sid=1175; Accessed: 12/09. United Nations, Water Statistics; “Drinking Water and Sanitation”; From:

http://www.unwater.org/statistics_san.html ; Accessed: 12/09. WorldPress.com. (April 19, 2008). “Constructed wetlands- living machines; Hybrid Living Machine”;

http://agalinski.wordpress.com Accessed: 12/09. Worrell Water Technologies, LLC. (n.d.). “Fact Sheet; The Living Machine Wastewater Reuse

Technology”; Charlottesville, VA; From: http://www.livingmachines.com/images/uploads/resources/Living_Machine_Fact_Sheet_1.pdf; Accessed: 12/09.

Worrell Water Technologies, LLC. (2009). “Press Release; Worrell Water Technologies proves Wastewater

Treatment Can Be Done Naturally, Eficiently, Locally”; Charlottesville, VA; From: http://www.livingmachines.com/news/view/worrell_water_technologies_proves_wastewater_treatment_can_be_done_naturall/ ; Accessed: 12/09.

Worrell Water Technologies, LLC. (2007). “Technology Demonstration; Tema, Ghana”; Charlottesville,

VA; From: http://www.worrellwater.com/images/uploads/resources/living_machine_ghana_brochure.pdf; Accessed: 12/09.

Worrell Water Technologies, LLC. (2007). “Tidal Wetland Living Machine System, System Description and

Scientific Basis”; Charlottesville, VA; From: http://www.livingmachines.com/images/uploads/resources/tidal_wetland_living_machine_technology_description.pdf . Accessed: 12/09.

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7.1 Introduction:

Palau is one of the most developed island countries with a relatively high GDP, which is closely coupled with high per-capita energy use. Since Airai is positioned for growth within Palau, it is expected that the demand for electricity will increase in the area. This raises the challenge of increasing infrastructure and capacity, which are both expensive to the state. There is also a need to reduce Airai’s dependence on imported fossil fuel since the majority of electricity generation comes from diesel fuel. This dependence makes Airai vulnerable to rising fuel prices and competition from wealthier nations that are competing for dwindling supplies.

Waste disposal in Airai faces similar challenges since most waste is directed to the landfill and expanding capacity is a traditional solution. In both cases of energy and landfill, the demand for capacity does not necessarily need to increase with growth if new solutions are implemented that replace or reduce the need for traditional processes.

This chapter explores the complex nature of Airai’s energy and waste issues by itemizing challenges and suggesting alternative solutions. The format is intended to be a menu of suggestions that can be considered as a starting point for discussions and planning development strategies.

7.2 Challenge: Peak Demand is High and Rising

The Pacific Islands Energy Policies and Strategic Action Planning (PIEPSAP) project was developed at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in 2002 as part of the European Union Energy Initiative (Sopac, 2004, p.1). The three year project was designed to assess energy policy and operating procedures of various countries. In 2005 PIEPSAP published a report on Palau and the following excerpt is a snapshot of the energy landscape in Palau that indicates high per capita energy consumption as well as a growing demand for energy.

Concerns about current energy price levels were shared amongst most discussion partners although Palau is comparatively well off by Pacific Standards. GDP is of


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the order of $120 million per year representing a per-capita GDP of about $6,200, one of the highest in the Pacific. These high GDP figures go hand in hand with comparatively high per capita energy consumption. (Zieroth, 2005, p.1)

The following excerpt from the same report shows that the majority of energy production in Palau comes from diesel fuel and indicates that PIEPSAP proposes to expand capacity in response to increasing demand.

The legislation forming the PPUC includes provisions for the use of renewable energy by the PPUC, and PPUC has taken responsibility for about 100 buildings powered by solar PV in the Southwestern islands. All other generation is diesel based; 23 MW generation capacity is presently split about half and half between Babeldaob and Koror. Outer island power plants exist in Peleliu (2 MW) Angaur (500 kW ) and Kayangel (200 kW). In response to growing demand from the government and tourism sector there is a need to expand capacity in the main system. (Zieroth, 2005, p.3)

Since Palau has approximately 20,279 people, this represents a per-capita energy demand of 1.134 kW. (Worldbank, 2009) The values stated above can be put into perspective by considering that Hawaiì has a peak demand of 1200 MW. (HECO, 2008, p.10) Divided by their population of 1,288,198, Hawaiì’s per-capita energy consumption is 932 kW. (Worldbank, 2009) Therefore, the citizens of Palau demand 22% per capita more electricity during peak hours than the citizens of Hawaiì .

In April 2009 the PPUC failed to continuously produce enough power for the needs of Palau. (PPUC, 2009, p.7) They rationed power by using a load shedding program that pays customers to reduce their use of power from the grid by shutting down equipment or buildings, or using back up generators. Inadequate financial support and operational management were partially sited for the inability to supply approximately 1.5 MW during peak hours. (PPUC, 2009, p.7)

Zieroth advocates for expanded capacity, yet there are other alternatives that could reduce the demand for energy during peak times as outlined below.

7.3 Alternative: Electric Vehicle Electricity Storage

An alternative to expanding electricity generation capacity for peak loads through traditional means, such as a diesel generator, would be to incorporate electric vehicles for each home. An excellent study was published modeling a single house and single electric vehicle called vehicle-to-home. The model simulated the daily use of household appliances and vehicle use to determine how the power flows between the grid, appliances and the vehicle. (Hines et al, 2009, p.1) Running the appliances using the vehicle battery in conjunction with a daily commute of 30 miles round trip were simulated to determine the effect on reducing the peak demand. The study assumed that the car was at work from 9am


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to 5pm and that the battery experienced a constant power drain while at work. It also assumed that appliances were still used when the vehicle was away from the house. The commute consumed 25% of the battery, so it had ample power left when it returned home to power high power appliances, while base appliances that constantly draw lower levels of electricity continued to run from the main electricity source. (Hines, 2009, p.1)

The study confirmed that the commute could consume up to 70% of the battery charge and still successfully run the appliances. (Hines, 2009, p.3) This scenario reduced the peak power demand from 10kW to 3kW. (Hines, 2009, p.4) By utilizing the remaining energy in the car battery in the evening during peak power demand households in Palau could reduce power grid energy consumption and avert the need for expanded capacity. Changing to electric cars would satisfy commuters’ need for air conditioned vehicles while reducing automobile and power plant emissions. While this example is for home owners, it is also recommended that commercial opportunities be explored that could include public electric vehicles such as taxis and vans.

7.4 Challenge: Street Lighting as a State Energy Drain

The PIEPSAP project also determined that street lighting is not metered or even considered a public service (Zieroth, 2005, p.3). Without meters there is no way to measure and monitor the electricity use for street lighting and as a result, no means of controlling or reducing it. Since it is not considered a public service there is no obligation to provide street lighting, especially where providing power infrastructure would be costly or difficult.

7.5 Alternative: Solar Street Lights with Light Emitting Diodes (LED’s)

Street lights, which are powered by solar energy come in many varieties. It is recommended that solar street lights that use light emitting diodes (LED’s) be used since they are significantly more efficient than other technologies as described in the excerpt below. Since this is a relatively new technology no academic assessments were found, but the following is an excerpt from a manufacturer’s website, summarizing the potential benefits of street lights that use LED’s and rely on solar energy.

Switching to LED street lights offers up to 80% savings on power consumption and ensures a complete return on investment in less than 17 months with colossal savings over the 10 year life of the product. Resultant reductions in harmful Co2 and So2 emissions are proportional. Comparison between a conventional 400W sodium HP lamp and an equivalent JOL168W high power LED lamp based on 12 hours usage per 24 hour period shows a saving of 12.25kWh (Sodium HP power daily consumption = 14.83kWh, Joliet 168W high power LED daily consumption = 2.58kWh). (Joliet Technology, 2008, p.1)


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Such street lights are suitable for lighting areas where there is no electric supply from the grid. They can also be economically advantageous when there is grid electricity since the solar energy is free once installed. Solar street lights with LED’s would be an ideal solution for Airai. The automated sensors ensure the most efficient provision of lighting without expensive controls. Since street lighting is not considered a public service there is no staff for monitoring or maintenance and solar street lights do not require much of either. A feedback system would have to be put in place to ensure the LED bulbs are changed, but since this occurs only every decade it would be only a small service that could be added to an existing infrastructure agency.

7.6 Challenge: Expensive, Unreliable Communications Networks

The communications networks supplying internet services to those in Palau is expensive and often unreliable. This reflects the trend in developing countries of using wireless point-to-point connections to provide inexpensive access (Wireless Internet Institute, p. xiii). Unfortunately, as the number of times a signal is transmitted between points increases in such networks, the reliability decreases due to a variety of technical reasons. (Wireless Internet Institute, p. xiii) The Wireless Internet Institute summarizes the importance of internet access as follows:

Connectivity and the information access it brings unleashes human capital and increases productivity and knowledge sharing in underserved areas where it has been most constrained. (Wireless Internet Institute, p. xiii)

Improvements and reliability in this area is essential to retain and expand the level of wealth in Airai and Palau.

7.7 Alternative: Solar Wi-Fi

A solar Wi-Fi system consists of nodes that can be placed on rooftops or in other secure areas to form a network that shares the source signal over a virtual grid. These nodes are beneficial since they do not require fixed installation or power from the grid so they are entirely a stand-alone system. These features mean they can form an unplanned, ever-evolving movable grid that is incredibly flexible since it can grow and be moved as needed by a community such as Airai. Internet users must be within a 3.4 mile radius from a wireless node to achieve DSL standard speed. (Miller, 2007, p.35) This radius is perfect for the compact geography of Airai. Figure 7.01 from the website of one of the few distributors of solar Wi-Fi depicts the configuration of such a system at http://www.green-wifi.org/.


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Figure 7.01 - Solar Wi-Fi System

7.8 Challenge: Palau Depends on Foreign Fuel Supplies and is Vulnerable to Peak Oil

At the 30th Conference of the International Association for Energy Economics, a presentation on The Potential for Renewable Energy to Promote Sustainable Development in Pacific Island Countries summarized that the current cost of fuel is high in Palau with imported fossil fuel representing 22% of Palau’s total imports. (Woodruff, 2007, p.5) The level of imported fuel is 340% of Palau’s total exports, indicating that Palau’s income due to exports, or their GDP, is not sufficient to pay for the imported fuel placing them in debt or forcing them to rely on aid. (Woodruff, 2007, p.5) As such, rising oil prices could cripple Palau’s economy. There is a possibility that Palau may not have access to oil at all by 2030 or 2040 since rich countries will be first in line to purchase dwindling reserves. Since 97% of people in Palau have access to electricity this is a standard service that must continue. (Woodruff, 2007, p.5)

No matter how much Airai is able to conserve, transitioning to alternative energy is mandatory for building a sustainable future. Airai has the ability to implement renewable energy at the State level without lobbying for Federal support, especially for technologies that require no connection to the grid. In deploying these solutions, Airai can also serve as a model for the nation as they demonstrate a proof of concept for renewable energy. By fostering national interest, Airai could then work with the national government to implement policies to support the wide-spread implementation of renewable energy based on their demonstrated success.


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7.9 Alternative: Distributed Solar Infrastructure

A 2008 Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) revealed that many countries have committed to a renewable energy future for their islands in the following summary.

Nauru committed that it will ensure that by 2015, at least 50 percent of its energy source would come from renewable means. Fiji on the other hand has committed that it will have a renewable energy utility by 2011. The small island of Niue has promised a 100 percent renewable energy economy, without setting a target date. Samoa in 2006 committed that by 2030, 20 percent of its total energy consumption will be from renewable and clean sources. Tonga on the other hand has set itself an ambitious plan to reach at least 40-50 percent in two years. (Xingwei, 2008, p.1)

As of 2005 Palau had no National Energy Policy or even a framework to guide decisions and operations related to energy. (Zieroth, 2005, p.2) In 2009 a National Energy Policy Framework began development in conjunction with the European Union. (PPUC, 2009, p.6) While its goal is to address the Federal Government's policies for the planning and management of the energy sector over the next 15 years, there is no mention of renewable energy generation goals within the plan. Airai could independently set such goals to focus their efforts and monitor progress, and could then engage the PPUC to help them achieve those goals. This would also allow them to serve as a pilot project for the PPUC.

A study by the U.S. Department of Energy surveyed Palau and seven other Pacific Island Nations for renewable energy resources including wind. (Wade, 2006, p.3) The assessment concluded that wind is “not a great resource” in the islands surveyed, while both solar voltaic and solar thermal were listed as valuable resources. (Wade, 2006, p.2)

The perception that solar technology is too expensive is a major barrier to implementation in many areas and this could easily be true in Airai. (Woodruff, 2007, p.11) A study in Tonga showed that solar costs $70-80,000 compared to $51,000 for a comparable diesel generator, yet the annual operation and maintenance costs for solar account for 1% of the initial capital costs compared to 5% for diesel generators, which last only half as long as solar panels. (Woodruff, 2007, p.7) Since electricity demand, distance to urban centers, and solar resource are just some of the factors that affect the cost analysis required to compare solar and diesel, it would be worthwhile for Airai to assess this comparison. The potential benefits are summarized as follows:

In addition to the direct energy cost savings associated with renewable energy technologies, other benefits, which are not measured in this study, may include increased reliability of energy services, longer hours of daily service, reduced noise and pollution, and increased energy independence. (Woodruff, 2007, p.11)


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While Airai has the political autonomy necessary to implement such structures, it may not have the economy of scale to make it economically viable. As such, working with the Federal government and the PPUC would be beneficial.

While Palau has less direct sun light than many Pacific Islands, Figure 7.02 shows that it has more diffused sunlight. Direct solar energy is the energy arriving at the Earth's surface due to beams from the sun and diffuse solar exposure is the total amount of solar energy falling on a horizontal surface from all parts of the sky apart from the direct sun.

Diffused solar is usually most prevalent during cloudy days, and is least prevalent when the sky is clear. In Figure 7.02, the area under the solid yellow line is the average total power available from direct sunlight in Koror on a day in July. This was calculated to be 2.25 kWh/m2/day. The area under the dashed line is the total power available from diffused light was calculated to be 2.6 kWh/m2/day. The total solar energy available is 4.85 kWh/m2/day. Thus, Figure 7.02 indicates that the amount of energy created from the diffused solar is approximately the same as the direct solar.

Figure 7.02 - Solar Potential in Palau (U.S. DOE, 2009)

Since the average solar panel is 2 square meters, each can produce 9.7 kWh/m2/day in Airai. The PPUC reports that the average household in Palau uses 500kW hours per month. (PPUC, 2005, p.8) This is slightly less than electricity use in Hawai`i , which was approximately 644 kW hours per month in 2007 as reported by the Department of Energy (DOE). From Palau’s monthly household electricity use listed above, the average household uses 17kW hours/day.

Thus, one solar panel provides 60% of a household’s electricity need. If a home can reduce its energy use by approximately 40% through conservation, then one solar panel would provide 100% of the homes electricity needs.

7.10 Challenge: Palau Lacks Efforts for Energy Conservation

A Palau National Consultations Report in 2005 brought together representatives from the Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu. The


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following shows that energy conservation is amongst the paramount concerns found in the report:

As a key problem the lack of renewable energy and energy efficiency information and awareness throughout the society has been identified as a major problem in the energy sector. In particular the supply of energy demand management information to the general public could have considerable impact on energy consumption.(Zieroth, 2005, p.1)

While Palau has just begun developing national energy policy that may contain conservation information as a component, Airai can develop these resources as a State by using on-line resources and the support of international non-profit organizations. The small population of Airai and the strong community structure should be leveraged to spread conservation information. There is a benefit to both the residential and commercial sectors since they will immediately reap the economic benefits of conserving behavior.

7.11 Alternative: Solar Hot Water Heating

The Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism (DBEDT) in Hawaiì has found that solar hot water heating reduces the hot water heating bill by 90%. (DBEDT, p.2) In most non-air-conditioned homes in Hawaiì , water heating represents about 30 percent to 50 percent of the utility bill. Based on the average of these values, the calculations for Palau will assume a 40% reduction in home energy use due to solar water heating. Since the average home in Palau uses 17kWh according to the earlier calculations in this report, 60% of Palau’s average 17 kWh/day home electricity consumption is approximately 10 kWh/day. This is about the capacity of one solar panel.

Hawaiì recently passed a law mandating that all new buildings must have solar hot water heating. Airai could also pass a similar law, or make it a condition of receiving a building permit.

7.12 Alternative: Desiccant Wheel for Dehumidifying

A desiccant wheel is an alternative to air conditioning for removing humidity. As shown in Figure 7.03, it dehumidifies supply air from warm, humid air to cold dry air and the return air gets humidified and ejected from the building. It is more energy efficient at removing humidity since it doesn’t require the temperature to be below the dew point level as air conditioning requires, (Subramanyam et al, 2004, p.2). Instead, humidity clings to porous paint on the many surfaces of the wheel.

The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) provides excellent resources for exploring this technology in Airai (ASHRAE, 2002). Ideally, this would begin as a pilot project where one building could demonstrate the


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technology for the community. This technology is designed for a medium to large size building so the airport or a local government building would be an ideal candidate for Airai.

Figure 7.03 - Desiccant Wheel (Union Gas, 2009)

7.13 Alternative: Energy Conservation Recommendations

The following are the top recommendations for conservation in Airai. These have been selected since they are no-to-low cost to implement, have short pay back periods, have been proven successful in Hawai`i and can be accomplished at the State level without Federal funding.

• Use CFL’s rather than incandescent light bulbs. CFL’s use 75% less energy and last 10 times as long as traditional incandescent light bulbs (DBEDT, 2001)

• Delamp where possible. The Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) sites healthy illumination levels and The University of Hawai`i has shown that many government buildings are unnecessarily over lit causing headaches and eye-strain. (Wolfe, 2008)

• Use multiple fans rather than just one or two. The fan affinity law states that fan energy use increases disproportionately with increased fan speeds. As such, it is more cost effective to run multiple fans on lower speeds than a single fan on a high speed.

• Paint roofs white. This is a cost effective, simple means of reducing heat gain in buildings.

• Solar shelves over windows reduce heat gain into rooms from direct sunlight. • Energy star fridges. Airai has such a small population that Energy Star compliant

appliance manufacturers might provide free or discounted products to create a pilot with bragging rites.


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7.14 Challenge: Lack of Energy Policy

As stated previously, as of the 2005 PIEPSAP report, there was no National Energy Policy or regulatory framework for energy sector operations in Palau (Zieroth, 2005, p.7). Since the PPUC has recently begun working with the EU to develop national energy policy, they may choose to adopt some features of Hawaiì’s energy policy development which is occurring in parallel as described below.

7.15 Alternative: Recommendations from Hawaiì’s HCEI

The Hawaiì Clean Energy Initiative (HCEI) is an agreement between HECO, the Governor and DBEDT to reduce Hawaiì’s use of fossil fuels by 70% by 2030. The reduction will be 40% due to renewable energy and 30% due to conservation. (HCEI, 2009) The following are recommendations for energy policy in Palau that are based on key components of the HCEI. Since the PPUC is a stakeholder, these policies will have to be implemented at the national level. Airai can contribute to this process by working with the PPUC to be a pilot location for technologies and programs where possible. Airai could also set its own goals for implementing renewable energy, effectively creating its own Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS).

1. Separate the utility’s profits from the sales of electricity by adopting a decoupled business model so that the utility can profit and recoup investments successfully with distributed renewable energy.

2. Evolve the utility into a dispatcher rather than a generator of electricity by focusing on grid ownership, management, reliability and optimal electricity distribution.

3. Obligate the utility to purchase renewable energy, provide easy access to the grid and pay a set fee for the energy generated under a feed in tariff law. This provides a clear market signal that spurs wide-scale renewable energy implementation.

4. Do not charge a stand-by fee or interconnection fees for renewable energy. 5. Simplify interconnection agreements to reduce cost and turn around time. 6. Create an RPS. This is a mandated goal stating the percentage of the total energy

use that must be from renewable sources. 7. Do not allow waste-to-energy conversion, demand side management or

centralized bio-diesel as qualifying renewable energy in the RPS. This ensures that solar and distributed generation are encouraged.

8. Specify that the majority of the RPS should be solar, such as 75%. This brings focus to the most efficient types of renewable energy for Palau.


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7.16 Challenge: Solid Waste is Poorly Managed

A 2009 paper titled the Palau Municipal Waste Improvement Plan summarizes Palau’s waste infrastructure as follows:

Most of Palau’s landfills are located in unsuitable areas where they were not properly built to prevent leachate from flowing out of the sites. Thus contamination is a big threat within the surrounding area. This affects the marine ecosystem as well as the villagers who depend on them for subsistence. (Matsutaro, 2009, p.5)

Thus, the landfills that are receiving Airai’s waste pose health and safety risks, as well as capacity challenges as the population grows.

7.17 Alternative: Bio-char Production from Organic Waste

The South Pacific Regional Program (SPREP) suggests the following three principles to reduce waste going to landfill in a region:

1. Minimize the generation of waste at source in order to minimize the amount of waste that needs to be recycled and discarded

2. Maximize the amount of waste transferred to reuse or recycle schemes, thereby minimizing the volume of waste having to be sent to landfill

3. Efficiently and effectively manage residential waste disposal and storage (Matsutaro, 2009, p.19)

Bio-char is a process that uses all three of these principles since it takes household and agricultural organic waste and converts it to a useable product rather than sending it to a landfill. The two usable products are energy in the form of a gas and charcoal as a by-product. Bio-char can be made with a specially designed cooking oven as show in Figure 7.04. The energy produced is used to cook food, which decreases fossil fuel use as well as GHG emissions. The charcoal produced also has economic value as fertilizer and can be a new welcome income source.


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Figure 7.04 - Producing Bio-char from a Cooking Stove (International Biochar Initiative, 2009)

A paper published on Bio-Char Sequestration summarizes the benefits of bio-char as follows.

Bio-char can act as a soil conditioner enhancing plant growth by supplying and, more importantly, retaining nutrients and by providing other services such as improving soil physical and biological properties. (Lehmann et al, 2006, p.404)

Since bio-char is a valuable product, it is an economically viable option for Airai since it would reduce the cost of fertilizer while also providing energy for cooking as described earlier. Also, if Airai participated in a global carbon trading market, the producer of the bio-char could generate profits since bio-char sequesters carbon. Bio-char is ideal for carbon trading due to its unique qualities described below.

Systems that sequester bio- char can be distinguished from other strategies for soil carbon sequestration previously considered for agriculture, because (i) it is clearly established that bio-char sequestration represents long term storage of carbon; and, (ii) the carbon added has distinct characteristics enabling verification of sequestration, if required. (Lehmann et al, 2006, p.420)

Due to the long-term, verifiable sequestration of carbon by bio-char it would most likely satisfy the requirements of a carbon trading program. In addition to the economic benefits of such a program for Airai, the sequestration of carbon also helps to mitigate global climate change.

7.18 Additional Resources: Adopt Proven Frameworks to Guide Unique Solutions for Airai

The following list provides resources for various aspects of sustainability planning for Airai, with summaries of the benefits of each option.


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The Natural Step Framework

The Natural Step was developed in Sweden and has produced hundreds of self-sufficient communities. It provides a framework for community input planning by posing four questions that can be applied to any are of focus from water use to imported products. The framework was so successful that it was adopted by the U.N. and has been used throughout the world, including the Big Island. Since Airai has such strong communities, the knowledge and passion of the citizens could be united and leveraged through a community planning process guided by the Natural Step since it is one of the single best resources for community driven planning. Details can be found at www.naturalstep.org.

Sustainability Indicators

Whether it is the national government energy policy plan, or a community plan, indicators are needed to monitor and guide progress. Following the development of any sustainability related plan in Airai, the appropriate indicators should be identified to ensure the plan is successfully implemented. Maureen Hart’s list of indicators summarizes traditional and sustainability indicators for business, products, production, ecosystem, land use, and resource use. It also provides checklist of considerations when a community is developing its own indicators and provides an excellent resource at www.sustainablemeasures.com. The United Nations also provides indicators that encompass aspects of sustainable development for a country at www.un.org/esa/sustdev/publications/indisd-mg2001.pdf. Airai could learn much from Cuba, which is the only country to meet all of the UN’s sustainability indicators and is a comprehensive case study of an island’s resilience.

Ecological Footprint/Green House Gas (GHG) Inventory

These methods identify which sectors of society and the economy are contributing to global warming and pollution by the amount of greenhouse gases being emitted. The ecological footprint site at www.footprintnetwork.org provides a tool to calculate how much nature your lifestyle requires and could be completed by community members in Airai to engage them in understanding the importance of their behavior and lifestyle choices. The website at www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/index.html provides resources for calculating the GHS emissions for a region. Airai is a small enough State that it could do this exercise relatively easily and then use the results as a tool to set goals for various sectors and to work with the federal levels as was as the PPUC.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Airai has many opportunities to consider alternative solutions to long-standing problems in the areas of energy and waste. At the community level the strong social fabric and relatively small population make community planning a great strength for the State that should be leveraged at every opportunity. There is incentive for citizens to


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participate since there is cultural respect for the land and communities. There is also economic incentive since these solutions have low pay back periods and benefit individuals and the community economically over time.

Distributed infrastructure where energy is created or green waste is disposed of on site creates self-sufficiency for the State, as well as for individuals within Airai. Losses associated with moving energy or waste are also eliminated with distributed infrastructure. In the case of energy, this self-sufficiency reduces the vulnerability to external forces, such as increases in diesel prices due to dwindling fuel reserves and growing world demand. Energy independence would allow Airai to prosper supported by its own resources, reflecting the strong culture of its citizens.


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References

ASHRAE Technical Committee 8.12. (2002). Desiccant equipment ànd components. Retrieved December 30, 2009, from http://tc812.ashraetcs.org/html/pubs_equipment.html

DBEDT - Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism. (2001). Home energy efficiency

brochure. Retrieved December 26, 2009 from: http://74.125.155.132/search?q=cache:PhcUcgGfsp0J:Hawaiì .gov/dbedt/info/energy/efficiency/ConsumerBrochure.pdf+Hawaiì +percentage+water+heating&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=US&client=safari

DOE – Department of Energy. Electricity table. Retrieved December 30, 2009, from

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/esr/table5.html DBEDT, Department of Business Economic Development and Tourism. (2009), HCEI-Hawaiì Clean

Energy Initiative. Retrieved December 30, 2009, from: http://Hawaiì .gov/dbedt/info/energy/hcei/

HECO-Hawaiì an Electric Company. (2008) Charting a course toward a preferred energy future, 2008.

Retrieved December 30, 2009, from: http://www.heco.com/vcmcontent/IntegratedResource/IRP/PDF/HECO_IRP4_Public_01_02_070507_background.pdf

Hines, G., & McGordon A., & Jennings P. (2009) The simulation of vehicle-to-home systems-using vehicle

battery storage to smooth domestic electricity demand. MC2D & MITI. International Biochar Initiative. (2009). Biochar stoves. Retrieved December 30, 2009 from

http://www.biochar-international.org/technology/stoves Joliet Technology. (2008). 80% savings on electricity with LED street lighting. Retrieved December 30, 2009

from: http://www.prlog.org/10088665-80-savings-on-electricity-with-led-street-lighting.html

Lehmann, J., & Gaunt J., & Rondon, M. (2006) Bio-char sequestration in terrestial ecosystems-A review.

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. Matsutaro, E. X. (2009) Palau municipal waste improvement plan. Honolulu: The Department of Urban and

Regional Planning, the University of Hawaiì at Manoa. Miller, D. (2007, January). World wide wireless, Unwired (Vol.5 Issue 1, pp. 34-35). PPUC - Palau Public Utilities Corporation. (2005). Renewable energy workshop. Retrieved December 30,

2009 from: http://www.e8.org/Projects/Majuro/Attendees_fichiers/Presentation%20Palau%20Public%20Utilitites%20Corporation.pdf

PPUC - Palau Public Utilities Corporation. (2009) Consultancy for review of tariff of the Palau Utility

Corporation.Retrieved December 30, 2009 from:


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http://www.e8.org/Projects/Majuro/Attendees_fichiers/Presentation%20Palau%20Public%20Utilitites%20Corporation.pdf

Sopac. (2004) About PIEPSAP. Retrieved December 30, 2009 from:

http://www.sopac.org/About+PIEPSAP Subramanyam, N., & Maiya, M.P., & and Srinivasa, S. (2004). Application of desiccant wheel to control

humidity in air-conditioning systems. Elsevier Ltd. Union Gas. (2009) Desiccant wheel. Retrieved December 30, 2009, from:

http://www.uniongas.com/images/humidDiagram.jpg U.S. DOE - Department of Energy. (2009). Energy plus simulation software. Retrieved December 30, 2009,

from: http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/cfm/weather_data3.cfm/region=5_southwest_pacific_wmo_region_5/country=PLW/cname=Palau

Wade, H. (2006) Summary of the renewable energy and energy efficiency sections of the USDOI - 2006

insular areas energy assessment. Retrieved December 30, 2009, from: http://earth1.epa.gov/region09/islands/conf09/Herb-Wade.pdf

Wireless Internet Institute. (2003). The wireless internet opportunity for developing countries. World Times

Inc. Woodruff, A. (2007). The potential for renewable energy to promote sustainable development in Pacific

Island Countries. 30th Conference of the international Association for Energy Economics. Wellington. New Zealand. Retrieved December 30, 2009 from: http://www.sopac.org/data/virlib/MR/MR0692.pdf

Worldbank. (2009). Data Finder. Retrieved December 30, 2009 from:

http://datafinder.worldbank.org/population-total Wolfe, M. (2008). Workplace de-lamping. College of Social Sciences Public Policy Center, University of

Hawai`i . Retrieved December 30, 2009, from: http://www.publicpolicycenter.Hawai`i .edu/documents/brief004.pdf

Xingwei, H. (2008). Pacific Islands Countries switch to renewable energy source due to rising fuel prices.

Retrieved December 30, 2009, from: http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-10/17/content_10210370.htm

Zieroth, G. (2005). Palau national consultations report. PIEPSAP Project Report.

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Aaron Mann

In economic terms, land is one of three factors of production; the other two are labor and capital. The supply of land is often considered to be inelastic, meaning, additional land cannot be created regardless of demand. However, the economic output of land is elastic and is dependent upon the use and price of the goods and services produced through the use of land. For example, outputs from land include: water, food, energy, housing, commerce, and transportation. The demand for land varies widely within a single jurisdiction depending upon the type of use and the foreseeable, best use. In turn, the land market creates opportunities for speculative transactions, segregated uses, land degradation, and other negative externalities of its use. Therefore, the state of Airai retains ultimate responsibility for ensuring all land within the state is put to its best use, which should include not only economic analysis, but social and environmental factors as well. The focus of this study centers on the delicate balance among ecological, social, and economic components of land-use as the primary driver of change regarding current and future land-use.

This portion of the study concentrates on section 2.4, Economic & Commercial Development of the ASMP in conjunction with related strategies found in the Airai State Planning Commission’s (ASPC) Committee IV Action Plan as they relate to land-use principles and development. The recommendations discussed within this study are in no way directives aimed at emulation of western or international practice, but merely a variety of strategies for consideration among decision-makers for the benefit of the people living in Airai.

8.1 Implementing an Economic/Environmental Framework

Classical economics consists of the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services among consumers and producers. Unfortunately, early interpretations of this model failed to account for resources such as air, soil, forests, and water and the negative externalities imposed upon people and the environment. As a consequence, this oversight created a widespread attitude that these resources possess insignificant economic value. Open space, watershed conservation areas, cultural sites, mangrove forests, and agricultural land represent uses that may not have comparative economic advantages to commercial, industrial, or residential development, but they do possess tremendous ecological and social value that warrants preservation. Throughout the world, energy, water, pollution, and waste


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represent undervalued elements of the classical economic system. Unrestrained land consumption activities such as burning, erosion, waste disposal, dredging, deforestation, mining, and development have all posed considerable costs to the environment.

In a United Nations (UN) development paper, authored by John Asafu-Adjaye (2004), he describes and constructs a conceptual model of the economic-environment system. His proposed model addresses the importance of the environment and provides a framework of economic conditions and the interaction among society and the environment (Asafu-Adjaye, 2004). In this conceptual diagram, the environment is the principle source of inputs for households and firms. On the other hand, it is also the dumping point of wastes such as air pollution, solid waste, and other effluence. Firms and households represent the classic model of an economy, consisting of transactions among labor, wages, and consumption. In addition, recycling has become a viable solution for decreasing negative impacts of the economy, returning a portion of waste products back to the system in which they were generated. Unfortunately, only a small percentage of waste products are currently recycled due to the tendency of economic analysis to undervalue the environment and social conditions. In this study, numerous re-use and recycle strategies aimed at regaining balance within the economic/environment system are proposed for consideration.

By utilizing this model of economic and environmental interactions, the Airai State Government may establish a land-use plan capable of reducing the impact of development on the ecosystem, thus preserving the natural resources necessary for indefinite survival. However, this model of the economic – environment interaction does not adequately satisfy the system either. This system fails to address the responsibilities of government and residents to protect and replenish environmental inputs such as land, fisheries, and forests. Currently, this model assumes that the environment will continue to renew itself at a rate equal to the rate at which people continue to extract its outputs and add waste. However, it is now understood that this is inaccurate. Therefore, mechanisms must be established to facilitate ecological renewal, incentivize recycling, regulate waste and environmental extraction, as well as govern the classical model of economics. In Figure 8.01, a conceptual model was developed for this report to show that the role of government has a significant influence in establishing a balance among all land users and uses.


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Figure 8.01 - Model of the Economic and Environmental Interaction Source: (Adapted from Asafu-Adjaye, 2004)

Throughout this study, special consideration will be given to address technologies, mechanisms, policies, and regulations capable of mitigating the negative effects of land-use through the use of incentives and disincentives as performed by governance. Utilizing this model, it is clear that government must guide the transactions that occur within the classic economic model as well as the externalities that affect the environment.

8.2 Community Participation in Land-Use Planning

The management of human behavior is often the most disguised element of land-use plans. In reality, human needs derived from the use of land represent the primary driver of land-use planning. The opportunity now exists for the State of Airai to implement the master plan according to the requirements set forth by those living within its borders. Therefore, the


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land-use plan should also reflect the goals and strategies of the community for which the plan is proposed. The citizens of Airai may face a loss of individual freedoms of land-use choices as a result of regulations aimed at the protection of neighbors and the overall residential population of Airai. Therefore, the Airai State Government is responsible for the establishment of community participation processes, which provide opportunities to inform and encourage public discussion throughout the planning process.

In order to accomplish such a task, it is essential to develop a formalized approach aimed at community participation by which all residents in Airai are given the opportunity to attend and contribute to the development of a land-use plan. The initial steps regarding the master plan have occurred by which public hearings were held within each hamlet as found in the ASPC Public Hearings Feedbacks Summary. However, public participation must remain in effect throughout the planning process in order to achieve the necessary support from Airai residents. In the Constitution of the Republic of Palau, Article IV, Section 5 of the Palau National Code Annotated (PNCA) states:

Every person shall be equal under the law and shall be entitled to equal protection. The government shall take no action to discriminate against any person on the basis of sex, race, place of origin, language, religion or belief, social status or clan affiliation except for the preferential treatment of citizens, for the protection of minors, elderly, indigent, physically or mentally handicapped, and other similar groups, and in matters concerning intestate succession and domestic relations.

In respect to equality, the state of Airai should create transparent processes by which all issues and recommendations are addressed sufficiently regardless of social status or clan affiliation. Unfortunately, this is a major obstacle that prevents widespread public participation. In the study “Demographic and Land Use Trends for Babeldaob Island,” Ngiraingas (2009) states, “Interestingly, quite a few community members who did not hold leadership positions repeatedly reassured us that it was, in fact, not their responsibility or place to think about or decide on these issues.” According to the interviews conducted in this study, many residents of Palau are not engaged in the process of decision-making and believe that their roles do not include planning related duties.

In order to correct this matter, Airai may conduct additional community outreach workshops designed to elicit land-use principles from the residents in addition to focused discussions regarding the principles in this document as well as other land-use studies. The establishment of an open dialogue among residents shall prove to be the most valuable source of information while formalizing a land-use plan.

8.3 Statistical Analysis in Airai

Population, labor, income, and other economic statistics provide invaluable measures of Palau’s people and resources. In order to formulate an effective land-use plan, one aimed at improving the quality of life of residents, that plan must address the demographic, social,


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economic, and housing characteristics in Palau and specifically, Airai. The measures utilized in this report shall provide a common basis for decision-makers to develop land-use plans and policies to promote the social development of Airai.

Using historical Census data and the Cohort-Survival Method of population projections, it is anticipated that Airai’s growth will slow significantly as a result of the completion of the compact road16, President Toribiong’s executive order restricting the number of foreign workers to 6,00017, and the trends found in migration, survival, and birth rates in Palau. In Figure 8.02 below, the data preceding the line, at the year 2005, represent historical census data and to the right consist of this report’s projections. Based on this methodology, the population of Airai is projected to grow by an average of 0.7% per year, through the year 2020. Therefore, new residential development growth will likely depend upon internal migration or resettlement and further decreases in extended family living arrangements. These changes in social structure will largely affect future settlement patterns and land-use functions.

Figure 8.02 - Airai Population Projection – 2020 Source: (Population projections using the Cohort-Survival Method, Historical data from Table 2.1 in the 2000 Census & 2005 Census)

Unfortunately, these projections do not account for internal migration patterns within Palau, which may constitute a majority of the population increase in Airai in the last five years since the 2005 Census and for the next ten years. Many unsubstantiated claims depict Airai as a state undergoing rapid growth; however, data such as the issuance of building

16 Following completion of the compact road, those Babeldaob citizens living in Airai and Koror may now return to their homelands and commute to the urban areas 17 President Johnson Toribiong signed an executive order on October, 9, 2009, establishing a limit of 6,000 foreign work visas as reported in the Marianas Variety


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permits, which will be discussed in section 8.12 of this study, do not clearly support these claims. Airai does appear to be positioned as a desirable alternative to living in Koror due to the respective population densities of each state, also discussed later in section 8.06. As with any attempt at projecting populations, many deficiencies exist in such a task. As a result, it is recommended that the state of Airai contribute to the success of the 2010 Census in order to obtain up-to-date information regarding the number and characteristics of Airai residents. This census will be valuable in identifying recent migration patterns of Palauans, thus providing the human settlement patterns necessary to the establishment of a land-use plan.

8.4 Airai Labor Force

Analysis of the labor force in Palau presents economic and political questions concerning land-use. Cheap, non-skilled foreign labor has been a significant source of economic growth in Palau. As shown above, in Figure 8.02, the number of foreigners in Airai has increased significantly since the early 1980’s, causing a majority of the population growth in Airai.

During periods of rapid development growth, it is common for countries to permit and solicit foreign labor in order to construct large governmental projects. In this respect, Palau followed the typical model and witnessed a surge in foreign labor from 1984 to 2005. In particular, Airai possesses a disproportional share of the foreign labor force, shown in Figure 8.03. At first glance, the foreign labor supply may appear to fill a void in the labor demand. Unfortunately, implications on land use and economic growth result in unforeseen situations. Declining wages and poor working conditions are a common result of large, un-skilled foreign labor dependence. Many occupations in the service sector, such as hotel workers, cooks, construction workers, nannies, and cleaners are common positions held by a majority of the foreigners. Therefore, un-skilled Palauan workers face difficulty in finding employment because wages have been reduced to levels below the current standard of living in Palau.


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Figure 8.03 - Percentage of Foreign Workers in Palau’s Labor Force Source: (Compiled from Table 12 in the 2005 Census)

This phenomenon has created a perception among Palauans that un-skilled labor occupations are fit for foreign workers, while more respected occupations are reserved for Palauans (ASMP, 2009). This practice contrasts the traditional Palauan customs by which men pursued fishing and women practiced agriculture and gathering, both of which relied heavily upon physical labor. This practice represents a common transformation that occurs with economic development; people begin to rely less on subsistence activities and migrate toward market oriented, wage-earning occupations.

In a previous study, “Demographic and Land Use Trends for Babeldaob Island”, interviews revealed a significant concern regarding the erosion of culture brought about by increasing foreign populations. “For example, Airai State community members focused a great deal on the state’s diverse composition and they perceived this was impacting the social, political and cultural attitudes/behaviors of the state’s inhabitants” (Ngiraingas, 2009). Although this concern may be legitimate, the economic advancements achieved in Palau depend a great deal upon the foreign labor supply.

According to Table 12 of the 2005 Census of Population and Housing for the Republic of Palau, there were 1,163 foreigners in Airai in 2005. Further, the Census indicates that 724 people (26.6% of the total population) live within group quarters, which have been assumed to constitute foreign laborers. As a result, the remaining 439 foreigners in Airai live within their own households or within Palauan households. The Census also identified 529 households among the total population of 2,723. Therefore, 1,999 people live in households, 1,560 of which are Palauan. As a result, the average household consists of


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3.78 people, by which .83 persons per household are foreigners. In addition, the median household income for Airai was $14,155 (Census, 2005).

Foreign labor is abundant and affordable by Palauan standards. The average wage for un-skilled foreign labor in Palau typically pays $1.50 per hour (Fallon, 2008). Assuming a workweek of 40 hours, which more than likely is low for foreign labor, a foreign laborer will earn a gross wage of approximately $3,120 per year. This information suggests that the land-use plan should specifically address the high degree of influence foreign residents possess in Airai.

8.5 Tourism Effects

The effects of tourism on land-use in Airai pose significant risks to the economy as well as the natural environment. First, tourists increase the need for public services and place additional strains on existing infrastructure. Palau welcomed 82,397 tourists in 2006, contributing $97 million to the economy (Palau Visitors Authority, 2009). Assuming an average stay of four days, this places an additional 869 people in Palau every day of the year. Tourist spending in Palau is a significant contributor to the economy; therefore, a great deal of effort and resources has been allotted toward tourism development.

Figures 8.04 and 8.05 depict widely sporadic visitor arrivals to Palau within the last eleven years. In an economy heavily reliant upon tourist revenue, the tourist cycles pose considerable risk regarding the economic future in Airai.

Figure 8.04 - Palau Visitor Arrivals Source: (Compiled from the Palau Visitors Authority, http://www.visit-palau.com/publication/index.cfm?CFID=6108332&CFTOKEN=37657661)


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Figure 8.05 - Palau Average Visitor Arrivals by Month Source: (Compiled from the Palau Visitors Authority, http://www.visit-palau.com/publication/index.cfm?CFID=6108332&CFTOKEN=37657661)

Within the realm of globalization, tourism offers a significant revenue generating industry for small islands in the Pacific. However, the benefits of tourism should be carefully structured to provide for consistent outcomes.

8.6 Carrying Capacity of Airai

Analysis of a locality’s carrying capacity offers tools to understand growth and its effects on the quality of life of its residents. Airai occupies 44 square kilometers of land and maintains the only land-based, Babeldaob access to the commercial center of Koror. As of the 2005 Census, Airai had a population density of 61.9 residents per square kilometer, placing it third among the densest states in Palau. As a result, Airai residents tend to live closer to one another and conduct subsistence activities on less land than other Babeldaob states. Only Kayangel (62.7) and Koror (704.2) have greater population densities than Airai, shown in Table 8.01. In response to externalities brought about by dense settlement patterns, Airai may experience a surge in demand for land, housing, and business activities as those from Koror seek a less-dense environment in which to live and conduct business. Due to potential population increases, Airai must face the issue of growth management.


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Table 8.01 - Land Densities by State in Palau

Source: (Adapted from Table 1 of the Census 2005)

Growth management and density play significant roles in any land-use plan, requiring further explanation and analysis. As populations increase, demand for land increases, which also drives up the cost of land. As a result, the population tends to sprawl in search of less expensive land, further from the urban center. In comparison, the density found in Airai is significantly less than that of Koror. Should historical trends occur in Palau that have occurred in nearly every other urban center across the world, urban sprawl from Koror may place tremendous burdens on Airai’s future development. The key condition of urban sprawl is the development of convenient transportation methods. In the case of Palau, this occurred with the opening of the compact road and the intense reliance upon vehicular travel.

According to the statement of vehicle registrations, the state of Airai issued 575 vehicle registrations and collected $8,445 in receipts between January and September 2009 (Airai State Government, 2009). A simple extrapolation would indicate that approximately 767 vehicles are registered within Airai, accounting for yearly registration receipts of $11,260 at an average cost of $14.69 per registration. Given a projected population of 2,786, 741 of which inhabit group quarters, 541 households are estimated in Airai as of 2009. Assuming the 2005 statistic regarding persons per household of 3.78, this yields an average of 1.42 vehicles per household in Airai, shown in Table 8.02, assuming those living in group quarters do not own vehicles. With the upcoming Census in 2010, these statistics should be adjusted to reflect the current situation.


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Table 8.02 - Vehicle Use Projections for 2009

Source: (Adapted from the 2005 Census and Statement of Vehicle Registrations)

Lacking historical vehicle registration statistics, it can only be assumed that vehicle usage is on the rise as a result of higher incomes and considerable infrastructure development that has occurred within Palau since 2005. The completion of the compact road in 2007 created significant opportunities for interstate commerce, land-use development, and migration. The effects of the road have not yet been fully substantiated, but the assumptions are as follows. An interstate road provides access to the commercial center of Koror, providing rural states with the ability to bring local goods to the market. Although the population has increased in Airai, it is predicted that personal vehicle usage as a matter of convenience is increasing faster than the rate of population growth, leading to a greater reliance on personal transportation.

8.7 Traditional Land-Use Practices

Palau is rich in its own customs and heritage, offering a great historical context of its people. After many years of foreign occupation, Palauan custom has evolved to include characteristics of occupying nations such as Germany and Japan in addition to influencers like Taiwan and the U.S. This experience is widespread across the world, consisting of various degrees of globalization. The level at which a nation or group of people assume new processes, technologies, and behaviors depends a great deal upon the adopter’s desire to maintain tradition or adapt to change. Palau has shown a strong desire to maintain traditional practices, but the actual preservation of customs has proven to be rather complex under the new system of governance.

Currently, the Airai State government is the only statutory governing body in Airai, maintaining complete home rule. However, Airai is comprised of six beluu, or villages, each governed by a “council of chiefs” based upon authority by tenure and bloodline. “Through a combination of a series of court decisions that illustrate the incompatibility of the two bodies of law and a lack of any legislative initiative that could reconcile them, the exercise of purely customary authority has been relegated to matters of only minor importance” (Graham & Idechong, 1998). Accordingly, the system of a chiefly council continues to hold power in


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Airai, but the powers have given way to democratic governance. The Airai Constitution provides for both executive and legislative (Olbiil Ra Ngerchumelbai) branches bound by a democratic election held every four years as the primary source of governance.

Although the governing power in Airai has shifted, the principles of strong environmental and social consciousness continue. Traditional divisions of land in Palau were based upon two types of control, chetemel a blai (clan lands) and chutembuai (public lands). These lands were divided and transferred according to lineage, marriage, and decisions among the clan chief and senior, clan women (Palau, Airai Village, 2003). This system of land-use provided equal access to public lands in order to support ones family as well as private land where one could dwell. Even in traditional land-use customs, Palauans maintained an individual dwelling as well as public places. Today, the disagreement in land title stems from the loss of traditional authority, not the introduction of individual interests. Individual and public interests, which are as old as humanity itself, represent the foundation of land-use planning.

As a result of two parallel governing practices, various events have transpired giving rise to increased court interventions as a means to assess legitimate authoritative powers. In the process, the Council of Chiefs has been severely limited in their ability to evolve as circumstances change (Graham & Idechong, 1998). Previously, the traditional governance possessed the power to adapt to changing social circumstances. Today, however, the courts have solidified traditional authority and continue to limit the flexibility once inherent in Palau.

On the other hand, traditional practice has influenced the new system of governance. For example, environmental preservation programs such as the Protected Area Network (PAN) in Palau is primarily based upon the traditional practice of bul, which is a ban on designated reef fishing areas during spawning and feeding seasons (Graham & Idechong, 1998). The PAN system of protection first seeks the advice of the local leaders followed by expert guidance from scientists in order to begin the discussion regarding areas to be preserved. Although the traditional leaders of Palau appear to possess less authority than previously, their influence may continue to provide valuable frameworks for the creation of law under the current democratic government.

Also, in 1997, Palau conducted an inventory of cultural sites in Airai as a means for promoting the protection and preservation of these valuable areas. The information represents an immediate concern as development further encroaches upon these irreplaceable resources. In this study, 112 sites were identified in Airai state, which shall guide future development options (Rita, Emesiochel, & Mersai, 1997). Once again, the knowledge and experience regarding these cultural sites originated from traditional leaders who have a tremendous grasp of the history in Airai. In order to maintain the cherished history in Airai, efforts to document the knowledge of traditional land-use shall continue to add value to contemporary land-use regulations.


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8.8 The Role of Airai’s Government

Upon independence, Palauans chose to form a republic comprised of sixteen sovereign states based upon a national constitution as well as individual state constitutions. The framework of the Palauan government and that of the U.S. are very similar, including a bi-cameral legislature, executive branch, and judicial branch. Although the framework is similar, execution and function are quite disparate. In the U.S., state governments possess a great deal of autonomy over education, commerce & trade, community & cultural affairs, justice, health, and development while in Palau; the national government controls much of these functions through centralized ministries. Therefore, Palauan states possess far less power and control over these functions in relation to their U.S. state equivalents.

For example, U.S. state governments further divide to county and municipal or township governments in order to handle a majority of local governance and services. In 2007, the U.S. Census Bureau identified 39,044 county and sub-county governments in addition to the fifty state governments across the U.S.18 At the same time, the U.S. population was 301,290,332, resulting in one governing body per 7,707 people. 19 These sub-governments can be characterized as hierarchical systems that place municipalities within counties, counties within states, and states within the federal government. This system indicates that a single resident living within a municipality will fall under the jurisdiction of at least four governments; municipal, county, state, and federal, each with their respective duties and obligations to its constituencies.

Development of the Airai State Master Plan exhibits a divergence from the current centralized form of governance in Palau, leading to greater autonomy over state operations. In order to effectively administer new governmental functions, Airai should consider its capacity for successful implementation and management. Although, the master plan addresses numerous issues, it represents only the first of many plans and administrative duties to come. In Appendix 3:Local Government Reform Checklist, is a checklist created by the Government of Western Australia that provides an assessment of local government’s capacity to provide and administer public goods and services. It is recommended that the state of Airai perform this assessment and determine exactly what services it aims to provide and which responsibilities must be relegated to the national government.

For example, question two of the checklist asks whether the local government maintains a complete inventory of infrastructure and assets accompanied by maintenance and renewal plans including the enabling financial plan. In order to answer this question, this study turned to section 2.1.2 of the ASMP. The plan indicates that the national government assumes responsibility for major roads, while the state maintains secondary roads. In this case, the study was unable to determine the percentage of roads within the state of Airai that

18 U.S. Census Bureau “Lists and Structures of Government”. The data indicated that 89,476 governments existed within the U.S. However, only towns and townships, municipalities, and counties were extracted for this study. Special use and school districts were excluded. 19 U.S. Census Bureau “National and State Population Estimates”


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fall under the responsibility of the national government of Palau or the state of Airai. Through the use of this checklist, it is suggested that the Airai Planning Commission identify state and national infrastructure responsibilities such as roads, water, utilities, and communications through both visual and textual descriptions.

In addition to the inventory of infrastructure and responsibilities, the issue of funding requires attention. According to a summary of the May 20, 2009 Despedall-Oikull & Ngchesechang community meeting, one unidentified participant addressed the following issue:

Find ways or work with the National Government so that the state government can collect and/or receive a higher amount of road use taxes from vehicle registration instead of the National Government. (i.e. currently the state is collecting vehicle registration fee of $10.00-$15.00 while the National fee is $75.00, this should be the other way around). The increased road use tax can be used to maintain and repair our roads. Also, take note that majority of the Airai residents/citizens’ vehicular traffic exists within our state on a daily basis, and therefore, it is realistic to impose an increased road use tax.20

This statement is important because the concept of usage and responsibility are essential to the role of state and national governments. In this case, the governing body responsible for the greatest number of road mileage maintenance within the state should receive the greatest portion of the vehicle registration fee, petroleum tax, and highway tax. According to the 2008 Annual National Budget Authorization and Appropriation Act, the national government apportioned $300,000 to the maintenance of roads and bridges in Palau. On the other hand, the 2009 Annual Airai State Budget provided only $10,500 for tools, equipment, materials, and petroleum as it relates to roads, grounds, and facilities maintenance in Airai. Therefore, the state of Airai may request a greater portion of vehicle registration fees, but should also consider which government has the greatest share of responsibility for road maintenance.

At this point, it becomes necessary to discuss economies of scale in relation to road construction and maintenance. The national government is likely to have economies of scale in terms of road construction and maintenance in relation to the state of Airai, thereby achieving a lower cost of production. Assuming this is true; Airai may find it more beneficial to create a partnership with the national government for roadway construction and maintenance, completely relinquishing all roads to the national government. However, Airai may also desire greater autonomy over roadways. Assuming more autonomy, the state will face diseconomies of scale, resulting in higher per mile roadway costs, additional administrative costs, and increased capital outlays for equipment. Upon accurate analysis,

20 Airai Hamlets’ Public Hearings for Airai State Master Development Plan, “ASPC Feedbacks Summary.doc” provided by the Airai State Planning Commission


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the state of Airai may then make informed decisions regarding the true costs of providing public services and its ability to administer and maintain them.

Economies of scale in the production of public goods and services provide reliable information when performing analysis of centralization versus decentralization. Roadways are only one example of services that may be best handled nationally opposed to locally. The structure of government and scope of responsibilities will play a vital role in the development of Airai’s land-use plan. In order for Airai to create and maintain an effective land-use plan, the underlying support in the form of human capital and revenue generation must be addressed. When conducting the assessment, Airai must identify the human capital and local revenue necessary to support the proposed separation of duties from the national government. With a population of approximately 2,723 residents, over 1,000 of which are foreign workers21, the proposed complexity of governmental organization may lead to instability throughout the state in the form of bloated governance and very little capacity for improvements and programs.

In order to understand the cost of governance, a categorization of the 2009 Airai Annual State Budget was performed, in Table 8.03. Salaries (52.9%) and benefits (6.1%) account for 59% of the total budget, while programs and improvements total a mere 16.6% of the total budget. Operational, contractual, and capital expenses comprise the remaining 24.4% of the budget. This assessment indicates that significant improvements in the cost of governance must accompany the land-use plan. The proposed land-use plan will require additional enforcement capacity in the form of an inspector, engineer, and planning commission, which will increase the labor and benefits categories of the budget. Not only will salaries and benefits increase, but also the enforcement costs of a land-use plan will significantly impact an already constrained budget.

Table 8.03 - Airai Budget Categorization

Source: (Aggregated from the Airai State Budget – FY 2009)

21 Analysis conducted from the 2005 Census


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Airai will face significant challenges when attempting to implement a complex state government capable of providing the people the security and services outlined in the ASMP. In Airai, creation of a complex state government similar to those of U.S. states may pose significant problems. Governments require a constituency capable of supporting the qualified labor to staff the government as well as the funding necessary to operate it. States in the U.S. have much larger pools of labor and revenue sources than Airai, by which they can extract the necessary tools for instituting governance. As a function of population, the state of Airai would benefit greatly by reducing the complexity of governance compared to that of U.S. states. This comparison is important when addressing the responsibilities and capabilities of the Airai State Government.

Currently, the state of Airai defers of a majority of power to the national government given its limited resources in human capital and limited ability to generate sufficient local revenues. However, the ASPC has committed itself to the formation of an ambitious Master Plan as a means of improving the quality of life for its citizens. Airai and other Palauan states are in the process of developing plans that demonstrate a greater level of self-reliance and desire to manage their respective state’s resources. However, as the plan progresses, Airai decision-makers will confront many issues of centralized versus decentralized governance.

It remains unclear as to what degree of centralization will evolve within Airai and in general, Palau. Clearly, each state adheres to individual constitutions and each has representation in the national government. However, the roles and responsibilities that fall under state jurisdiction versus national control remain vague. Upon reviewing numerous laws found within the Palau National Code and Executive Orders, the balance of power remains highly centralized at the national level. To further this analysis, this study turned to budgetary controls that provide a distinct explanation of governance in Palau.

By constitutional decree, Airai is a sovereign state guided by traditional practices and a democratic government. However, nearly all revenue is controlled by the national government. For the fiscal year 2008, the Palau national budget was $59.5 million, by which 49.7% originated from foreign aid (Palau National Budget, 2008). Table 8.04 displays the total amount allocated to each state government as well as the corresponding population of each state. In total, the national government allocated $4.8 million, or 8.1% of the budget to the state governments according to the following schedule.


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Table 8.04 - Palau Per Capita Budget Allocation

Source: (Constructed from the 2005 Census and Airai State Budget – FY2009)

The table above indicates that Airai receives approximately $158 per person from the state block grant in order to operate and perform its governmental responsibilities. As shown in the State Budget Per Capita column, a wide range of per capita allotments exist among the states. In order to understand the basis for state block grants, consider the following explanation on the Pacific Worlds website:

The way our system works, Airai’s annual budget from our National Congress is based on the population. So it is limited for only the number of people in that state. The state would probably use this for the maintenance of their state’s road and everything here. Then you put extra people over here, crowding these, and so we are losing out. Because these new people are sharing our resources with us, but their presence here does not contribute to our budget allotment. They’re congesting all the roads and infrastructure here, using everything available here, yet they are not counted in our budget over here. (Palau, Airai Village, 2003)

Based on the above information, it shows that the state block grants no longer adhere to the basic premise of population and needs. The urban areas of Airai and Koror rank as the states with the lowest budgets per capita, leading to a heavy imbalance of the state budget distribution. This study recommends that the Airai state government consider investigating the manner in which the national government distributes funding as a means to achieve goals outlined in the ASMP.


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8.9 U.S. Assistance and Funding

In his inaugural address, on January 20, 1949, Harry Truman made the following statement:

The United States is pre-eminent among nations in the development of industrial and scientific techniques. The material resources which we can afford to use for the assistance of other peoples are limited. But our imponderable resources in technical knowledge are constantly growing and are inexhaustible. I believe that we should make available to peace-loving peoples the benefits of our store of technical knowledge in order to help them realize their aspirations for a better life. And, in cooperation with other nations, we should foster capital investment in areas needing development. Our aim should be to help the free peoples of the world, through their own efforts, to produce more food, more clothing, more materials for housing, and more mechanical power to lighten their burdens.22

To this day, this proclamation continues to guide U.S. foreign aid policies and programs. Evidently, the U.S. is willing and able to provide financial as well as technical support to democratic nations, more specifically those based on principles of freedom and equity. Palau, which gained worldwide recognition of its independence on October 1, 1994, is the recipient of foreign aid from many countries, most notably the U.S. Upon acquiring independence, Palau simultaneously entered into the Compact of Free Association (COFA) with the U.S. The COFA specifically identifies a 15-year assistance period in which the U.S. provides financial assistance in order for Palau to advance economically and become self-sufficient.

On September 30, 2009, the fifteenth anniversary of the Compact, financial assistance from the U.S. expired. However, the Palauan government has requested and been granted an extension of assistance until the U.S. performs the Compact review, which is scheduled for early 2010. Previous compacts with the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) and Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) were renewed in 2003, which may indicate the compact with Palau may also be renewed. In contrast, the 1994 compact arrangement with Palau included the creation of a trust fund, which has accumulated over $160 million as of 2008 (United States Government Accountability Office, 2008). The initial compacts with FSM and RMI did not include this provision; however, the renegotiation conducted in 2003 established such a fund for each country.

According to the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), financial aid received by Palau through 2009 has exceeded $852 million; $411 million in direct assistance, $25 million in postal, aviation, and weather services, $149 million for construction of the compact road, and $267 million in education grants and community healthcare (United States Government Accountability Office, 2008). At the time of writing this report, it is unknown

22 Presidential Inaugural Address, Harry S. Truman, January 20, 1949


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whether the U.S. will continue to transfer payments to the Republic of Palau under auspices of the Compact of Free Association. The uncertainty of this negotiation weighs heavily upon the financial condition of the government and its related policies and programs. In order to mitigate the negative effects of foreign aid dependence, it has often been suggested that Palau become sustainable in terms of internal revenue generation, which was the intended purpose of trust fund creation.

Pacific Island Nations have long been criticized for their dependency on foreign assistance rather than self-development. In “Wooing the Islands” by Andre Vltchek, he asserts that the Island Nations prefer to simply sell rights such as fishing permits instead of fishing their own waters. He also proposes that Pacific Island Nations begin to address global alliances and diplomatic support on the basis of principles and not the influence of foreign aid (Vltchek, 2008). In response to such criticism, it is advisable that the state of Airai pursue a variety of domestic revenue sources in order to alleviate the uncertainty regarding foreign aid and dependence.

8.10 State Government Revenue Generation

In a letter to the Director of International Affairs and Trade of the Government Accountability Office, 2008, Palau Chief of Staff, Billy Kuartei made the following statement:

Regarding the issue of fiscal reform, Palau recognizes that ultimate self-sufficiency can only result from the effective implementation of rigorous economic reforms. As part of an overall structural reform program, Palau is currently looking to establish a medium-term fiscal framework that, assuming a recapitalized Trust Fund, over ten years, calls for operational expenditure reductions and domestic revenue increases that, together, will result in current expenditures being funded primarily from domestic resources.23

Inspired by the commitment to improve domestic revenue generation, the following presents three tools to generate revenue through land-use principles; split-rate property tax, impact fees, and land-use fees. Many revenue mechanisms exist such as trade tariffs, fishing permits, gross revenue tax, and transaction fees; however, this study focuses only on those that pertain to the utilization of land resources and the state of Airai’s ability to implement such mechanisms.

Government finance attempts to follow the basic principles of equity and efficiency for all residents; however, governments often adhere to a “current residents pay last” methodology. Utilizing this scheme of revenue generation, governments look to external

23 Palau Chief of Staff, Billy Kuartei made this statement in response to the Government Accountability Office report “Palau's Use of and Accountability for U.S. Assistance and Prospects for Economic Self-Sufficiency” and included in the document itself


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funding prior to internal sources. The following sequence provides the order in which U.S. governments seek funding for public services and operations:

• Federal agencies • State agencies • Regional agencies • Local sources

◦ Visitors ◦ Development Fees

• Current households

Palauan governments utilize a similar methodology for revenue generation with slight variations. For example, Palau receives significant aid from foreign governments and organizations. Therefore, the first source of revenue for Palau is foreign aid followed by federal agencies and state agencies. The ASMP corroborates the “current residents pay last” methodology in that it makes no mention of revenue generation from existing households. Presently, regional and local governments are non-existent in Airai, which yields the following revenue sources:

• Foreign aid • Palauan National Government • Visitors • Development Fees • State governments • Current Households

In addition, Title 40 § 2101 of the PNCA states:

The state governments of the Republic are hereby prohibited from enacting any taxes or fees on persons, goods, services, sales, income, activities, objects, or other matters already taxed or charged by the national government. If the national government enacts a tax or fee on any persons, goods, services, sales, income, activities, objects, or other matters taxed or charged by any state government, such enactment shall automatically nullify the provisions of any state law imposing a tax or fee on such items.

As a result, Airai is severely limited in its ability to generate its own domestic revenue. Currently, visitor, development fees, and nearly all other taxes and fees fall directly under control of the national government. This structure of financing leads to centralized governance in which development in Airai is bound by the amount of block grants from the national government. Airai now finds itself completely reliant upon national government grants as the primary source of funding. According to Title 40, “Revenue and Taxation” of


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the PNCA, the national government is the only governing body able to collect the following revenues:

1. Business Gross Revenue Tax 2. General Import Tax 3. Hotel Occupancy Tax 4. Departure Tax 5. Foreign Labor Fees 6. Water and Sewer Charges 7. Road Use Tax 8. Fish Export Tax 9. Fuel Excise Tax 10. Business License 11. Foreign Water Vessel Tax

Critical examination of Palau’s financial situation reveals that domestic revenue generation has yet to provide significant government revenue. Currently, the Airai state budget is primarily funded through yearly block grants from the national government. In the fiscal year 2009 (October 1, 2008 – September 30, 2009), Airai received $430,625 from the national government, accounting for 68% of its total budget. Local revenue generation totaled $82,000 or 13% of the total budget. When compared to that of U.S. states, Airai’s dependence on the national government greatly exceeds a balanced source of revenues. For example, shown in Table 8.05 below, state and local governments in the U.S. generate approximately 61% of their own revenues, while Table 8.06 shows Airai obtained only 12.9% of its revenue from local sources.


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Table 8.05 - U.S. State and Local Government Revenue

Source: (Constructed from Table 1. State and Local Government Finances by Level of Government and by State: 2006-07)


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Table 8.06 - State of Airai Revenue Sources - 2009

Source: (Adapted from the 2009 Airai State Budget)

The delivery of infrastructure, public services, and land-use governance requires funding. A land-use plan will require human as well as capital resources to both implement and regulate the policies within the plan. Therefore, the recommendation to maintain the ASPC as a continuous administrative body shall become an effective measure to enforce land-use regulations. The following analysis provides a comparison by which the state of Airai may select additional mechanisms for revenue generation.

In the U.S., states implement revenue generation in very different ways indicating autonomy over financing government operations. Although the source of state revenues may vary, the principles remain consistent across all states. The principle of revenue by taxation provides the foundation for governments and the services they provide. Table 8.07 provides an overarching summary of the combined sources of revenue generation for state governments. The primary source of state funding is attributable to four principal sources; sales tax (17.62%), individual and corporate income taxes (15.95%), federal grants (20.42%), and insurance trust revenues (26.03%), which in total account for 80% of state revenues. In comparison, local government financing is based primarily on property tax (24.11%), service charges (13.69%), and state grants (29.32%), which account for 67% of revenues.

This analysis of U.S. state and local government revenue is an important tool that can be utilized for structuring governance in Airai. Neither the state nor the local government tables alone provide useful comparisons for Airai. Therefore, a combination of state and local governments would provide the best comparison for Airai. As a result, the principle sources of revenue are federal grants (15.20%), property tax (12.51%), sales tax (14.32%), individual and corporate income tax (11.42%), service charges (11.44%), and insurance trust revenues (19.44%), accounting for 84% of revenues.


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Table 8.07 - Primary U.S. Revenue Sources

Source: (Constructed from Table 1. State and Local Government Finances by Level of Government and by State: 2006-07)

According to the 2008 Annual National Budget Authorization and Appropriation Act for Palau, the amount dispersed to all states was identical to that of the budget in 2009. Therefore, the Palauan national government did not provide any increase in budgetary allotments for the states. In order for Airai to move forward in its goals and strategies outlined in the ASMP, it is necessary for the state to implement mechanisms for generating additional revenue.

A major premise of urban economics states that, “people respond to incentives,” which prompts the insertion of governmental policy into economic behavior. As a result, incentive and disincentive programs provide excellent tools by which governments direct economic growth within their jurisdiction. The next sections discuss revenue options that also provide mechanisms for managing development and growth.

8.11 Ad Valorem Split-rate Property Taxation

Article XIII, Section 9 of the Constitution of the Republic of Palau clearly states, “No tax shall be imposed on land”. Article IX, Section 4 of the Constitution of the State of Airai reiterates the prohibition of taxes on land. Regardless of Constitutional laws, the merits of a split-rate property tax deserve analysis.

Overcrowding in Koror, improved roadways, and the availability of state land leases may present Airai with an increasing growth in population. Coupled with the desire for more open space by new residents, Airai may become susceptible to the effects of urban sprawl. Sprawl typically consists of large dwelling lots and wide dispersion among all developable land creating a loss of open space, greater infrastructure costs, and ecological damage. In order to alleviate the negative externalities of sprawl, a land-use plan aimed at achieving economic growth while preserving the natural resources will provide substantial long-term gains for the state of Airai.


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A split-rate property tax represents a tool capable of limiting the negative effects of urban sprawl (Banzhaf and Lavery, 2009). A split-rate tax contains two components, a tax on land, and a tax on improvements or structures. This theory centers on the application of relatively high tax rates on land opposed to the structure built upon the land. As a result, this increases the ratio or density of structures per unit of land, minimizing unnecessary sprawl and its negative effects.

Figure 8.06 - Split-Rate Taxation Source: (Modified Photo from Luciano Minerbi, 2009)

In the following tables, 8.08 and 8.09, a comparison between a single-rate and split-rate taxation mechanism has been provided for two scenarios, a small improvement such as a residential home and a large improvement such as a multi-unit structure. In the small improvement scenario, the single-rate and split-rate tax yield identical figures for the combined land and improvement taxes. This may not always be the case due to the choice of land and improvement taxation rates. The large improvement scenario provides the distinguishing characteristics of a split-rate taxation mechanism. This table indicates that a split-rate tax will incur lower total taxes than that of a single-rate. This effect is referred to as the “improvement effect” (Brueckner and Kim, 2003). The split-rate tax encourages more capital-intensive development of land. A low improvement tax will lead development to the utilization of less land area in order to decrease the total tax.


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Table 8.08 - Small Improvement Scenario

Source: (Palau Practicum: Model of the Small Improvement Split-Rate Taxation Mechanism)

Table 8.09 - Large Improvement Scenario

Source: (Palau Practicum: Model of the Large Improvement Split-Rate Taxation Mechanism)

Property taxes, including both land and improvement taxes, are the most frequently implemented taxes in local U.S. governments. This taxation mechanism will offer Airai the ability to manage growth as well as improve the quality of life for all residents. Considering the insurmountable community and political difficulties of implementing a property tax, a property tax may be unattainable in Airai. However, the merits of such a tax deserve attention.

Property taxes are relatively inexpensive and easy to administer. They represent a transparent system of taxation that is the most enforceable, thus the least likely to be subject to corruption in relation to income, import, and other such taxes. A property tax would provide the state of Airai with a direct source of revenue and control over its own use of land and natural resources opposed to reliance upon national block allocations.

A select group of municipal and county governments in the U.S. use a two-rate property tax method. One tax rate applies to the value of land and the other, the value of structures or improvements built upon that land. The split-rate property tax provides government the ability to guide development according to desired growth objectives. For example, a high tax on built structures may induce residents to utilize the land for economic development through agriculture other than structural development. High land taxes relative


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to improvement taxes may encourage compact development making more efficient use of land for the built environment. Property taxes should not be discarded outright. The premise behind collecting a property tax has many valid measures for guiding land-use and physical growth of urban areas. A tax on property is extremely flexible based upon the desired effect.

The Airai State Government will primarily be responsible for creating incentives and disincentives within the economy. Currently in Airai and all of Palau, disincentives of holding private property do not exist. As a result, Palauans have been labeled, “the most litigious people in the world” (Rasley, 2009). A tax on land may very well create a disincentive to own unproductive land, thereby releasing title of the land for public use. Regardless of the choice of tax mechanism, the theory of taxation remains the same. Governing bodies must generate revenue from its constituency in order to provide public services such as governance and infrastructure.

8.12 Impact Fees

In most U.S. local governments, the use of impact fees has become a common source of revenue generation. The theory surrounding impact fees hinge on accurately assigning a price or fee to the cost of development. Instead of a system-wide tax, distributed among many, new development incurs impact fees that represent future costs the development imposes on city services, infrastructure, and residents. Therefore, the developer must absorb all costs associated with public service including; schools, infrastructure, parks, fire protection, water, police as well as others that are essential in order to support the new development. In the Strategies portion of section 2.1.1 Land Use of the ASMP, the following statement is made: “Establish regulations to impose impact fees for building codes in accordance with the value of the building being constructed.”

Although the above statement identifies a desire to implement impact fees, it misrepresents the rationale behind the program. Impact fees must address the “impact” or “growth-related costs” of development, which cannot be ascertained from the assessed cost of building construction. Construction costs alone fail to account for sewer systems, roadways, electricity, and public spaces. Therefore, the cost of development depends a great deal on the type of use and the buildings location rather than the cost of building construction. The term “rational nexus” is often used to describe the relationship between the infrastructure costs necessary to support a new development and the development’s “fair share” of those costs (APA, 2009). Not only do short-term infrastructure needs such as water, sewer, and electricity affect impact fees, but also the long-term impacts of continued use shall be incorporated into the impact fee assessment process.

Assuming that all new residential and commercial construction in Airai proceeds through the permitting process, it appears that very little construction activity is underway in Airai. Upon analyzing the statistics provided by the ASPC, the following was found and extrapolated the data to represent development for the entire year of 2009. Using this information, it is estimated that only nine new residential and seven new commercial


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buildings will be constructed in 2009, while the remaining thirty-five permits constitute renovations and additions. In respect to the rate of development, impact fees will likely fail to achieve a significant amount of revenue for the state.

Table 8.10 - Airai Construction Permits

Source: (Compiled from “Building Permits Jan. to Sept. 30, 2009 in Airai State.xls,” Airai State Planning Commission)

Table 8.11 - Estimated Yearly Airai Construction Permits

Source: (Extrapolated from “Building Permits Jan. to Sept. 30, 2009 in Airai State.xls,” Airai State Planning Commission)

In order to establish appropriate impact fees, the premise of land and structural improvement values deserve attention. The Palau Environmental Quality Protection Board (EQPB) has established the following fees associated with construction activity. It is important to note that the current environmental impact fee schedule is directly tied to construction costs, not environmental impacts.


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Table 8.12 - EQPB Fees

Source: (Compiled from the Republic of Palau’s Environmental Quality Protection Board, Chapters 2401-1 through 2401-51)

8.13 Land Use Fee

Article XI, Section 1 of the Airai State Constitution states:

For these purposes, investments relating to resources in Traditional Hamlets and on private property shall be subject to reasonable regulation, and notwithstanding any other provision of this Constitution, the State Government shall receive an amount equal to fifteen percent of the net profits derived from the exploitation of natural resources on all public and private lands.

Based on analysis of Airai’s local revenue sources, it appears that the above tax on exploitation of natural resources has not been implemented. Provided that the tax on exploitation is a function of the state government, it is recommended that the Airai state government create a program capable of enacting land-use fees on uses deemed “exploitative”. The law presented above is vague in its definition, which will result in wide interpretations of the term “exploitation” and may very well be challenged in court. Therefore, it shall prove invaluable to Airai to define the uses that shall fit within this category.

Different land uses affect the environment in dissimilar ways. For example, a quarry may fall under the category of exploitative of natural resources, while a retail shop may not. Mangrove clearing for resort development may be considered exploitative, while laundromats may not. Given the freedom in definitions, Airai could potentially utilize a land-use fee to mitigate business activities that bring about permanent destruction or degradation of natural resources.


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Table 8.13 - Airai Businesses

Just as people, businesses also respond to incentives. As a result, businesses may choose to pursue activities that do not constitute irrevocable damage to the environment instead of paying the land-use tax. Upon implementation of a land-use tax, the government of Airai may utilize revenue from this program to assist in development of mitigation programs to counter the effects of natural resource exploitation.

In reference to the list of registered businesses in Airai, the following tables summarize activities occurring within the state as of May 8, 2009. Businesses operating retail functions (22) and importing (13) represent the greatest number of businesses in Airai, accounting for 29% of the total 119 listed. Businesses represent a major component of economic development throughout the world, providing employment and innovative solutions to many of society’s challenges. However, many businesses also extract natural resources for profit, by which a land-use tax is justified. This analysis focuses on business in relation to land-use and the effects of unregulated consumption of Airai’s resources.

On a local level in Airai, the ASPC does have the capacity to levy fees compared to the negative effects that the business places on the environment and those living within the state of Airai. Upon completion of the ASMP, the ASPC may now administer a program that determines who has the right to use the land within the state, for how long, for what purpose, and at what cost to others.

8.14 Land-use Regulatory Enforcement

When implementing new regulation, the enforcement becomes imperative to the protection

Source: (Compiled from “List of Registered Businesses in Airai State for Year 2009.xls”, Airai State Planning Commission)


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of environmental conditions. For example, instituting fees for solid waste disposal will create incentives for residents to dispose of waste in improper locations, such as mangroves or agricultural land, which is already a concern. A land-use plan or ordinance will only achieve the desired results if the governing body can enforce its provisions.

In the Current Situation section of 2.1.2 of the ASMP, a claim is made that, “…no laws currently exist to control burning of lands in Airai State.” However, 34 PNCA § 5101, states:

(a) No fires to clear land, including the burning of stumps, logs, brush, dry grass or fallen timber, shall be started without the prior written permission of the President or his authorized representative. (b) Whether authorized by permit or not, no fires shall be started during a heavy wind or without sufficient help present to control the same, and the fire shall be watched by the person setting it, or by his competent agents, until put out.

This is only one example of law that fails to achieve stated goals as a result of the inability to enforce such provisions. As the ASPC moves through the process of developing a land-use plan, a concise and straightforward set of guidelines capable of enforcement shall prove the most effective to control unacceptable land uses.

8.15 Concluding Remarks

Much of this analysis concentrates on economics and implementation as it relates to land-use. Numerous economic policies and programs that pertain to the production, consumption, and distribution of goods and services are not addressed in this study. Instead, the economic values generated through land-use, guide the rationale found in this section. Therefore, land-use should not be viewed as the only source of economic development, but a single pillar of economic stability in Airai.


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References

Airai State Government. (2009). List of Registered Businesses in Airai State. Airai State Government. (2009). Statement of Building Permits. Airai State Government. (2009). Statement of Vehicle Registration. Registration Accrual. Airai State Planning Commission. (2009, November 1). Airai State Master Plan (draft). Airai State Planning Commission. (2009, May 18-28). Airai Hamlets’ Public Hearings for Airai State Master

Development Plan. American Planning Association (1988). Policy Guide on Impact Fees.

http://www.planning.org/policy/guides/adopted/impactfees.htm Asafu-Adjaye, J. (2004). Integrating Economic and Environmental Policies: The Case of Pacific Island

Countries. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. New York: United Nations. Banzhaf, H. S., & Lavery, N. (2009, August 29). Can the Land Tax Help Curb Urban Sprawl? Evidence

From Growth Patterns in Pennsylvania. Journal of Urban Economics . Brueckner, J. K., & Kim, Hyun-A. (2003). Urban Sprawl and the Property Tax. International Tax and

Public Finance 10, 5–23. Fallon, J. (2008). Economic Policies and Institutions for Sustainable National Development. Polytechnics

International New Zealand. Facility for Economic and Infrastructure Management. Fifth Olbiil Ra Ngerchumelbai. Eleventh Regular Session. (2009, January 6). The 2009 Annual State

Budget Authorization and Appropriation Act, “Airai State Budget” Graham, T., & Idechong, N. (1998). Reconciling Customary and Constitutional Law: Managing Marine

Resources in Palau, Micronesia. Ocean & Coastal Management (40), 143-164. Ngiraingas, M. T. (2009). Demographic and Land Use Trends for Babeldaob Island. Ministry of Community

and Cultural Affairs, Bureau of Arts and Culture. Republic of Palau: Ecosytem-Based Management Initiative.

Palau Conservation Society. (n.d.). Fact Sheet: Traditional Authority in Palau. Retrieved October 23, 2009

from Convention on Biological Diversity: http://www.palau.biodiv-chm.org/upload/Traditional%20Authority%20in%20Palau.pdf

Palau Visitors Authority. (2009, November 8). Publications. Retrieved November 21, 2009 from Experience

the Wonders of Palau: http://www.visit-palau.com/publication/index.cfm?CFID=6108332&CFTOKEN=37657661

Palau, Airai Village. (2003). Retrieved December 1, 2009 from Pacific Worlds:

http://www.pacificworlds.com/palau/native/native1.cfm


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Palau National Code Annoted. (n.d.). Title 34, Chapter 51 Fire Control Palau National Code Annotated. (n.d.). Title 40 Revenue and Taxation. Palau National Code Annotated. (1979, April 2). The Constitution of the Republic of Palau, Article IV,

Section 5. Rasley, J. S. (2009). The Most Litigious People in the World: Land Disputes and Legal Culture in the Palau

Islands. The Key Reporter. The Phi Beta Kappa Society. Washington, D.C., 7 & 10. Republic of Palau. (2005). 2005 Census of Population and Housing of the Republic of Palau. Office of

Planning and Statistics. Republic of Palau. (2004). 2000 Census Population and Housing Profile. Office of Planning and Statistics Republic of Palau. (n.d.). Environmental Quality Protection Board Regulations Rita, O., Emesiochel, C. T., & Mersai, C. (1997). Inventory of Cultural Sites and Oral History in Melekeok

and Airai States. Ministry of Community and Cultural Affairs, Division of Cultural Affairs Historic Preservation Office. Republic of Belau.

State of Airai. (1990, February 19). Constitution of the State of Airai Seventh Olbiil Era Kelulau. Thirty-Second Special Session. (2007, November). The 2008 Annual National

Budget Authorization and Appropriation Act Truman, H. S. (1949, January 20). Presidential Inaugural Address.

http://www.bartleby.com/124/pres53.html U.S. Census Bureau. (2009, March 18). National and State Population Estimates. Retrieved November 5,

2009 from Annual Population Estimates 2000 to 2008: http://www.census.gov/popest/states/NST-ann-est.html

U.S. Census Bureau. (2009, October 27). Lists and Structure of Governments. Retrieved November 5, 2009

from Federal, State, & Local Governments: http://www.census.gov/govs/cog/GovOrgTab03ss.html

U.S. Census Bureau. (2009). State and Local Government Finance. Retrieved November 15, 2009 from 2007

State and Local Government: http://www.census.gov/govs/estimate/

United States Government Accountability Office. (2008). Palau's Use of and Accountability for U.S.

Assistance and Prospects for Economic Self-Sufficiency. Report to Congressional Committees, Washington, D.C.

Vltchek, A. (2008, January 15). Wooing the Islands. Foreign Policy In Focus Policy Report . (J. Feffer, Ed.)

Washington D.C.: Foreign Policy In Focus (FPIF). From Foreign Policy In Focus: http://www.fpif.org/fpiftxt/4892


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APPENDIX 1: Noise Pollution Considerations for Land Use Zoning

A Background Study for the fall 2009, Department of Urban and Regional Planning Practicum; University of Hawai`i at Manoa

Dane Sjoblom 12/31/2009


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Noise Pollution Considerations

Noise ordinance is a common element in municipal development standards and noise from different activities should be considered when mixing commercial and residential development. Measurements of ambient sound that are adjusted for the human ear are labeled as dBA and measurements of sound pressure level from specific sources at a certain distance is represented as dB SPL. For our purposes noise measurement will be referred to as decibel level and identified interchangeably as dB or dBA. Loss of hearing and physical Injury from loud noise begins around 90 dB. This is an important element in creating regulations to protect employees that are exposed to continuously high levels of noises.

Psychoacoustics – Perceived Effects of Sounds

More important to residential and mixed use development standards is the consideration of psychoacoustics, or perceived effects of sound. Grammy award winning audio engineer Eberhard Sengpiel (2009), explains psychoacoustic loudness as “a subjective sensation size” or the perceived impact of sound on the eardrum. Sengpiel notes, “psychoacousticians say that a level increase of 10 dB gives the impression of a doubling of loudness (volume).” (See Table A1.01 - Perceived Doubling of Sound).

Table A1.01 - Perceived Doubling of Sound

Level change Volume loudness

+40 dB 16

+30 dB 8

+20 dB 4

+10 dB 2.0 = double

- - - - ±0 dB - - - - - - - - 1.0 - - - -

Sengpiel points out that the 10 dB rule is contested and a more acceptable statement is that increases of 6 to 10 dB will double perceived loudness.

Average Ambient Noise Levels

Zoning must account for anticipated noise levels and the impacts of those activities on surrounding uses. Much academic literature exists on psychological distress and possible physical ailments or injury linked to increases in ambient noise levels or prolonged exposure to noise from nearby activities.24 Lercher, et al in 2002, found evidence that “exposure to ambient noise was associated with small decrements in children's mental health.” Increases

24

Mirowsky, John, and Catherine E. Ross, 2003; Melamed S, J Luz, MS Green, 1992; Staples, Susan L., 1996;


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in ambient noise levels can cause irritation especially in night hours and can lead to sleep deprivation. The Noise Pollution Clearinghouse proclaims, “Problems related to noise include hearing loss, stress, high blood pressure, sleep loss, distraction and lost productivity, and a general reduction in the quality of life and opportunities for tranquility.” (Noise Pollution Clearinghouse, 2009) Nighttime noise levels are commonly 10 dB below daytime levels. Nighttime activity should maintain this standard and potentially nonconforming activities should be mitigated to minimize impacts to surrounding residents. Sound sensitive uses include churches, schools, family care centers (child and elderly), and hospitals.

Ambient Sound Levels

The following table is adapted from OSHA and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standards25 sound level averages and may have inconsistencies in measurement, but can offer a general understanding of sound levels:

Table A1.02 - Ambient Decibel Levels Space/Source-- dB Damage to hearing begins 90

Discomfort level >80 Automobile (highest, at 20 meters) 70 Urban Residential Area 60 Rural residential 50 Rural residential at night 40 Wilderness ambient 35

Whisper 20 Rustle of leaves 10

Buffering Sound with Distance

Table A1.03, Noise Generating Sources at Specified Distances, was adapted from decibel level tables created by Truax, (1999) and Sengpiel (2009). Sound level changes in the third column were calculated to find distances needed to bring noise levels into a comfortable range using Siengpiel’s “Damping of Sound Level with Distance” calculator.26 These are imprecise estimates. Calculating noise level reduction over distance requires complicated formulas and must account for the damping effects of walls, vegetation, terrain, and weather. These calculations offer a glimpse of how sound levels can travel across a distance. Inaccuracy is almost certainly compounded as distance increases. Increasing the number of noise sources also increases overall decibel levels, but not on a one-to-one ratio. For example, increasing the sources by 5 will raise the sound level 7 dB.

25 EPA standards as identified by The Engineering Toolbox (2005) 26

Sengpiel’s disclaimer: “These calculations are meant only for engineers and the distance from a musician or a

loudspeaker to a microphone in a direct field - No air damping and frequency dependence of e.g. the thunder in a distance.”


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Table A1.03 - Noise Generating Sources at Specified Distances Source dB at a specified

distance Distance required for < or = 80 dB

Tractor without cab 1m = 120 dB 100m = 80 dB

Take-off sound of planes 10m = 115 dB 600m = 79.44 dB

Sandblasting 1m = 115 dB 60m = 79.44 dB Pneumatic riveter 1m = 115 dB 60m = 79.44 dB

Chain saw 1m = 105 dB 18m = 79.89 dB

Die forging hammer 1m = 105 dB 18m = 79.89 dB

Pneumatic drill 1m = 105 dB 18m = 79.89 dB Jack hammer 10m = 100 dB 100m = 80 dB

Diesel truck 10m = 100 dB 100m = 80 dB

Loud crying 1m = 95 dB 6m = 79.44 dB Hand circular saw 1m = 95 dB 6m = 79.44 dB

Semi-trailers 20m = 90 dB 64m = 79.9 dB Angle grinder outside 1m = 90 dB 4m = 77.96 dB

Un-silenced wood shredder 10m = 75 dB

Passing car 7.5m = 75 dB Noisy lawn mower 10m = 60 dB

Discomfort level >80 dBA

Noise of normal daily activity 45 dBA

Distraction when learning or concentrating possible >40 dBA

It is the position of this report that noise levels from commercial activity can be damped by distance, adjacent sound tolerant commercial uses, vegetative buffers, or structural barriers. Any physical feature between the noise producer and receiver will reduce the noise impact to the receiver, and can reduce the required amount of distance between uses. Sound meters can be used to determine exact noise levels and allowable distances.

Sound Tolerant Uses

Sound tolerant uses are defined as commercial activities that produce lower noise levels than the activity requiring buffering and which is unaffected by the primary noise source. Sound tolerant uses could include businesses with walls or buffers that adequately damp sound so that activities inside are not affected by adjacent noises or so noises produced inside do not affect people outside. Sound tolerant uses could include the following:

• Bars, nightclubs • Breweries, distilleries, and alcohol manufacturing facilities • Carpentry shops • Convenience stores • Crematoriums • Crop production or minor agricultural products processing


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• Food manufacturing and processing • Home improvement shops • Laundries • Light manufacturing, processing and packaging, where the products produced are

sold on premises • Machine, welding, sheet metal, and metal plating and treating establishments • Plumbing, electrical, air conditioning and heating establishments • Self-storage facilities • Storage and sale of seed, feed, fertilizer and other products essential to

agricultural production • Telecommunication antennas and towers • Warehousing • Wholesaling and distribution operations27

Other uses that could serve as buffers include vacation rental units, motels, youth hostels, agricultural activities, or plant nurseries if such activities are considered appropriate by ASPC and residents and are incorporated as allowable uses.

Vegetative Buffers

Vegetative buffers such as trees or hedges could reduce allowable distances. If vegetative buffers were used to achieve acceptable sound ranges around a commercial activity some provision must exist to ensure that the buffer be preserved.

27 This list is compiled from various land uses identified in the County of Hawaii Planning Department’s “Zoning Code Permissible Uses”


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Figure A1.01 - Vegetative Buffers Source: Provincial Agricultural Land Commission, 1998; modified for the purposes of this report.

Structural Barriers

Structural barriers consist of two types, reflective and absorptive. “The measured barrier noise reduction tends to level off at around 20 to 25 dB.” (Daigle, 1999) Daigle notes that plastic barriers can be constructed from recycled material. The following table identifies some examples of materials used for reflective and absorptive barriers, (Daigle, 1999):

Table A1.04 - Materials for Structural Barriers Reflective Barriers Absorptive Barriers Concrete – Precast panels, masonry blocks, and purpose-designed masonry units

Composites – commercial mineral fibers behind a perforated facing, wooden network, perforated plastics, porous concrete

Lightweight concrete – fibrous cement, purpose-designed elements

Ceramics

Metal sheeting Sintered materials Plastics Cement-bonded wood – wool or wood chips Glass Aerated concrete

Wood


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Sample of Noise Ordinance in US Cities

Existing noise ordinance of U.S. cities was reviewed to assess ordinance consistency and seek examples upon which standards for Airai can be modeled, (See Table A1.05 – Existing Ordinance Review). This limited search, instead, revealed vast inconsistency and offers only examples of the range of possibilities.

Methodology

The Noise Pollution Clearinghouse Law Library contains noise ordinance for 78 U.S. municipalities. This report selected one city from each quartile starting with the first on the list, Tuscaloosa, Alabama. Houston, Texas was selected from the fourth quartile because of its unique standing as the only U.S. city without a zoning code. For the second and third quartiles listings 30, St. Mary’s County, Maryland, and 50, Gorham, New York were selected. The findings of this review are detailed in Table A1.05, Existing Ordinance Review, below.

Limitations

This sample is intended to be random, with the exception of Houston, TX. A sample based on population density or regional character may be more appropriate for review in adopting noise regulation standards for Airai.


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Table A1.05 - Existing Ordinance Review Tuscaloosa, AL Houston, TX St. Mary’s County,

MA Gorham, NY

Daytime Hours 6:00 am - 9:00 pm 7:00 am -10:00 pm 7:00 am -10:00 pm 7:00 am -11:00 pm

Max dBA 80 dbA 65 dBA 60 dBA "unreasonable" or "disturbing"

Nighttime Hours 9:00 pm - 6:00 am 10:00 pm -7:00 am 10:00 pm -7:00 am 11:00 pm -7:00 am

Max dBA 75 dBA 58 dBA 55 dBA "unreasonable" or "disturbing"

Exemptions public work; emergency; air traffic; permitted events

emergency vehicles; permitted events; air conditioners;

emergency and utility services;

Same as previous plus: farm operations; water craft; church activities

Special considerations

Not to exceed 75 dBA on any public street or right-of-way; no restrictions to construction equipment during daytime

Max 68 dBA is allowed on non-residential property day or night;

Commercial and business park - 65 dBA; Industrial - 70 dBA; noises produced for over 5 minutes may exceed above levels by 5 dBA, and noises produced for less than five minutes may exceed these levels by 10 dBA

This ordinance is largely focused on motor vehicles, especially those used for recreation that annoys, disturbs, injures, endangers or interferes with the comfort of a reasonable person.

Findings:

Allowable Noise Levels The sample above shows that noise policy differs greatly between municipalities.

This may be due to the character of the municipality (urban/rural) or the primary activities likely to be pursued (industrial/recreation/residential). A sample based on population density or regional character may be more appropriate for review in adopting noise regulation standards for Airai.

Noise Sensitive Adjacent Uses Noise sensitive adjacent uses are not identified by the municipalities included in this

sample, but the following are commonly given special consideration:

• schools, • courts, • churches, • hospitals.


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Common ordinance with regard to noise sensitive uses forbids the following, “[t]he creation of any excessive noise on any street adjacent to any school, institution of learning, church or court while the same are in use, or adjacent to any hospital, which unreasonably interferes with the workings of such institution, or which disturbs or unduly annoys patients in the hospital, provided conspicuous signs are displayed in such streets indicating that the same is a school, hospital or court street” (City of Columbus, 2008). Compatibility zoning measures can be implemented to prevent the development of excessively noisy activities within proximity to sensitive uses.


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References

Baker , David E. (2009). “Equipment decibel levels”; Pendleton Media Inc., New York, NY. http://www.grounds-mag.com/mag/grounds_maintenance_equipment_decibel_levels/, accessed on 12/09

City of Columbus, Indiana. (2008). Municiple Code; Section 8.28.040 Specific noises prohibited:

http://www.columbus.in.gov/planning/code/Title_8/28/040.html. Accessed on 12/09 County of Hawaii. (2005) “Zoning Code, Subdivision Code, and Planning Rules, Chapter 25 – Zoning Code”;

http://www.hawaii-county.com/planning/rules.htm, accessed on 12/09 Daigle, Gilles A. (1999). “Technical Assessment of the Effectiveness of Noise Walls”; International Institute

of Noise Control Engineering; Ottawa, Canada. Lercher, P, G W Evans, M Meis, and W W Kofler. (2002). “Ambient neighbourhood noise and children's

mental health”; Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2002;59:380-386; doi:10.1136/oem.59.6.380, BMJ Publishing Group Ltd.

Melamed S, J Luz, MS Green. (1992). “Noise exposure, noise annoyance and their relation to psychological

distress, accident and sickness absence among blue-collar workers--the Cordis Study”; Isr J Med Sci. 1992 Aug-Sep;28(8-9):629-35; Behavioral Medicine Unit, Occupational Health and Rehabilitation Institute, Loewenstein Hospital, Raanana, Israel.

Mirowsky, John, Catherine E. Ross. (2003). Social Causes of Psychological Distress; Walter de Gruyter,

Inc., NY. Noise Pollution Clearinghouse. (N.D.). Available at:

http://nonoise.org/aboutno.htm, accessed on 12/09 OSHAX.ORG, “OSHA Decibel Levels – Hearing Protection”, Available at:

http://www.oshax.org/info/articles/decibel-levels, accessed on 12/09 Provincial Agricultural Land Commission. (1998). “Landscaped Buffer Specifications”; BC, Canada;

Available at: http://www.alc.gov.bc.ca/publications/buffer/scha2.htm, accessed on 12/09

Sengpiel, Eberhard. (N.D.). “Table of sound pressure levels - decibel - sound pressure intensity”; Sound

recording studio technology forum – Sengpielaudio; Available at: http://www.sengpielaudio.com/Calculations03.htm http://www.sengpielaudio.com/TableOfSoundPressureLevels.htm, accessed on 12/09

Staples, Susan L.. (1996). Human response to environmental noise: Psychological research and public policy;

American Psychologist. Vol 51(2), Feb 1996, 143-150. The Engineering Toolbox. (2005). EPA Standards; Available at:

http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/sound-level-d_719.html, accessed on 12/09 Truax, Barry, Editor. (1999). Handbook For Acoustic Ecology; Second Edition; originally published by the World Soundscape Project, Simon Fraser University, and ARC Publications, 1978.

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APPENDIX 2: Erosion Mitigation and Stormwater Management

Disaster management involves a series of careful and intelligent actions to ensure that natural disasters do not become human disasters. Erosion mitigation and stormwater management are two arenas where much can be done to prevent disasters. The following is a series of recommendations for policies, practices and programs to deal with stormwater management and erosion mitigation. They are not designed to be exhaustive, but rather, a starting point for the development of a comprehensive plan that will best serve Airai. Finally, special emphasis has been put on the need to develop policy which could reasonably and effectively be implemented in Airai.

Airai is endowed with varied terrain: gently rolling hills, ridge tops, steep stream and limited inland wetlands. This geography means Airai has clearly defined streams and floodplains. Traditional knowledge and planning recognized the importance in preserving these areas for their natural role and thus has prevented any significant development from occurring in these waterways and floodplains. It is essential that such development continue to be prevented. While this means Airai is blessed in being less vulnerable to negative effects of flooding, other issues around stormwater still exist. Specifically, Airai has been impacted considerably by erosion. The situation with erosion was presented in depth in the discussion on Riparian Buffer Zones in Chapter 2, (See Section 2.1).

There are many problems associated with soil erosion and stormwater. Many of these in Airai are detailed in the aforementioned Riparian Buffer Zone Section; however a brief overview of the issues is useful.

Some of the effects of development on aquatic environment: (Source: Stormwater Center, Kwon et al.)

• Disruption of natural water balance • Decreased water quality • Increased flood peaks • Increased stormwater runoff • More frequent flooding • Increased bankfull flows • Lower dry weather flows • Stream widening and erosion • Reduced fish passage • Degradation of habitat structure • Decline in habitat value of streams


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• Decreased channel stability • Decreased substrate quality • Increased stream temperature • Increased pollutants • Increased risk of shellfish bed/beach closure • Loss of buffer zones • Increased algae growth

National standards have been developed to deal with erosion mitigation: Ch 2401-1 Earthmoving Regulations is such an example (Environmental Quality Protection Board Regulations). This document presents detailed regulation for all construction activities aimed to mitigate erosion. However, the degree to which such standards are being followed is questionable. Given Airai’s size and likely cost of development projects it might be unreasonable to expect compliance with standards as complex as those present in EQPB Regulations Ch 2401-1.

In Airai and Palau, the most useful tool for erosion prevention is providing conservation education for residents and project developers. In 2004, a plan aiming to do exactly this was initiated. The National Action Program to Combat Land Degradation was finished which included three projects and a list of priorities. The plan strongly encourages education and community engagement activities. As one of its dimensions, the plan calls for the development of a land use plan integrating erosion and soil degradation prevention.

Erosion and sediment control measures:

• Protect waterways and stabilize drainage ways • Do not develop steep slopes • Keep riparian zones intact • Minimize impermeable surfaces during construction • Minimize needless clearing and grading • Phase construction to limit soil exposure • Stabilize exposed soils immediately

Possible construction solutions:

• Grass swale • Rock swale • Drainage way • Bio-retention basin • Permeable driveway and walkway • Terrace agriculture

The preceding has been only an introduction to soil erosion mitigation and storm

water management. Optimally, clear and simple policies around these issues should be

APPENDIX 2: Erosion Mitigation and Stormwater Management

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developed. Following the example of the National Action Program to Combat Land Degradation, any policies and programs should have a strong education component, community engagement, and a focus on effective implementation.


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References

Kwon, Hye Yeong, Rebecca Winer and Tom Schueler. “8 Tools of Watershed Management”. Watershed Academy: US EPA. Available at http://www.epa.gov/watertrain/protection/, accessed 12/8/09.

Republic of Palau. (2004). “National Action Plan to Combat Land Degradation”. Koror. Republic of Palau Environmental Quality Protection Board. (1996). “EQPB Regulations Chapter 2401-1:

Earthmoving Regulations”. Stormwater Center. “Why watersheds”. Stormwater Manager’s Resource Center. Available at

http://www.stormwatercenter.net/, accessed 12/8/09.

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APPENDIX 3: Local Government Reform Checklist

Supplement to- Chapter 8: Economic and Implementation Principles of Land-Use

Attached document from:

Local Government Reform Steering Committee Department of Local Government and Regional Planning Government of Western Australia


182

Local Government Reform Steering Committee Local Government Reform Checklist

FEBRUARY 2009


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Timeframe for Reform Submission to the Minister

Timeframe for Reform Submission to the Minister

Stage 1

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 4

Stage 3

Timeframe for Reform Submission

Stage 4

Stage 4

March/April 2009

o Individual local governments to complete the attached reform checklist.

o Initial exploratory meeting to confirm local government amalgamation grouping is appropriate.

o Local governments determine suitable partners for amalgamation.

o Consideration of the reduction in the number of elected members.

o Consideration of skill sets for the establishment of a project team to coordinate local government’s reform process.

o Local governments to forward completed checklist to the Local Government Reform Steering Committee by 30 April 2009.

Stage 2

o

April/May 2009 o Project team established (2-3

members from each local government).

o Project team meets as required to determine preferred amalgamation structure.

o Project team to determine appropriate elected member representation and methods for ensuring appropriate community representation.

o Project team to consider local government regional grouping.

o Seek State Government funding assistance as necessary for preparing Reform Submissions.

o If required, consultant/facilitator engaged.

o Community consultation undertaken within each affected local government and comments recorded.

May/June 2009 o Project team develops

Reform Submission to include:

- preferred amalgamation structure or other types of boundary adjustments;

- number of elected members; and / or

- regional grouping; and

- transition timeline, including timeframe and estimated additional transition costs.

June/July 2009 o Project team finalises

Reform Submission and circulates to affected local governments.

o Each council passes a resolution to proceed based on the findings of the submission.

o Each council agrees to identify a date the amalgamation is to take effect.

o Each council is to agree to a date at which elected member numbers will be reduced.

Stage 5

August 2009

o Local governments forward the Reform Submission to the Minister for Local Government by 31 August 2009.

o Minister provides Reform Submission to Local Government Reform Steering Committee for assessment.

o Steering Committee assesses Reform Submissions and seeks further information if needed.

o Steering Committee provides advice to Minister on preferred option for reform.

o Finalised proposals referred to the Local Government Advisory Board for consideration and recommendation.


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Attachment 1: Local Government Reform Checklist Local Government Reform Checklist

Are these elements in place at your organisation?

Guiding principle28

Yes No

Explanatory comment

1. Long term strategic planning

o Your local government has a five year (or longer) strategic plan in place.

If yes, attach plan.

o Your local government has a five year (or longer) financial management plan in place that is linked to the plan for the future.


o Your local government has detailed three/five year business plans.


2. Detailed asset and infrastructure management planning

o Your local government has an inventory of all infrastructure and assets and has an accompanying maintenance and renewal plan in place.


o Asset maintenance and replacement gaps have been identified and addressed in the financial plan.

28 It is understood that some of these principles are not mandatory, however reflect principles of best practice.


185



Guiding principle

Yes No

Explanatory comment

3. Future financial viability and planning

o Your local government has adequate reserve funds for future capital works and plant replacement.

o Your local government income stream including rates, fees, charges and grants can satisfy your long term community service and operational needs and without grants represents at least 40% of your total revenue.

o Your local government has financial management plans indicating:

- existing debt levels; - depreciation allocations compared to allocations on asset replacement and

renewal; - operating deficit compared to rates revenue; - amount of reserve funds compared to expenses/asset values; and - adverse financial trends.


186


Guiding principle Include figures Explanatory comment

4. Equitable governance and community representation

o Indicate the number of vacancies at the 2007 ordinary local government elections.

Comment required.

o Indicate how many vacancies at the 2007 ordinary local government elections were uncontested.

Comment required.

o Indicate the ratio of elected members to community population.

Comment required.

o Indicate the percentage of voter turnout at the most recent local government elections.

Comment required.

5. Proficient organisational capacity

o Indicate the number of staff vacancies and the period these vacancies have continued in each of;

- senior management;

- middle management; and

- senior operational staff positions.

Comment required.


187

Attachment 1: Local Government Reform Checklist

Local Government Reform Checklist


Guiding Principle Yes No

Explanatory comment

o Your local government has an employee attraction and retention strategy.

o Your current staff engage in annual professional training and development opportunities.

o Your local government currently experiences delays in meeting statutory reporting functions and / or requests extensions.

o Your local government processes residential building licence applications within 20 working days.

o Under delegations your local government processes development applications within 20 working days.

o All other development applications are processed within 40 working days.


188




Guiding principle Yes No

Explanatory comment

6. Effective political and community advocacy for service delivery

o Your local government has funding or other partnerships in place with programs and services sourced by the State Government.

o Your local government has funding or other partnerships in place with programs and services sourced by the Federal Government.

o Your local government has funding partnerships in place with the private sector to enhance service delivery.

o The relationship between local government boundaries and relevant State and Commonwealth Agency boundaries are appropriate for effective decision making.

o In the past 2 years your local government has attracted investment that has led to economic growth and job creation.


189



Guiding principle

Yes No

Explanatory comment

o Your local government has community consultation strategies in place, both on-going and project specific.

7. Understanding of and planning for demographic change

o Your local government’s population trend for the past five years has been:

- declining - stable - growing

Provide percentage.

o Your local government’s projected population for the next five years will be:

- declining - stable - growing

Provide estimated percentage.

o Your local government has plans in place for demographic change.

Provide details.


190




Guiding principles

Yes No

Explanatory comment

8. Effective management of natural resources

o Your local government, by itself or in partnership, has resource management plans to address changing environmental conditions.

Provide details.

9. Optimal community of interest

o Your local government provides services and facilities to communities with a similar community of interest.

10. Optimal service delivery to community

o Your local government has the capacity to improve / increase service delivery in response to community expectation and associated demand.


191



Guiding principles

Yes No

Explanatory comment

11. Membership of an effective regional grouping

o Your local government is a member of a regional grouping of two or more local governments to plan and deliver services regionally.

o Indicate your regional grouping preference, identifying participating local governments.

N/A N/A Comment required.

12. Previous Structural Reform

o Have you gained any benefits from structural reform measures taken with other local governments to date?

Describe.

13. Conclusion

o After completing the checklist, are you of the view that amalgamation or any other type of structural reform is necessary for your local government?

Explanation required.